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Physics All You Want
Physics All You Want
Physics All You Want
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Physics: An Introduction
Physics describes how electricity interacts with the various circuits inside the
device. This knowledge helps engineers select the appropriate materials and
circuit layout when building the smart phone.
Next, consider a GPS system. Physics describes the relationship between the
speed of an object, the distance over which it travels, and the time it takes to
travel that distance. When you use a GPS device in a vehicle, it utilizes these
physics equations to determine the travel time from one location to another.
SECTION I: GENERAL PHYSICS
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Uses of units
They are used to check the homogeneity of physical equations.
Only quantities with the same dimensions can be added, subtracted or
equated in an equation.
An equation is homogeneous if all the terms in it, have the same units.
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
Unit for 𝑠 = m
Unit for 𝑢𝑡 = ms-1 × s = m
1
Unit for 𝑎𝑡 2 = ms-2 × s2 = m
2
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NB* two vectors are equal only if their magnitudes are equal and their
direction is the same.
Addition of vectors
The addition of two or more vectors yields another vector which is known as
the resultant.
The resultant is a single vector which produces the same effect in both
magnitude and direction.
There are 2 methods of adding vectors;
1. Parallelogram of vectors
Two vectors are drawn from same origin
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P-Q = P + (-Q)
Resolving vectors
It follows from the parallelogram rule that any vector can be treated as a
sum of any two vectors.
There are an infinite number of these pairs.
The two vectors that add up to a resultant are known as the components of
that vector.
The two useful components of a vector are those that are mutually
perpendicular.
Rsinϑ R
ϑ Rcosϑ
The magnitudes of the components are found by using trigonometry, Rcosϑ
and Rsinϑ.
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Errors
Treatment of errors
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1. Addition or Subtraction
Suppose a physical quantity U is related to two other physical quantities x and
y: U=x+y
If δx and δy are the errors in measurement of x and y resp. then error in U, δU
is given by: δU = ±(δx + δy)
If V = x – y then δV = ±(δx + δy)
3. Indices
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Then = ±(𝑏 + 𝑐 )
𝑈 𝑥 𝑦
Significant figures
The significant figures of a number are those digits which have meaningful
contribution to the precision of the number.
In an experimental measurement, significant figures indicate the extent to
which the readings are reliable.
Example
To compute the value of π from the measured area of a circle 154 cm2 of radius
7:00 cm;
The value of π is given by
154
π= = 3.14
7.00×7.00
The value of π can only have 3 significant figures.
1) Significant figures are quoted only for a measurement and not for a pure
number.
2) All non-zero digits are significant.
3) All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant.
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4) The initial zeros after the decimal point are not significant if there is no
non-zero digit before the decimal point.
5) In 0.0012, the significant digits are 1,2. Hence, 0.0012 has two significant
figures.
6) Zeros at the beginning and end of a number are not significant. i.e.,
005264202300 has eight significant figures.
7) All zeros and non-zero digit to the right of decimal point are significant
if there is a non-zero digit to the left of the decimal. For example,
5.0008 has five significant figures. 40.00 has four significant figures.
8) The powers of 10 are not counted while counting the number of
significant figures. 1:050 x 1025 has four significant figures.
3.0 Kinematics
Position
In order to describe the motion of an object, you must first be able to describe
its position—where it is at any particular time.
The position is specified relative to a convenient reference frame. Earth is
often used as a reference frame.
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In other cases, we use reference frames that are not stationary but are in
motion relative to the Earth.
To describe the position of a person in an airplane, for example, we use the
airplane, not the Earth, as the reference frame.
Displacement
Time
Velocity
Acceleration
Displacement-time graphs
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Speed-time graphs
For a speed-time graph, the area under the curve is the distance
travelled.
The gradient at any point on the curve equals the acceleration.
Equations of Motion
These equations apply only if the motion takes place along a straight line and the
acceleration is constant; {hence, for eg., air resistance must be negligible.}
rearranging
if we define the distance 's' as the average speed times the time(t), then:
rearranging
rearranging (i
summary:
Example #1
Example #2
Example #3
Example #4
Weight
Example #1
Example #2
If air resistance is NOT negligible and if body is projected upwards with the
same initial velocity, as the body moves upwards, both air resistance and weight
act downwards.
Thus its speed will decrease at a rate greater than 9.81 m s-2 .
This causes the time taken to reach its maximum height reached to be lower
than in the case with no air resistance.
The max height reached is also reduced.
At the highest point, the body is momentarily at rest; air resistance becomes
zero and hence the only force acting on it is the weight. The acceleration is thus
9.81 m s-2 at this point.
As a body falls, air resistance opposes its weight.
The downward acceleration is thus less than 9.81 m s-2.
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As air resistance increases with speed, it eventually equals its weight (but in
opposite direction).
From then there will be no resultant force acting on the body and it will fall
with a constant speed, called the terminal velocity.
Projectiles
Time of flight
The time of flight is calculated from the vertical component of the velocity.
It is the time it takes for the particle to go up, reach its maximum height and
come down again.
So this is twice the time to maximum height.
If the time to maximum height is t secs. Then the time of flight is 2t.
Consider motion up to maximum height. This is attained when the final velocity v
= 0.
Range(R)
The range is simply the horizontal component of speed multiplied by the time of
flight.
Example
A particle P is projected at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal at a speed of 30
ms-1.
What is the speed and direction of the particle after 3 secs?
(g=9.8 ms-2)
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4.0 Dynamics
A body will remain at rest or move at uniform speed along a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.
The rate of change of linear momentum is directly proportional to the applied
force and occurs in the same direction as the force.
The forces of two interacting bodies on each other are equal and directed in
opposite directions.
Mass
Definition of momentum
Momentum (P) is a vector quantity equal in magnitude to the product of mass and
velocity.
Note, mass (m) is a scalar quantity, while velocity (v) is a vector quantity.
P = mv
Theory
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If we consider a force F acting on a mass m with velocity v, the Second law may
be represented by the proportionality:
But acceleration,
The Newton is the force that when applied to a 1 kg mass will give it an
acceleration of 1 ms-2.
Linear acceleration
Example #1
i)
ii)
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Linear retardation
Here the mass is already moving at constant velocity in a straight line before
the force is applied, opposing the motion.
Example #1
i) ii)
Example #2
A sky diver with mass 80kg is falling at a constant velocity of 70 ms-1 . When he opens
his parachute he experiences a constant deceleration of 3g for 2 seconds.
i) What is the magnitude of the decelerating force?
ii) What is his rate of descent at the end of the 2 seconds deceleration?
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i) ii)
The total linear momentum of a system of colliding bodies, with no external forces
acting, remains constant.
for two perfectly elastic colliding bodies with no external forces note:
iii) By Newton's 3rd. Law, the force on X due to Y , (Fx) is the same as the
force on Y due to X , (Fy) .
Fx = Fy
iv) By Newton's 2nd. Law, the rate of change of momentum is the same, since
F = (rate of change of momentum)
v) Because the directions of the momentum of the objects are opposite,
(and therefore of different sign) the net change in momentum is zero.
If we consider the speed of individual masses before and after collision, we
obtain another useful equation:
uA = initial speed of mass A
uB = initial speed of mass B
vA = final speed of mass A
vB = final speed of mass B
relative initial speed of mass A to mass B = uB - uA
relative final speed of mass A to mass B = vB - vA
Example #1
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A 5 kg mass moves at a speed of 3 ms-1 when it collides head on, with a 3 kg mass
travelling at 4 ms-1, travelling along the same line.
After the collision, the two masses move off together with a common speed.
Example #2
An artillery shell of mass 10 kg is fired from a field gun of mass 2000 kg.
If the speed of the shell on leaving the muzzle of the gun is 250 ms-1 , what is the
recoil speed of the gun?
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When two bodies collide, relative velocity after collision = e × relative velocity
before collision.
e is known as the coefficient of restitution and .
When e = 1 the collision is elastic.
e ‹ 1 inelastic and e = 0 then it is completely inelastic.
For a perfectly elastic collision
Impulse of a force
This is simply the force multiplied by the time the force acts.
We can obtain an expression for this in terms of momentum from Newton's
Second Law equation F=ma, where the force F is constant.
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Remembering that velocity, force and therefore impulse are vector quantities.
For a mass m being accelerated by a constant force F, v1 is initial velocity and v2
is final velocity:
Ft = m(v2- v1)
Since impulse is the product of force and time, the units of impulse are
(Newtons) x (seconds), or N s .
Force-time graphs
5.0 FORCES
Every particle of matter in universe attracts every other particle with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their distances apart.
The gravitational force `F' between two particles of masses m1 and m2,
separated by distance r is given by. F-GmM
R²
Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged objects is
directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects
and inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance between the
two objects.
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In equation form, the electrical force `F' between two point charges q1 and q2,
separated by distance r is given by
F=kèqQ
R²
where, ke is a constant called the Coulomb's law constant.
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces on them. (Fluids include
liquids, gases, and plasmas.)
&Archimedes' principle
This relation has been derived for a cylinder, but it will also apply to objects of
any shape.
Frictional forces
We use the term viscous force to describe the frictional force in fluid (such as
air resistance).
The property of the fluid determining this force is the viscosity of the fluid.
In the simplest form, viscosity can be evaluated by the thickness of a
substance.
A general rule is that gases are less viscous than liquids, and thicker liquids
exhibit higher viscosity than thin liquids
F2
Centre of gravity
Rotational motion
When a force acts on an object, the force may cause the object to move in a
straight line.
It could also cause the object to spin (rotate).
Consider a meter ruler held in hand at one end so that the ruler is horizontal. If
a weight is hung from the ruler, we can feel a turning effect on the ruler.
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The moment of a force is defined as the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from the pivot.
Referring to figure above, the force has a magnitude ‘F' and acts at a point
distance ‘l ' from the pivot.
Then, when the ruler is at angle θ to the horizontal,
Moment of force = Fd = Fl cos θ
The unit of the moment of a force is newton-metre (Nm).
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Example
In the diagram below a light rod AB of length 45 cm is held at A so that the rod makes
an angle of 65 °C to the vertical. A vertical force of 15 N acts on the rod at B.
Calculate the moment of force about the end A.
Figure 2.10
Couples
A couple constitutes of two forces, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction whose
lines of action do not coincide.
Consider the two parallel forces, each of magnitude F as shown below (Figure
2.12) on opposite ends of a diameter of a disc of radius `r '.
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Each force produces a moment about the centre of the disc of magnitude `Fr '
in a clockwise direction.
The total moment about the centre is `F x 2r' or `F × perpendicular distance
between the forces'.
Example
The torque produced by a person using a screwdriver is 0.18 Nm. This torque is applied
to the handle of diameter 4.0 cm. Calculate the force applied to the handle.
Rotational Equilibrium
Principle of moments
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The principle of moments states that for a body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the
clockwise moments about any point must equal the sum of the anticlockwise moments
about the same point.
Example
Some weights are hung from a light rod AB as shown below (Figure 2.14). The
rod is pivoted. Calculate the magnitude of the force `F' required to balance the
rod horizontally.
Equilibrium
Work
One joule of work is done when a force of one newton moves its point of
application by one metre in the direction of force.
Qn: What happens when force & displacement are not in same direction?
If the force and displacement both are not in same direction, then the
component of force in the direction displacement must be found.
Figure 1: An example when force and displacement are not in same direction
As illustrated above, consider a force `F' acting along a line at an angle θ to the
displacement.
The component of the force along the direction of displacement is `F cos θ '
work done for displacement x = Fx cos θ
Since, , the gas produces a force ‘F' on the piston given by,
F=pA
When the gas expands at constant pressure, the piston moves outwards through
a distance `Δx '. So,
Work done by the expanding gas = force × distance moved;
W = pAΔx
However, `AΔx' is the increase in volume of the gas ΔV .
Hence, W = pΔV
When the volume of a gas changes at constant pressure,
work done = pressure × change in volume
When the gas expands, work is done by the gas.
If the gas contracts, then work is done on the gas.
Examples
A child tows a toy by means of a string. The tension in the string is 1.5 N and
the string makes an angle of 25 ° with the horizontal. Calculate the work done in
moving the toy horizontally through a distance of 265 cm.
A sample of gas has a volume of 750 cm3. The gas expands at a constant
pressure of 1,4 x 105 Pa so that its volume becomes 900 cm3. Calculate the work
done by the gas during the expansion.
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work.
Energy is measured in joules (J).
Conversion of energy
Forms of energy
Potential energy
Elastic potential energy is stored in objects which have had their shape changed
elastically.
Examples: Stretched wires, stretched springs, compressed gases
The law of charges states that like charges repel and unlike charges attract
which means that work has to be done when charges are moved relative to one
another.
If, for example, two positive charges are moved closer together, work is done
and the electric potential energy of the charges increases.
The electric potential energy stored is released when charges move apart.
Conversely, if a positive charge moves closer to a negative charge, energy is
released because there is force of attraction.
Newton's law of gravitation tells us that all masses attract one another.
We rely on force of gravity to keep us on Earth.
When two masses are pulled apart, work is done on them and so they gain
gravitational potential energy.
If the masses move closer together, they lose gravitational potential energy.
Kinetic energy
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Upon re-arranging,
By, definition the term `Fs' is the work done by the force moving a distance
`s'.
Therefore, since `Fs' represents work done, then the other terms in the
equation must also have the units of work done, or energy.
The kinetic energy Ek of an object of mass `m' moving with speed `v' is given by
Example
Calculate the kinetic energy of a car whose weight is 9800 N moving at speed of 20 m
s-1. State the form of energy from which the kinetic energy is derived.
In everyday life, for a gas stored in a container, the molecules of gas move
randomly and possess kinetic energy which is proportional to the thermodynamic
temperature of gas.
As molecules of gas exert forces on each other, at any instant there will be
certain potential energy associated with the positions the molecules occupy in
space.
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As the molecules will be moving randomly, the potential energy of molecules will
also vary randomly.
But, at given temperature, the total potential energy of all molecules will remain
constant.
Further, the molecules of gas collide with each other and will interchange
kinetic energy during collisions.
In this example, the internal energy is given by the sum of the potential
energies and the kinetic energies of all the molecules.
Efficiency
Since, energy cannot be created, efficiency can never be greater than 100% and
a `perpetual motion' machine is not possible.
Example
A man lifts a weight of 480 N through a vertical distance of 3.5 m using a rope
and some pulleys. The man pulls on the rope with a force of 200 N and a length
of 10.5 m of rope passes through his hands. Calculate the efficiency of the
pulley system.
An electric heater converts electrical energy into heat energy. Suggest why this
process may be 100% efficient.
Power
The unit of power is watt (W) & is equal to a rate of working 1 joule per second.
This means that a light bulb of power 1 watt will convert 1 joule of electrical
energy to other forms of energy (e.g. light & heat) every second.
Power, like energy, is a scalar quantity.
It is common in everyday language to say that a strong person is `powerful'.
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Now,is the rate of doing work , i.e. the power `P' and = velocity (v) .
Hence,
P = Fv ; Power = force × speed
Example
Calculate the electrical energy converted into thermal energy when an electric
fire, rated at 2.4 kW, is left switched on for a time of 3.0 minutes.
A boy of mass 60 kg runs up a flight of steps in a time of 1.8 s. There are 22
steps and each one is of height 20 cm. Calculate the useful power developed in
the boy's legs.
7.0 MOTION IN A CIRCLE
Angular displacement
Radian (rad) is the S.I. unit for angle, θ and it can be related to degrees in the
following way:
In one complete revolution, an object rotates through 360°, or 2π rad.
The radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc length of the
circumference equal to the radius of the circle.
As the object moves through an angle θ, with respect to the centre of rotation,
this angle θ is known as the angular displacement.
Angular velocity
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑇
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
Note:
(i) The direction of the linear velocity is at a tangent to the circle
described at that point. Hence it is sometimes referred to as the
tangential velocity.
(ii) ω is the same for every point in the rotating object, but the linear
velocity v is greater for points further from the axis.
Centripetal force
A body moving in a circle at a constant speed changes velocity {since its
direction changes}
In accordance with Newtons 1st law, a body which is moving in a circle must have
a resultant force acting on it.
For a body moving with constant speed, there is no component of this force
which acts in direction of motion.
The force must therefore be perpendicular to the motion of the body, ie
directed towards the centre.
It is known as a centripetal force.
Centripetal force is the resultant of all the forces that act on a system in
circular motion.
Centripetal acceleration
By Newtons 2nd law, a body acted upon by a resultant force must have an
acceleration.
The acceleration is in the same direction as the force (towards the centre)
It is known as a centripetal acceleration
A body moving with constant angular velocity ω, along a path of radius r,
𝑣2
centripetal acceleration a is given by 𝑎 = 𝜔2 𝑟 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
Centripetal force will be given by 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑟 = 2
𝑟
Banked roads
‘Banking’ roads removes the reliance on friction having to provide centripetal
force for a vehicle going round a bend.
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𝑣2
Dividing equations results 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑟𝑔
Example
Resistance F2 Science
charge per second
1. An electric current is a flow of ______ ______
through a material. Materials that allow electricity to flow
easily are called conductors good conductors.
_________. Metals are ____
Insulators do not allow electricity to pass. Non metals, e.g.
_________
wood, plastic, rubber (except graphite), are insulators.
2. Some materials, e.g. nichrome wire, oppose the flow of an
electric current. As the charges move through the material,
friction between the atoms in the material and the
_______
charges cause some of the electrical energy to change to
opposition to the flow of an
heat. Resistance is the _________
electric current. Components that have a known amount of
resistors
resistance are called ________.
3. Resistors can be used to reduce the current
______ in a
circuit. Variable resistors have a resistance that can be
changed, e.g. a dimmer switch.
Z Parbhoo 3
F2 Science
energy to make the current
The cell or battery provides the ______
battery
flow. Two or more cells connected together make a _______.
A torch cell has a voltage of 1.5V. Three 1.5V cells make a
4.5V battery but the positive end of one cell must be
connected to the negative end of the next. The voltage tells
energy the battery supplies to each ______
you how much ______ charge
passing through the circuit.
Parallel circuits
1.0A 6.0A
A B C
1.0A 6.0A
Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force which is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.
If the masses are m1 and m2 , with their centres of mass displaced a distance r apart,
then the force of attraction F of one mass on the other is described as:
Gravitational force is very weak! This can be shown by considering two 1 kg masses 1
m apart. The gravitational force between them is given by:
The gravitational field strength is the force acting per unit mass in a gravitational
field.
It has units Nkg-1.
Close to the earth’s surface g = acceleration of free fall = 9.81 Nkg-1.
Weight W is the force of attraction of the Earth on a mass. For a mass m, the weight
is given by:
1. The value of g is the same at a distance from a mass, whether the mass is in the shape
of a spherical shell or concentrated in the centre.
(1)
case where r › rE
(2)
(3)
In the diagram the point X is inside the earth at a distance r from the centre.
From our initial assumptions, the value of gr is a result of the gravity from a sphere of
radius r .
If MS is the mass of the sphere, then by comparison with equation (1)
(4)
NB the effect of matter (in the form of a shell) above point X has no effect on the value of gr
recalling that
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NB gr = g when r = rE
Summary
Escape velocity
Theoretically (neglecting air resistance) to leave the Earth and not return, a mass must
have enough kinetic energy to reach a point an infinite distance away, where its velocity
(and hence KE) is zero.
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The escape velocity is the minimum initial velocity required to do this. This is a
constant for a particular planetary mass, and is independent of the projected mass.
Consider a mass m being projected away from the surface of the Earth with velocity v.
At a distance r from the Earth (mass ME ) the force of gravity F on the mass is given
by:
This equation can be used to calculate the work done by the gravitational force in
bringing the mass m to rest.
Consider the mass m moving an incremental distance δr (delta r ) away from the Earth.
That is, against the force F .
Since work done = force x distance moved against force , the incremental work δW
done by the gravitational field on the mass is given by;
Making the expression into an integral, where W is the total work done by the
gravitational force between the limits of r = rE and r = infinity :
(essentially summing the individual slices of F δr between the limits to obtain the area
under the curve)
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The work done by the gravitational force on the mass equates to the original (maximum)
kinetic energy of the mass.
For the Earth, the escape velocity approximates to 11 kms-1 or 7 miles s-1.
Satellite orbits
Since G and ME are constants, satellite velocity is solely dependent on orbital radius.
The period T of the motion is simply the circumference of the circular orbit divided by
the satellite's velocity.
Since G and ME are constants, orbital period, like orbital velocity, is solely dependent on
orbital radius.
Low orbits
For satellites in orbit a distance equal or less than 200 km above the Earth's surface,
the radius of the orbit approximates to the radius of the Earth:
Making r equal to rE , the equations for orbital velocity v and period T become:
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note: The Law of Gravitation predicts that lower orbits have higher velocities. So a satellite
should go faster and faster as it moves closer to the Earth.
Geostationary orbits
A geostationary satellite is one that always appears in the same place in the sky, no
matter what the time of day.
The conditions for this to occur are:
1. the satellite must have an orbital period of exactly 24 hours
2. the satellite must have a circular orbit above the equator
3. the satellite must be orbiting in the same direction as the Earth is rotating
𝑟3
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑇 2
𝑟=
4𝜋 2
Substituting G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2, ME = 6.0 x 1024kg and T = 24 hrs = 8.64 x 104 s
𝑟 = 42400 km
Uses of such satellites include relaying TV signals and telephone messages from one
point on the Earth’s surface to another.
The moon is also a satellite so these equations apply to it.
The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the mean
distance to its parent star.
T - orbital period
rM - mean distance
The angular velocity ω is the angle (in radians) traced out when the mass travels v
metres in one second. Stating this definition in an equation and making v the subject:
(i
Hence,
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(ii
(iii
The period T of the orbital motion is the circumference (in radians) divided by the angular
velocity. Making ω the subject of the equation:
2
Now making T the subject:
Gravitational potential - U
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where,
Now if we make the mass unity (m = 1 kg), the energy difference between the 1 kg mass
on the surface of the Earth and at infinity (zero potential) is W .
However, since the highest potential is zero at infinity, all potential energies relative to
this level are less than zero (i.e. negative).
Our 1 kg mass on the Earth therefore has a potential of - W .
If UE is the potential on the surface of the earth, then:
Therefore in the general case, the potential Ur at a point a distance r away from a
large mass M is given by:
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When the mass is static, the net force is zero. Forces are balanced. Since forces are
vector quantities, the minus sign signifies opposite direction.
(i
From the graph it can be seen that the gravitational field strength g at a radius r is
equal to minus the value of the gradient of the gravitational potential U .
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The energy Er of a satellite of mass m in orbit, of radius r around a large body of mass M, is
the sum of the satellite's PE and KE respectively,
cancelling r
Also, for any particular circular orbit with radius r , the individual values of kinetic and
potential energies are constant.
By contrast, with elliptical orbits the values of potential and kinetic energies are not constant.
They vary such that when one is large the other is small and vice versa. It must be
remembered that the sum of potential and kinetic energies is always constant for a particular
orbit.
Force on mass/charge 𝑚1 𝑚2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝐺 𝐹=
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Free Oscillations
Examples of such motion include simple pendulum, vibrating guitar spring, e/m
waves etc.
Oscillations in mechanical systems such as simple pendulum, mass spring
pendulum are examples of Simple Harmonic Motion.
A body is said to be in simple harmonic motion (shm) if its acceleration is
directed towards a fixed point in its path and is directly proportional to its
displacement from that point.
The fixed point is called the equilibrium position i.e. the position at which the
body would come to rest if it were to lose all of its energy.
Hence, when the displacement is positive the acceleration is negative (and vice
versa).
The period, T of the motion is the time interval for a complete oscillation.
The frequency, f of oscillation is the number of complete oscillations per
second. SI unit is Hertz (Hz)
1
𝑇=
𝑓
𝑥 = 𝑥₀sin(𝜔𝑡)
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𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 𝜔𝑥₀𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Graph of velocity against time is a cosine wave with the maximum as 𝝎𝒙₀
Acceleration is found at any instant by taking the gradient of the velocity-time
graph.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 2 𝑥
𝑎= = = −𝜔2 𝑥0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙
The motion of a body vibrating with shm can be described by this equation.
Where 𝑥 is the displacement about a fixed point O (in m, and is positive to the
right, negative to the left), and ω2 is a positive constant (in s-2) and 𝑎 is the
acceleration of the body (in ms-2).
To obtain an expression for the velocity, v at any displacement x from the
equilibrium position:
From 𝑥 = 𝑥₀sin(𝜔𝑡)
𝑥
⟹ sin(𝜔𝑡) =
𝑥0
And
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑥₀𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
𝑣
⟹ cos(𝜔𝑡) =
𝜔𝑥0
𝑥 2 𝑣 2
( ) +( ) =1
𝑥0 𝜔𝑥0
𝜔2 𝑥 2 + 𝑣 2 = 𝜔𝑥0 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝜔2 (𝑥0 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑣 = ±𝜔√(𝑥0 2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑣 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥₀
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𝑥 = 𝑥₀cos(𝜔𝑡)
Example
A particle displaying SHM moves in a straight line between extreme positions A & B
and passes through a mid-position O.
If the distance AB = 10 m and the max. speed of the particle is 15 ms-1 find the period
of the motion to 1 decimal place.
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Energy in SHM
E=K+U
𝑣 = ±𝜔√(𝑥₀2 − 𝑥 2 )
1
And K = 𝑚𝑣²
2
𝟏
𝑲 = 𝒎𝝎²(𝒙₀𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝟐
𝟏
𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝝎²𝒙₀𝟐 , this is the total energy in the system
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒎𝝎²𝒙₀𝟐 = 𝒎𝝎²(𝒙₀𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 ) + 𝑼
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝑼= 𝒎𝝎²𝒙𝟐
𝟐
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𝟏
𝑼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒎𝝎²𝒙₀𝟐
𝟐
E remains constant
1
If displacement at time t is given by 𝑥 = 𝑥₀sin(𝜔𝑡) then 𝑈 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥0 2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡)
2
1
And 𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔 𝑥0 cos (𝜔𝑡)
2 2 2
2
Damped Oscillations
Forced vibrations
Forced vibration can be illustrated by a simple experimental setup called Barton's pendulums.
Essentially a large pendulum is used to provide a driver frequency which will make the other,
smaller pendulums oscillate at the same rate. This driver frequency is in fact the natural frequency
of the pendulum. The frequency at which it would oscillate at without the smaller pendulums. The
masses of the smaller pendulums are insignificant compared to the mass of the larger. So their effect
is not of any consequence.
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2. Pendulum Y has the same length as P but is not in phase with it. It is approx. 1/4 period behind.
However, Y does oscillate with greater amplitude than the other small pendulums. Y is said to be
resonating with P.
The method is to keep the length of the dependent pendulum Q the same, while varying the length of
the driver pendulum P.
1) the frequency of P
2) the frequency of Q
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3) the amplitude of Q
Initial graphs(blue) are draw for the amplitude of Q and the phase difference of Q against driver
frequency.
Various levels of damping are then applied to Q. Families of curves are produced.
More damping is produced by decreasing the bob mass of Q and/or adding cardboard fins to increase
air resistance.
It can be seen that the amplitude of pendulum Q is maximum (maximum resonance) just before the
natural frequency of the driver pendulum P.
If Q is heavily damped the amplitude is much less at its maximum and occurs at a much lower
frequency than the natural driver frequency.
Whether pendulum Q has light or heavy damping, it always has a phase difference of π/2 radians
(90o) with P, at the natural frequency with which P oscillates.
For higher driver frequencies and light damping the phase difference rises to a maximum of π (pi)
radians (180o).
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Higher driver frequencies and heavy damping produce a phase difference only slightly above π/2
radians.
back to top
implications:
2. Cars/aircraft/rockets are carefully designed so that parts do not resonate producing unwanted
noises/dangerous vibrations.
3. Electrical audio circuits are subject to 'feedback' . This is the loud howling sound produced when a
microphone is too close to a loudspeaker and the amplifier gain is too high.
uses:
1. clocks & watches - quartz crystals resonate producing accurate timing frequencies
3. ultra-sonic cleaning - dirt particles resonate with the applied frequency and are dislodged
5. radio antennas (aerials) - resonate when they interact with radio waves
10.0 WAVES
Reflection of light
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1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, all lie in
the same plane.
Refraction of light
The bending effect of light as it passes from one transparent material to another of a
different density is known as refraction.
Refraction is caused by the change in speed of light.
a. At the boundary of 2 optical media, if there is a sudden change in the speed of light, it
will cause the path of light to bend.
b. Light travels fastest in air/vacuum.
The normal is a line drawn at right angles to the material's surface at the ray's point of
entry.
The angle of incidence is the angle the light ray makes with the normal.
The angle of refraction is the angle the refracted light ray makes with the normal inside
the material.
1) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of entry are all
in the same plane.
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2) The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is a constant for a particular wavelength (Snell's Law).
The ratio constant is called the relative refractive index 'n'.
The relative refractive index between two media where a light ray travels through one
medium (#1) and is refracted through the other medium (#2) is given by:
The greater the value of refractive index of a medium, the greater the bending of
light, and the denser the material is.
Refractive Index
The refractive index of a single medium can be defined as the ratio of the speed of
light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
Here nm is defined as the absolute refractive index
where,
let us consider our two materials(#1 & #2 from above). Their absolute refractive indices are
given by:
that is,
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or
note: when a light ray travels from a less dense medium to a denser medium, it bends towards
the normal(and vice versa).
Material n (λ = 589.29nm)
Water 1.33
Diamond 2.40
Glass 1.48-1.96
1. All images are virtual: that is, they cannot be projected on to a screen.
2. The image produced in a mirror is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Critical Angle
The Critical Angle (co)is the angle of incidence in a dense medium, such that the angle
of refraction in the less dense medium is 90o .
As the angle of incidence in the dense medium is increased, the angle of refraction
increases towards 90o.
During this time a weak reflected ray is also observed.
Only when the angle of incidence in the medium exceeds the Critical Angle does all the
light become reflected internally.
We can formulate an equation for the critical angle using Snell's Law for two media of
refractive index n1 & n2 .
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1. less attenuation
2. cheaper metre for metre
3. can carry more information
4. immune to electrical interference
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WAVE MOTION
o Crests and troughs: The highest and lowest points of a transverse wave
respectively. In longitudinal waves we have compressions and rarefactions.
o Wavelength ( λ ) is the horizontal distance along a wave between 2 successive
particles of the wave, moving in the same direction.
o Displacement is the distance of a particle of the wave from its equilibrium
position at any particular time
o Amplitude ( a ) is the maximum displacement of a particle of the wave from its
equilibrium position.
The height of the crest/ depth of a trough from the rest position.
o Period ( T ) is the time for one complete oscillation of the wave.
o Frequency ( f ) is the number of complete oscillations per second.
o Velocity ( v ) the velocity of a particle of a wave in the direction the wave is
travelling.
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oPhase Any 2 points are in phase when they move in the same direction, have the
speed and displacement from rest position. (e.g. 2 crests and 2 troughs)
There are 2 types of wave motion: Transverse and Longitudinal.
Transverse waves
Transverse waves are waves in which the direction of vibration of the particles is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Examples of such waves include rope waves and water waves.
The crest is the highest points of the wave whereas the trough is the lowest points
of the wave.
Longitudinal waves
Longitudinal Waves are waves in which the vibration of the particles is travel
parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Examples are sound wave and pressure waves.
They form compressions and rarefactions.
Compressions are region where the air particles are close together, creating
high pressure.
Rarefactions are areas where the air particles are far apart, creating low
pressure
2 types of graphs used to plot waves:
∴ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
Polarisation
This is done by passing the waves through a 'grid' so that only the waves that can fit
through the slits can continue through:
This is used in Polaroid glasses to reduce the amount of light reaching the eye.
Polarisation also has to be taken into account when transmitting and receiving waves. An
aerial has to be aligned to the plane of the polarised waves for it to receive the
maximum signal.
Polarisation can also be achieved by creating waves in one plane (for example, a laser).
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised because the direction of vibration and
direction of propagation are the same.
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. They are electric and magnetic fields
that oscillate at 90° to each other.
They transfer energy from one place to another.
They can travel through vacuum (do not require any medium to travel)
They travel at 3.0 x 108 per second in vacuum. They will slow down when travelling
through water or glass.
They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
They carry no electric charge.
Their frequencies do not change when travelling from one medium to another. Only
their speeds and wavelength will change.
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Electrons Can be
oscillating modulated for
Radio
Red- communication
transmitters
Radio Waves shifted None
Radar
lower
Television
wavelength
s from
stars.
Red- Can be
shifted modulated for
light from communication
Microwave ovens
stars and Resonance with Internal heating
Microwaves Communication
galaxies molecules of body tissue
system
Electron producing heat.
energy
changes in
atoms
Molecular Transfer of
vibration heat energy to
Electron materials
Thermal imaging
Infra-red energy Modulation for Burns skin
Remote controls
level short distance
changes control(e.g. TV
remotes)
Electron Starts chemical
energy reactions (egg Strong light
Optic fibres
Visible level photosynthesis) causes damage to
Seeing!
changes in Affects photo vision.
atoms film
Electron Produces
energy ionization,
Washing powder
level fluorescence
(whiter than
changes in Produces Skin cancer and
Ultra-violet white)
atoms photoelectric blindness
Security
effect
marking
Affects
photofilm
Electron Ionizing
decelerati Affect
Mutations in cells
on photofilm Taking images of
X rays and severe burns
Electron Penetrating the skeleton
to the skin.
energy Produces
level fluorescence
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X-rays
Uses of X-rays
In X-ray imaging, a beam of high-energy photons is produced and passed through the
body structure being examined.
The beam passes very quickly through less dense types of tissue such as watery
secretions, blood, and fat, leaving a darkened area on the x-ray film.
Muscle and connective tissues (ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) appear grey.
Bones will appear white.
X-rays may be taken of any part of the body to detect tumour (or cancer) cells.
The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as radiation therapy and is largely used for
the management (including palliation) of cancer; it requires higher radiation energies
than for imaging alone.
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LASER
11.0 SUPERPOSITION
Stationary Waves
Principle of superposition
The resultant displacement at any point of two waves travelling through the same
medium is given by the algebraic sum of the separate displacements due to the two
waves.
Depending on the phase difference between the waves, this resultant wave
appears to move slowly to the right or to the left or disappear completely.
It is only when the phase difference is exactly zero, that is when the two waves
are exactly in phase, that 'standing/stationary waves' occur.
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1. Two waves having the same amplitudes approach each other from opposite
directions.
2. The two waves are 180o out of phase with each other and therefore cancel out
(black horizontal line).
3. The phase difference between the two waves narrows. The resultant grows but
is not in phase with either of the two waves.
4. The phase difference between the two waves is narrower still. The resultant is
larger but is still out of phase with the two waves.
5. The phase difference between the two waves is now zero. The resultant has its
maximum value and is in phase with the two waves.
two waves travelling in opposite directions along the same line of travel and in
the same plane
the waves have the same speed
the waves have the same frequency
the waves have the same approximate amplitude
There are points where the displacement is permanently zero, these points are
called nodes.
Points along the wave each have different amplitudes; those points with the
greatest amplitude are called antinodes.
At points between successive nodes the vibrations are in phase.
The diagram shows how a standing wave moves up and down over time.
Stationary or Standing waves have become very important in physics in the last
hundred years or so. Understanding them has not only given insights into sound but
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Closed Pipes
The diagram above represents the Fundamental Frequency, where n=1. This is the 1st
harmonic.
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The diagram above represents the 3rd harmonic, sometimes called the First Overtone.
The diagram above represents the 5th harmonic, sometimes called the Second
Overtone.
Interference
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In accordance with the principle of superposition two waves in the same place at
the same time, they produce an effect which is equal to the combined effects
of the 2 waves.
This phenomenon is known as interference.
Certain conditions have to be met however for the effects of interference to
be capable of being observed.
1. The waves from light sources must be coherent with each other.
Typically distance (D) between the double slits and the screen is ~ 0.2 m (20 cm).
The slit separation is ~ 10-3m (1mm).
The preferred monochromatic light source is a sodium lamp.
(i
(ii
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hence,
In reality, a ~ 10-3m and D ~ 0.2 m . The length a is much smaller than D. The two rays
S2C and S1C are roughly horizontal and each equal to D,
so,
For a bright fringe at point C the path difference S2C - S1C must be a whole number
(n) of wavelengths (λ).
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Hence,
Similarly for the next bright fringe at D, when the path difference is one wavelength
longer (n+1),
Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of waves through a narrow slit or around the edge of an
obstacle as a result of the superposition of wavelets from a plane wavefront.
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Single Slit
The diffraction pattern is graphed in terms of intensity and angle of deviation from
the central position.
Note that the central maximum is twice the width of other maxima and that all
these have the same width.
The secondary maxima are considerably dimmer than the central maximum
(4.7% of the brightness).
The dark fringes (minima) are where pairs of light waves are in anti-phase and
cancel out.
Multiple-slit diffraction
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d=a+b
N=L/d
For a particular value of N, the effect of altering the sum a+b is to:
Diffraction grating
The path difference between successive light rays must therefore be a whole
number (n) of wavelengths (λ).
Using simple trigonometry, if d is the distance between slits, then the path
difference is dsin(θ).
Hence,
12.0 ELECTROSTATICS
Law of Electrostatics
Charging By Friction
Some substances acquire an electric charge when rubbed with other substances.
For example, an ebonite rod becomes negatively charged when rubbed with fur.
When ebonite and fur are rubbed together, some of the electrons originally in the fur
experience a stronger attraction from atomic nuclei in the ebonite than they do from
nuclei in the fur.
Consequently, after the rubbing, the ebonite has an excess of electrons, and the fur
has a deficit.
Glass
Wool
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Silk
Aluminium
Cotton
Paraffin wax
Ebonite
Polyethylene
Carbon
Rubber
Sulphur
Charging By Induction
An electric conductor is a solid in which electrons are able to move easily from one
atom to another. (Most metals, such as silver, gold, copper, and aluminium, are
conductors.)
Some of the outer electrons in these conductors have been called “conduction
electrons” for the way they can move about within the atomic framework of the
solid.
An insulator is a solid in which the electrons are not free to move about easily from
atom to atom. Plastic, cork, glass, wood, and rubber are all excellent insulators.
Charges introduced on conductors spread out whereas in an insulator they remain in the
positions where they were introduced.
When you take off a pullover over a nylon shirt there is a crackling sound
A pen rubbed with a piece of cloth will pick up small pieces of paper
You sometimes get a small electric shock when getting out of a car
If you roll over in bed you can sometimes see small flashes of light between the sheets
You can sometimes get a small electric shock from a cat that has rolled on a synthetic carpet
Applications of Electrostatics
1. A charged mesh in a chimney acts as an electrostatic dust collector, cleaning the smoke.
Electrostatic precipitators are air pollution control devices that remove tiny
particles from the emissions (flue gas) of processing and power plants that burn
fossil fuels.
By relying directly on the properties of electric fields, these devices are capable
of removing almost all (about 99%) of the tiny particles of soot, ash, and dust.
Dirty flue gas is passed through a series of positively charged plates and
negatively charged wires.
When a very large negative charge is placed on the wires, the electric field near
the wire is so strong that the air near it becomes ionized.
Electrons freed in the region of ionization move toward the positive plates and
attach themselves to the tiny waste particles in the flue gas moving through the
plates.
These waste product particles will now be negatively charged and are attracted to
the plates where they collect on the surface of the plate.
The plates are shaken periodically to remove the soot, ash, and dust in a collection
hopper.
2. Paint sprays can be charged and the object they are spraying earthed to attract the
paint towards it.
Spray painting is a painting technique where a device sprays a coating (paint, ink,
varnish, etc.) through the air onto a surface.
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Care must be taken when emptying oil tankers and refuelling aircraft to avoid a build up
of static charge due to friction that could make a spark and result in an explosion.
Charging by friction also depends on size of object so when the plane is also in flight
there is also a build-up of charge due to friction with the air molecules.
Charge (Q)
Current (I)
Q = It
A current flows because electrical potentials between two points are different.
Potential difference is short for potential energy difference.
The potential difference between two points in an electric field is numerically equal
to the work done in moving unit positive charge between two points at different
potentials.
The unit of potential difference (p.d) is the volt.
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One volt is the p.d between two points if the work done in moving one coulomb of
charge between them is one joule.
1 V = 1 JC-1
Resistance ( R)
By definition, the electrical resistance (R) of a conductor is the ratio of the p.d. (V)
across it to the current (I) passing through it.
From this equation, by making each quantity unity, the Ohm can be defined.
One Ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which a current of 1 ampere
flows when a p.d. of 1 volt exists across it.
Ohm's Law
The current through a resistor is varied, while the p.d. across it is measured. The graph
of V against I is a straight line through the origin.
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Hence,
Ohm's law states: the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
p.d across it, provided physical conditions* are constant.
*eg temperature
These are all non-ohmic conductors except for the bottom right graph.
Ohmic conductors are all metals and follow Ohm's Law.
Resistivity ρ (rho)
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Rearranging the equation and making the length and area unity, we can form a definition
for the quantity.
The units of resistivity can be found by substituting the units for l, A and R in the
resistivity equation.
metals ~10-8
semi-conductors ~ 0.5
glass/alumina ~ 1012
Power
By definition, 'power' is the rate of working and is equal to the work done divided by
the time taken.
W = QV
= ItV
substituting for W
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The equation for power can be modified if we make substitutions using Ohm's Law.
The total resistance Rtotal is the sum of the series resistor and the internal resistance
of the cell.
Note, VR is called the terminal p.d. That is the p.d. across the cell when it is delivering
current.
Measurement of E & r
After taking readings of terminal p.d. (VR) and current (I), a graph is drawn.
Information can be obtained from the graph by manipulating the equation obtained for
E and r:
Therefore the gradient is '- r' and the intercept on the vertical axis is 'E' .
Kirchhoff's Laws
1st Law - The sum of the currents entering a node/junction equals the sum of the
currents leaving.
I 1 + I 2 + I 3 = I4 + I 5
I 1 + I 2 + I 3 - I4 - I5 = 0
2nd Law - Around any closed loop in a circuit, the algebraic sum of the individual
p.d's is zero.
V 1 + V 2 + V 3 - V4 - V5 = 0
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Resistors in series
Consider three resistors, R1 R2 R3 with the same current flowing through each.
If the p.d. across each one respectively is, V1 V2 V3 . Then the total p.d. Vtotal across the
arrangement is:
Resistors in parallel
Consider three resistors R1 R2 R3 with the same p.d. (V) across each of them.
Potential Divider
Therefore,
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅2
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
i.e:
𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖𝑛
The Thermistor
Typically effect of light on a LDR is to reduce its resistance from ~ 106 Ω to ~ 102 Ω.
In the potential divider below, the p.d.'s VR and VLDR are in the ratio of the resistors
they appear across.
In the dark, the resistance of the LDR is of the order of MΩ's.
So most of the 5V p.d. falls across it and not the series resistor.
With more illumination, the resistance of the LDR decreases.
When it reaches 10kΩ the p.d. is shared equally with the series resistor.
In bright light, its resistance is of the order of 100's of Ω's. Then, most of the p.d.
falls across the series resistor.
An LED is essentially a modified junction diode (or p-n diode) so that it gives out light
when current flows through it.
The device only allows current to flow in one direction.
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On the I-V curve, the top right quadrant shows how a very small forward p.d. causes
the diode to conduct.
There is a high current for a small p.d. increase.
The bottom left quadrant shows what happens when the diode is reverse biased.
Notice for increasing p.d. there is a constant 'leakage current' .
This is very small, being of the order of micro-amps.
There comes a point when the p.d. is so high that 'breakdown' occurs.
A large current passes and the diode is destroyed.
To avoid this, an LED always has a 'limiting resistor' placed in series to limit the
current.
The level of current designed for is just enough to trigger light from the device.
The potentiometer
(i) Comparing EMFs (since it draws no current from the p.d it is measuring),
(ii) Comparing resistances,
(iii) Measure currents.
Therefore,
potential at A = Potential at X
And,
potential at B = Potential at C
Therefore,
i.e. E2 = Irl2
𝐸3 𝑙3
=
𝐸2 𝑙2
An electric field is the region around a charge where another charged body or object
experiences a force.
The electric field strength at a point is equal to the force on a unit positive charge at
the point.
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Electric field direction at a point is the direction of a small free moving positive
charge if placed at the point.
Two oppositely charged and parallel metal plates(X & Y) will produce a uniform electric
field E between them.
Note, at the edges the field lines are not evenly spaced. So the field there is not
uniform.
The potential difference between the plates is constant along their length.
The potential gradient (the drop in pd with distance) is the electric field strength E.
Since the pd V and the plate separation d are constant, E is also constant.
From our definition of field strength (E = F/Q) , making the force F the subject of
the equation, for a small charge q related to a particle :
Substituting for u ,
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Eliminating F ,
Coulomb’s Law
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The force F between two point charges Q1 & Q2 is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them.
where,
By definition, electric field strength is force/unit charge. So at the point where charge QT is
positioned the field strength E is given by :
therefore QTE = F .
We can now see how electric field strength E varies with distance r from the point.
Electric potential V
The electrical potential V at a point in an electric field is defined as being numerically equal to
the work done W in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to the point.
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From Coulomb's law, the force between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is given by :
The negative sign indicates that work is done against the field, the motion is in the
opposite direction to the direction of repulsion.
Substituting into this equation for F, from the Coulomb's Law equation (above) :
Therefore the total work W done in bringing the charge Q2 from infinity to a point a
distance r from S (where x = r) is given by:
The distance moved, δx , is very small, such that the force F may be considered
constant.
The force is equal to the force exerted by the field on the charge, but in the opposite
direction.
Substituting for δW ,
The E-r and V-r graphs below show the relation clearly.
The gradient of the V-r graph is negative.
So the negative of its gradient gives a positive value for E in the E-r graph.
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Force on mass/charge 𝑚1 𝑚2 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝐺 𝐹=
𝑟2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
16.0 CAPACITANCE
Capacitance
Capacitance is the measure of the extent to which a capacitor can store charge.
The larger the capacitor the more charge can be stored per volt of p.d. across the
plates.
where,
Capacitors in parallel
Hence,
𝑄𝑇
= 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑉
But
Therefore,
Capacitors in series
The battery removes charge Q- from plate 'a' and deposits it on plate 'f'. Plate 'a' is
therefore left with a charge Q+on its plates.
Each charged plate then induces an opposite charge in its opposing plate.
The central capacitor C2 has a positive charge on plate 'c' because electrons are
removed from it to make plate 'b' negative.
Plate ’d’ is made negative by induction with 'c'.
Making the p.d. V the subject for each capacitor and adding:
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Summing the p.d. around the circuit, the supply p.d. is V is given by:
Hence
Recalling that,
The energy stored in a capacitor is in the form of electrical potential energy. This is
has two components:
work done in adding electrons to the negative plate
work done in removing electrons from the positive plate
Consider a partially charged capacitor, with a p.d. of V volts across it and charge Q on
it plates.
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Now during charging, consider a small charge δQ moving from one plate to another. If
δQ is very small then the increase in p.d. is also very small. So V may be considered
approximately the same.
Hence the work done δW , is given by :
Recalling the equation for capacitance C and rearranging to make V the subject :
The total work done is the area under the curve for 0 to Qo, where Qo is the maximum
charge stored.
Summarizing,
When the switch is turned to the left, there is an instantaneous flow of current.
By the action of the battery electrons move in a clockwise sense.
In a very short time all motion ceases.
The p.d. across the plates is now the same as that across the battery, but in the
opposite direction.
The positive of the battery is connected to the positive of the capacitor; no p.d. exists,
so no current flows.
In this state the capacitor is said to be 'fully charged'.
Charges on upper and lower plates are of opposite type and equal in quantity.
Discharging is usually done through a resistor, simplified circuit below.
When the switch is closed charge from the capacitor flows through the resistor. The
resistance R has the effect of limiting this flow.
For a fully charged capacitor of capacitance C let the p.d. be Vo and the charge Qo .
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Consider the p.d. around the circuit at a time t seconds from the start of the
discharge. Since there is no net p.d. in the circuit, by Kirchoff's 2nd law (relating to
p.d. in a circuit) :
(i
Hence,
Therefore,
and,
When the elapsed time t = CR the charge remaining is approx. 37% of the original
amount.
The p.d. across the resistor VR and the current I through it are given by:
If VR is taken to the other side of the equation it becomes negative. Hence one p.d. is
the negative of the other.
The second equation (I) is obtained from the first by substituting VR = IR and
rearranging.
ALTERNATING CURRENTS
When polarity of an EMF changes with time it is known as an alternating EMF.
Current caused by such an EMF is called an alternating current.
Most common type varies sinusoidally with time.
E = E0 sin ωt
where
E is the EMF value at time t
E0 is the peak value (ie maximum value)of E
ω is the angular frequency of the supply = 2πf
The period is the time taken to complete a cycle.
The number of complete cycles is the frequency of the ac.
In Zimbabwe the frequency is 50 Hz
Direct current does not vary with time and it is always in one direction.
On a plot of power against time, D.C. is a horizontal line.
The area under the plot gives the work done/energy used.
This is simply the product of the constant power( Pconst.)and the time interval that
the power is used for( t' ) .
But we must average of this power over time 't' to calculate the energy/work, so
the energy/work done is given by,
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IRMS is the equivalent D.C. current having the same effect on a resistor as the A.C.
Here is a graph of an A.C. sinusoidal waveform:
where,
𝐼02 R
Pmean = = P0/2
2
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The transformer
Is a device that makes use of mutual induction to produce a large alternating EMF
from a small one or vice versa.
Presence of soft iron core ensures that all the flux associated with one passes
through the other.
Consider the primary coil. There are two opposing EMF's working here : the applied
EMF Ep and the back EMF EB .
If I is the current flowing in the primary and R is its resistance, then from
Kirchoff's law for pd's in a circuit:
(i)
Both primary and secondary coils have the same flux passing through them. So the
rate of flux change dφ/dt will also be the same. It follows that the back EMF Es in
the secondary is given by :
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(ii)
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i)
(iii)
Power in a transformer
If we assume that there are no losses (ie that the transformer is 100% efficient)
we can write :
If Ip and Is are the currents flowing in the primary and secondary coils, then:
rearranging,
Transformer efficiency
Power transmission
A given amount of power can be transmitted at high voltage and low current or
low voltage and high current.
Heat energy dissipated in cables, W = I2Rt
This shows that energy wasted is proportional to square of the current in the
cables
Most efficient way is to transmit power is therefore at high voltage and low
current.
Another advantage is that low currents require thinner and therefore cheaper
cables.
For safety reasons, the voltage at the user is reduced to familiar values.
The crucial factor is that transformers are the most efficient way to convert
high voltages to low voltages and vice versa, and these work on AC voltages than
DC.
Rectification
Important definitions
Brittleness
Brittle materials cannot be permanently stretched. They break after the elastic
limit is exceeded.
Creep
Creep occurs when a material is under constant stress over time. Strain
gradually increases, causing eventual fracture.
Dislocation
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Ductility
This is the property a material has whereby it can be permanently stretched.
Elastic limit
This is the maximum force a body can endure and still regain its original shape
and size, when the force is removed.
Elasticity
Elasticity is the property a material has whereby it regains its original size and
shape when a deforming force is removed.
Fatigue
Fatigue is the weakness induced in a material by it repeatedly being stressed in
opposite directions. It can also occur when a material is repeatedly stressed and
the stress being removed.
Material will fracture even if maximum stress applied in any cycle
could have been indefinitely sustained if applied steadily.
~90% of failures which occur in aircraft components are due to
fatigue.
Mild steel and many ferrous metals can safely undergo an infinite
number of stress cycles if maximum stress is below the fatigue
limit.
Fatigue fractures usually start in the surface at points of high
stress, e.g. at sharp corners and around rivet holes.
Hooke's law
The extension of a stretched spring (or wire) is directly proportional to the
extending force, provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
Stiffness
The stiffness of a body is the measure of its resistance to changes in size
and/or shape.
Strain
Strain is the ratio of change in length to original length. It can also be
considered as the extension per unit length. Strain has no dimensions.
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Strength
Strength relates to the maximum force that can be applied to a body before it
breaks.
.
Yield point
For a body being extended by an applied force, the yield point is when a large
extension is produced for a very small increase in force. The material of the
body is said to show 'plastic' behaviour.
Young's Modulus
This is a typical stress-strain curve of a ductile material. A brittle material
would have a much smaller strain value before breaking (making EB shorter).
L - limit of proportionality
E - elastic limit
Y - yield point
X - stress removed here, body has permanent strain 0X'
B - breaking stress
For a given material, by definition, Young's Modulus (E) is the ratio of stress*
to strain*, provided the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
* sometimes referred to as stress σ (sigma), strain ε (epsilon)
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The gradient at any point on a stress - strain graph is the Young's Modulus (E).
On a stress-strain graph the Young's Modulus is constant for the portion of the
graph where Hooke's Law applies. This can be easily shown by substituting for
k=F/x into the equation for E.
Plasticity
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Strain Energy
To obtain an expression for the strain energy (work done) in stretching a wire,
consider a wire of original length l0 where a force F produces an extension x. It
is assumed that the wire obeys Hooke's Law.
Now, let the force F cause a further extension δx, , where δx is so small that F
may be considered constant.
Since
work done = force x distance force moves
The total work done when the wire is stretched from 0 to x is the area under
the F- x curve between these two limits.
Since the wire obeys Hooke's Law,
Substituting for F in the integral expression(above):
W = 12Fx
,
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As can be seen from the graph, the area under the curve is half the product of
F and x
Elastic Hysteresis
The graph illustrates how for a given force, the extension is greater for
unloading than loading.
Looking at this another way, for a given extension the loading force is greater
than the unloading force.
The stretching produces an increase in temperature (loading), but when the
strain is reduced (unloading) the temperature drops.
However, some heat is retained to keep the material above its initial
temperature.
For a complete cycle, the increase in heat energy is the area of the hysteresis
loop.
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The graph is for rubber, but metals also exhibit this property, though the
effect is considerably smaller.
Types of solids
, Crystalline Solids
The physical properties of solids are governed to a large extent by their crystal
structure (e.g. graphite & diamond).
It is a basic rule of physics that systems tend towards the lowest level of P.E:-
Such is the case with crystals, where regular arrangements of atoms have a
lower P.E. than the same atoms all jumbled up, with no structure.
In a large single crystal similar planes of atoms are parallel to each other. So
the crystal can be cleanly cut or cleaved along these planes.
This is not the case with polycrystalline solids. In this case, a solid consists of
many small crystals called crystallites (or grains).
Amorphous Solids
Unlike crystals, amorphous solids have no definite structure. Further, they melt
not at one temperature, like crystals, but over a range of temperatures.
Amorphous solids behave more like liquids with high viscosities. For example,
over time, a vertical pane of glass is observed to be thicker at the bottom than
at the top.
Glasses
Soda-Lime
Soda-lime glass is the commonest type of glass and is made from a mixture of silica
SiO2, calcium oxide CaO and sodium oxide Na2O.
Its main uses are window panes and bottles.
Lead Crystal
Lead crystal glass has a high refractive index and a relatively soft surface that can be
easily cut. For these reasons it is used for wine glasses, decanters, flower vases, bowls
etc.
In the manufacture of lead crystal, lead oxide PbO is used instead of calcium oxide
CaO and potassium oxide K2O is used instead of sodium oxide Na2O.
Borosilicate
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Borosilicate glass is heat-resisting and has many uses in the kitchen, laboratory and in
industry. It familiarly known under its trade name Pyrex.
Fused Quartz
Polymers
Polymers are long chain molecules made from smaller units called monomers.
The simplest polymer is polythene. This is made by the process called
polymerization, whereby a monomer double bond is opened out to make a
polymer, with side bonds.
Elastomers can produce very large extensions before returning to their original
length, when the extending force is removed.
The elastic properties of elastomers are primarily a result of cross-links
between adjacent sliding molecules.
The large extension produced by these materials is explained by tangled
molecules becoming untangled in the large spaces between chains.
Creep
Is used to describe the gradual increase in strain which occurs when a material
is subjected to stress for a long period of time.
Unlike fatigue it occurs even when stress is constant.
It is greater at higher temperatures and may result in fractures in the material
if it is severe.
Turbine blades in jet engines are particularly susceptible to creep.
Soft metals e.g. lead and most plastics show considerable creep even at room
temperature.
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25.0 TEMPERATURE
What is temperature?
Fixed Points
ice point - temperature when pure water ice is in equilibrium with liquid water at
standard atmospheric pressure (76mm Hg).
steam point - temperature when pure liquid water exists in equilibrium with water
vapour at standard atmospheric pressure.
triple point* - temperature when pure water ice, pure liquid water and pure water
vapour exist in equilibrium.
* there are triple points for many other substances besides water
Temperature scales are divided into a specific number of degrees between the
two fixed points.
The gap between the upper and lower fixed points is called the fundamental
interval.
As a matter of historical interest, the Fahrenheit scale was founded on the following
fixed points:
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lower fixed point 0 deg. (0oF) - the coldest salt mixture temperature attained
This scale uses the triple point of water as the upper fixed point and absolute
zero (zero molecular motion) as the lower fixed point.
The triple point of water is assigned the temperature 273.16K while the ice
point is 273.15K and the steam point 373.15K.
The Celsius scale was defined by using the ice point and the steam point.
These were designated as 0oC and 100 oC resp.
The Celsius scale is closely related to the Kelvin scale.
By definition one degree Celsius is: 1 / 273.16 (approximately 0.00366) of the
difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water.
This is the same definition as for a degree Kelvin.
So a temperature change of 1K equates to a change of 1oC.
The two scales are also defined by the equation:
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TYPES OF THERMOMETERS
mercury
opaque
is a metal and therefore a good heat conductor
does not stick to glass - convex meniscus
temperature range: -39oC (fp of mercury) to ~356oC just below its b.p
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Thermocouple
On the graph, the value of T where the EMF is maximum is called the 'neutral
temperature'.
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temperature
metals
rangeoC
chromel/alumel ~1100 max.
Pt/Pt-Rh 1100 - 1700
Fe/Constantan 95 - 760
Cu/Constantan 200 - 350
Resistance thermometer
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𝑋𝜃 − 𝑋0
𝜃= × 100
𝑋100 − 𝑋0
Thermal physics deals with the changes that occur in substances when there is
a change in temperature.
Internal energy
By definition, Heat capacity (C) is the heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a body by one degree (oC or K).
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where,
The units of heat capacity are Joules per degree. Since Kelvin and Celsius
degrees are equivalent the units are: JK-1 or JC-1
Specific Heat Capacity c
By definition, specific heat capacity (c) is the heat energy required to raise
the temperature of unit mass by one degree (oC or K).
where,
These two methods concern the heating up a known mass and measuring the
temperature rise for a known amount of electrical energy used.
The heat energy supplied by the electrical element is given to the liquid and its
container, producing a temperature rise Δθ.
The heater current (I) and voltage (V) are monitored for a time (t).
energy supplied by heater = VIt
where,
mL mass of liquid
mC mass of container
cL specific heat capacity of liquid
cC specific heat capacity of container
mL , mC , cC are known and V, I, t, Δθ are all measured. So the specific heat capacity of
the liquid (cL) can be calculated.
The method is very similar to that for a liquid except that there is no container.
The solid under test is a lagged cylinder with holes drilled for the thermometer
and the heater element.
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where,
ms is known and V, I, t, Δθ are measured. So the specific heat capacity of the solid
(cs) can be calculated.
Change of phase from solid to liquid (melting) occurs when the bonds between
the solid molecules are broken.
Heat energy provided is used to break these bonds and hence there is no
increase in the kinetic energy of the molecules.
Change of phase of liquid to gas (boiling) occurs when the intermolecular bonds
are completely broken.
Heat energy provided is used to increase the potential energies of the
molecules and also to do work against the external pressure as the liquid
expands to become a gas.
The temperature thus during a phase change is constant.
Latent Heat
The graph illustrates the temperature changes when a solid (e.g. ice) is heated from
below its melting point, to above boiling.
By definition,
the latent heat of fusion of a substance is the energy involved in changing the
state of unit mass of the substance at the melting/freezing point.
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where,
There are a number of different methods for finding l for different substances
and different phase changes.
The specific latent heat of ice by the 'method of mixtures'
where,
mw mass of water
mi mass of ice
mc mass of calorimeter
Hence l can be calculated from the known quantities and measured values.
Water is heated electrically until it boils.
The condensed water (m) is collected over time (t).
Heating element readings of voltage (V) and current (I) are recorded.
In the steady state,
If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
Consider three bodies, X, Y and Z.
Z is in thermal equilibrium with Y.
X is in thermal equilibrium with Y.
Then Z is in thermal equilibrium with X.
To try to visualize this further, consider a hot cup of tea.
After about twelve hours, the saucer, the cup and the tea will all be at the same
temperature.
The saucer is in equilibrium with the cup.
The cup is in equilibrium with the tea.
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The change in the internal energy* (ΔU) of a system is equal to the amount of
heat supplied (ΔQ) to the system, minus the amount of work (ΔW) performed by
the system on its surroundings.
Note:
When no heat is applied and work is done externally by pushing the piston
inwards to compress the gas:
the temperature of the gas increases
work ΔW is done compressing the gas
the internal energy of the gas increases ΔU
the volume of the gas decreases ΔV
Note:
6. extremely large numbers of molecules mean that statistical methods can be applied
where,
Derivation of equations
The first step in understanding this theory is to appreciate the momentum change when
a particle rebounds from a collision with a wall.
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We have seen how the change in momentum of a molecule of gas when it rebounds from one
face , is 2mu1 .
It collides with face A. Moves a distance L to collide with opposite face B, before returning to
face A .
Therefore the time (t) it takes for the molecule to traverse this distance 2L is given by:
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The rate of momentum change (dp/dt) in this time interval is given by:
From Newton's 2nd Law, applied force is equal to the rate of change of momentum.
Since pressure (p) = force/area , the pressure on wall A produced by a single molecule is,
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Now, consider all the molecules (N) in the cube and each of their x-component velocities (u1 u2
u3 . . . uN).
where,
Up to now we have considered the velocity of a molecule in one direction. Now, let us
consider the resultant velocity of a molecule in three dimensions.
In the diagram, molecule velocity (c1) is resolved into x, y and z directions. The value of
each component is respectively, u1, v1 and w1.
Side d is the projection of c1 on the x-y plane.
Replacing these velocities with mean square velocities, the equation now applies for all
molecules.
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We make the assumptions that there are very large numbers of molecules and their motion is
random. So we can say that mean square velocity components are equal to one another.
Multiplying the Kinetic Theory equation for pressure by V, (the volume of the gas) we obtain:
(i
(ii
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With some simple arithmetic and a more detailed description of M, this equation can be
amended into a more useful form:
where,
(iii
The Avagadro Number NA is by definition the number of molecules per mole. It is obtained by
dividing the total number of molecules by the number of moles of matter:
Equation of continuity
In steady flow the mass of fluid entering one end of tube is equal to mass leaving
the other end during the same time interval.
Consider an ideal fluid undergoing steady flow; consider a section XY of a tube of
flow within the fluid.
Let: AX and AY be the cross-sectional areas of the tube of flow at X and Y
respectively.
ρX and ρY be the densities of the fluid at X and Y respectively.
vX and vY be the velocities of the fluid particles at X and Y respectively.
Bernoulli’s Equation
States that for an incompressible, non-viscous fluid undergoing steady flow, the
pressure plus the kinetic energy per unit volume plus the potential energy per unit
volume is constant at all points on a streamline, i.e.
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡,
2
where P is the absolute pressure, ρ is the fluid density, v is the velocity of the
fluid, h is the height above some reference point, and g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
For a horizontal tube of flow the Bernoulli equation becomes:
1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑣 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
A small volume of fluid along its path, various quantities in the sum may change, but
the total remains constant.
Bernoulli’s equation becomes
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
Derivation of Bernoulli’s equation
Consider the flow of an ideal fluid through a non-uniform in a time Δt. The force on
the lower end is P1A1. Work done on the lower end of the fluid by the fluid behind it
is
𝑊1 = 𝐹1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝑃1 𝑉
Similarly the work done on the fluid at the top in time Δt is
𝑊2 = −𝑃2 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2 = −𝑃2 𝑉
Note work done is negative since force is opposite to displacement.
The net work done by these forces in Δt is
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉
Part of the work is used to change the kinetic energy part to change potential
energy. If m is mass passing through pipe in time Δt then change in kinetic energy
1
is ∆𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
Change in potential energy is ∆𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦2 − 𝑚𝑔𝑦1
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𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑘
1
𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
dividing by V throughout
1 1
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑣22 − 𝜌𝑣12
2 2
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
Filter pump
Has a narrow section in the middle section in the middle so that a jet
of water flows faster here.
The pressure drop caused forces or sucks in air from the pipe
connected to the side.
Venturi meter
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Atomizers
Air stream passing over an open tube reduces pressure above the
tube.
This reduction causes liquid to rise into the air stream.
Liquid is the dispersed into a fine spray of droplets.
Aerofoil
This ensures a lower pressure above than that below, and results in
a dynamic upward lift force.
Convection
Radiation
Radiation is the heat transfer without the presence of any medium that is it can occur
in vacuum.
Radiation is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic
waves.
Thermal radiation is emitted by all bodies with a temperature above absolute 0.
It consists of a number of wavelengths; objects at low temperatures emit waves of
longer wavelengths. (less energy).
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he assumed that when tiny oil drops are sprayed from an atomizer, they become charged by
friction.
The hypothesis was the total charge on any oil drop would be an integral multiple of
elementary charge.
To measure this charge, Millikan made use of the uniform electric field in the region
between two oppositely charged parallel plates.
He charged the plates by connecting each to opposite terminals of a large bank of storage
batteries whose potential difference could be varied.
Once a mist of oil drops is sprayed through a small hole in the upper plate in a Millikan
apparatus, it is possible, by carefully adjusting the potential difference between the plates,
to “balance” a particular droplet that has the same sign as the charge on the lower plate.
When the droplet is balanced, the gravitational force pulling it down equals the electric
force pulling it up.
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For a positively charged drop of mass m and charge q, the electric force acts upward if the
lower plate is positively charged:
𝐹𝐸 = 𝑞𝐸
where E is the electric field between the plates.
When the droplet is in balance,
𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝐺
𝑞𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔
The density of air at room temperature is negligible compared to density of oil, so the
upthrust due to air is ignored.
the electric field in the region between two parallel plates is constant and has a magnitude
given by
𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑
where V is the electric potential difference between the plates, and d is the separation
between the plates.
𝑚𝑔𝑑
Hence the charge on the oil drop is given by, 𝑞 = .
𝑉
The mass m of the oil drop could be found by switching of the electric field and measuring
the terminal velocity.
The total charge q could therefore be calculated.
Millikan repeated the experiment over and over, meticulously balancing a charged oil
droplet, measuring its balancing voltage, and then allowing the droplet to fall under gravity
and measuring its terminal speed.
The list of values he determined for the total electric charge on each of the drops studied
contained a significant pattern: all the values were simple multiples of some smallest value
(1.602 × 10−19 𝐶.)
Charge is said to be quantised
The Motion of Charged Particles in Electric Fields
𝑒 𝐸
=
𝑚 𝑟𝐵2
𝑒
The ratio is known as specific charge and it has a value 1.76 × 1011 𝐶/𝑘𝑔
𝑚
The mass of the electron was found to be 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
Quantum theory is used to explain interactions between matter and energy on the
extremely small scale of atoms and sub-atomic particles.
The theory has some basic points:
Planck's Quanta
Max Planck (1901) first proposed the idea that light was emitted as discrete packets of
energy called quanta.
He also showed that each packet (quantum) had energy given by the equation:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
where,
E = energy (J)
h = Planck's constant, 6.626 x 10-34 Js
f = frequency of light radiation (Hz, s-1)
However, Einstein, as part of his photo-electric effect theory, described these quanta
as streams of particles, which he termed photons.
The theory considers a beam of light as a stream of photons, each with energy hf.
What is meant by 'the intensity of light'?
Consider photons emitted from a point source. The sphere around the point, where the
photons arrive, enlarges with distance from the point. So at large distances, the
photons are spread out over a large area.
Note there is no diminution of photon energy, whatever the distance travelled.
Intensity (I) beam of light (no. of photons/m2/sec.)
Einstein's big idea, in essence, was that when a photon collides with an electron there
are two possible outcomes:
1. the photon reflects from the electron with no energy transfer
2. the photon is absorbed by the electron and gives up ALL its energy to it
Photons are paired with electrons.
So there is no question of one photon sharing energy with more than one electron.
intensity of light (no. of electrons emitted by a surface)
or more accurately,
(no. of photons/m2/sec.) (no. of electrons/m2/sec.)
So when a photon arrives at the surface, an electron is emitted instantaneously.
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The photon energy received is used to overcome the forces holding the electron within
the surface and to give it kinetic energy to escape.
Observations
Classical wave theory predicts that energy is carried in the wave-front. Electrons
absorb the energy from the wave until the level exceeds the work function*. Electrons
are then released from the surface of the metal.
𝑐
𝜆0 = ℎ
𝑊0
Millikan's apparatus - stopping potential
1 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊0 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑊0 + 𝑒𝑉
ℎ 𝑊
𝑉= 𝑓−
𝑒 𝑒
gradient is given by :
ℎ
𝑚=
𝑒
Notes
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1. for different materials the graph has the same gradient but different
intercepts
2. measurements of W0 (the work function) can be made
3. measurements of h (Planck's constant) can be made
Wave-particle duality
The reflection and refraction of light are satisfactorily explained on the basis of light
being a wave motion.
Light can be diffracted and can produce interference patterns-convincing evidence it is
a wave motion.
This wave model does not however explain the photoelectric effect, and light here is
attributed a particulate nature.
These ideas of light being a wave and a stream of particles are two different models
but neither can be a literal description of what light is.
The De Broglie Equation
In 1924 Louis de Broglie proposed that matter also had a wave nature.
He proposed that any particle of momentum p has an associated wavelength λ (the De
Broglie wavelength), given by:
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Where m is the particle’s mass and v its velocity.
The relation was verified by Davisson and Germer in 1927 by electron diffraction in
crystals.
Electron diffraction
X-rays waves have a wavelength of the order of 10-11 m travelling at the speed of light
at approximately 3 x 108 ms-1.
Wavelength of particles depends on velocity, which is variable.
So as an example let's take an electron travelling at 10% the speed of light.
me = 9.1×10-31 v = 3 x 107 ms-1 h = 6.6×10-34 J.s
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
6.63 × 10−34
𝜆=
9.11 × 10−31 × 3 × 107
= 2.42 × 10−11 𝑚
The electron wavelength travelling at 10% the speed of light has approximately the
wavelength of X-rays.
Shorter wavelengths, approaching that of gamma rays, can be obtained with higher
electron velocities.
Diffraction occurs when particles or waves with wavelength λ comparable with atomic
spacing d, interact with atoms in crystals.
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At a particular angle θ* waves are diffracted by atoms in adjacent planes and interfere
constructively.
As with transmission diffraction gratings, a bright image is only produced when the
path difference is a whole number of wavelengths.
𝑛𝜆 = 2𝑑 sin 𝜃
Practically, the incident waves can be provided by X-rays, electrons or neutrons.
Electron energy levels
When radiant energy is absorbed by a bound electron it is excited into a higher energy
level. Conversely, when an electron falls to a lower level, radiant energy is given out.
Example: an electron moves down from level 3 to level 1 and gives out a photon of light
of frequency f.
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸3 − 𝐸1
Spectral lines
An atom is the smallest chemically indivisible part of an element - that means you can't
split it by chemical (or physical) means into anything smaller - it takes a nuclear
reaction to do it!
The best model of the atom was known as the Thomson or "plum pudding" model.
The atom was believed to consist of a positive material "pudding" with negative "plums"
distributed throughout.
Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment changed the way we think of atoms.
He directed beams of alpha particles (which are the nuclei of helium atoms and hence
positively charged) at thin gold foil to test this model and noted how the alpha particles
scattered from the foil.
Most of the fast, highly charged alpha particles went whizzing straight through
undeflected, or deflected through small angles.
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This was the expected result for all of the particles if the plum pudding model was
correct.
Some of the alpha particles were deflected back through large angles. This was not
expected.
A very small number of alpha particles were deflected backwards! This was definitely
not as expected.
To explain these results a new model of the atom was needed.
In this model the positive material is concentrated in a small but massive (lot of mass -
not size) region called the nucleus.
The negative particles (electrons) must be around the outside preventing one atom
from trespassing on its neighbour’s space to complete this model.
The Conclusion
The fact that the vast majority of the alpha particles got straight through led
Rutherford to propose that the atom was composed primarily of empty space.
The fact that backscattering occurred in 1 in 8000 alpha particles indicated that there
was a:
o small (that was why so few were affected)
o massive (meaning containing lots of mass - he knew the electrons had very little
mass and the fact that all of the positive charges were concentrated into a
small area meant that the mass was concentrated there too)
o positively charged (because it repelled the alpha particles) nucleus in the centre
of the atom (neutrons had not been discovered at that time - so he made no
mention of them!).
The nucleus
Where Z and A are proton (atomic) number and nucleon (mass) number respectively.
Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to break up the nucleus into its
separate nucleons OR this can be expressed as the energy released when the nucleus
is formed from separate nucleons.
The mass of a nucleus is less than the mass of the individual nucleons that make up that
nucleus.
The difference in mass is called the mass defect of the nucleus ( m).
The relationship between binding energy and mass difference is given by Einstein's
equation:
Eb= m c2
where:
m = mass difference
If we know the binding energy in a nucleus, and the number of nucleons, we can work
out the binding energy per nucleon, which is the average energy needed to remove
each nucleon.
The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus.
We can plot a graph of binding energy per nucleon against nucleon number and it gives a
smooth curve - with one remarkable anomaly - helium (4He) the binding energy per
nucleon is:
Iron has the one of the highest binding energy per nucleon values - so the graph peaks
around A=58 - here we find the most stable nuclei.
Large nuclei (much greater than iron), i.e. further to the right (greater nucleon
number) there are less stable the nuclei.
This is because the binding energy per nucleon is getting less.
These nuclei undergo fission and split to produce products with higher binding energy
per nucleon values - more stable products.
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For Dennis Phiri
Nuclei of much smaller mass than iron we find they have a lower binding energy per
nucleon.
These fuse to produce a heavier nucleus which is more stable - fusion can be shown to
be energetically viable from the above graph.
The product nucleus has a higher binding energy per nucleon than the two that fuse to
form it.
It is therefore more stable than its constituents.
Nuclear fission
235 141
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 236
92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎
92
+ 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 10𝑛 + Energy
Mass is conserved
Energy is conserved
80% of the energy released by the reaction goes into providing kinetic
energy for the fission fragments.
These are often radioactive and their subsequent decay accounts for a
further 10% of the energy.
The remaining 10% appears as the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons.
Nuclear fusion
2
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 32𝐻 + 10𝑛 + 3.27 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Energy released by the fusion of 2 nuclei is very much less than that which results from
the fission of a heavier nucleus.
However energies provided per unit mass of reactants by the 2 processes are much the
come.
Mass and energy are also conserved in fusion reactions.
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For Dennis Phiri
Example
235 141
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 236
92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎
92
+ 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 10𝑛
Mass: of 235
92𝑈 = 235.04𝑢
of 141
56𝐵𝑎 = 140.91𝑢
of 92
36𝐾𝑟 = 91.91𝑢
of 10𝑛 = 1.01𝑢
33.0 RADIOACTIVITY
Nuclear Radiation
Types of radiation
Moving charged particles experience a force when they travel in a magnetic field that
is at right angles to their path.
The force acts mutually at right angles to the direction the particle is travelling and
the direction of the field so it takes a circular path.
The direction it will go in can be found using Flemings left hand rule.
Nuclear Reactions
A nucleus that has high mass and too many protons to be stable tends to undergo alpha
decay.
When alpha decay occurs a group of two protons and two neutrons (helium nucleus)
comes out of the nucleus.
The proton number decreases by 2 but the nucleon number decreases by 4.
The resulting daughter nucleus is of an element 2 positions to the left of the 'parent'
in the periodic table.
238 234 4
92U → 90Th + 2α
The above equation shows the radioactive decay of Uranium-238 by alpha emission.
Beta Decay
The above equation shows the radioactive decay of Carbon-14 by beta emission.
Gamma Emission
Sometimes, after its emission of an alpha or beta particle, the nucleus is still in an
excited state.
In order to get to a lower energy state it emits a quantum of energy in the form of a
gamma ray.
No matter is emitted from the nucleus therefore the nucleon number and the proton
number remain the same.
Before and after emission of the gamma ray they are the same isotope of the element
but they are different nuclide because the term nuclide incorporates nuclear energy
states as well basic structure.
Penetrating Properties
The penetrating power of nuclear radiation depends upon the ionising power of the
radiation.
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The radiation continues to penetrate matter until it has lost all of its energy.
Alpha particles:
Produce considerable ionisation because of their relatively slow speed and size.
They lose most of their energy over short distances and hence are least
penetrating.
They are absorbed by about 5 cm of air or a sheet of paper.
Beta particles:
Have an ionising power so low that they penetrate very deeply into matter
before most of the energy has been used up.
Their penetrating power is therefore very high (about 99.9% is absorbed by
500 m of air or 5 cm lead).
Gamma rays are pure energy - no charge and no mass - therefore their
interaction with matter is much less than the other two.
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑑𝑁
Hence, ∫ = ∫ −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
ln 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 + 𝑐
ln 𝑁 = −𝜆𝑡 + ln 𝑁0
ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁0 = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁
ln = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
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For Dennis Phiri
It is the time taken for half the nuclei of a radioactive nuclide present to disintegrate.
Half-lives vary widely from microseconds to millions of years!
Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.5 x 109 years (4,500,000,000 years) whereas
Polonium-212 only has a half-life of 3 x 10-7 seconds (0.000 000 3 seconds).
𝑁
Using 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , when 𝑡 = 𝑡1 , 𝑁 = 0
2 2
ln 2
Manipulating the equations leads to 𝑡1 =
2 𝜆
Uses of radioisotopes
(b) Explain why the readings are precise but not (b) The mean diameter of the wire is found to be
accurate. 0.50 ± 0.02mm. Calculate the percentage uncertainty in
[2] (i) the diameter,
(ii) the area of cross-section of the wire.
3. Nov 02 (Q1) [2]
(a) (i) Define density.
(ii) State the base units in which density is measured. 7. June 05 (Q1)
[2] Make estimates of the following quantities.
(a) the speed of sound in air
(b) The speed v of sound in a gas is given by the [1]
expression (b) the density of air at room temperature and pressure
[1]
γp
v= (c) the mass of a protractor
ρ [1]
where p is the pressure of the gas of density ρ. γ is a (d) the volume, in cm3, of the head of an adult person
constant. [1]
Given that p has the base units of kgm-1 s-2, show that
the constant γ has no unit. 8. Nov 05 (Q1)
[3] (a) (i) Define pressure.
[1]
4. Nov 02 (Q2) (ii) State the units of pressure in base units.
A student uses a metre rule to measure the length of an [1]
elastic band before and after stretching it. (b) The pressure p at a depth h in an incompressible
The lengths are recorded as fluid of density ρ is given by
length of band before stretching, Lo = 50.0 ± 0.1 cm p = ρgh,
length of band after stretching, Ls = 51.6 ± 0.1 cm. where g is the acceleration of free fall.
Determine Use base units to check the homogeneity of this
(a) the change in length (Ls − Lo), quoting your answer equation.
with its uncertainty, [1] ....................................................................
(b) the fractional change in length, [1] .[3]
(c) the uncertainty in your answer in (b). [3]
9. June 06 (Q1)
5. June 04 (Q1) (a) Derive the SI base unit of force.
(a) State the difference between a scalar quantity and a [1]
vector quantity. [2]
(b) Two forces of magnitude 6.0N and 8.0N act at a (b) A spherical ball of radius r experiences a resistive
point P. Both forces act away from point P and the angle force F due to the air as it moves through the air at
between them is 40°. speed v. The resistive force F is given by the expression
Fig. 1.1 shows two lines at an angle of 40° to one F = crv,
another. where c is a constant.
Derive the SI base unit of the constant c.
[1]
Kinematics
1. Nov 01(Q2)
A student determines the acceleration of free fall using 2. June 02 (Q4)
the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2.1. A steel ball of mass 73 g is held 1.6 m above a
horizontal steel plate, as illustrated in Fig. 4.1.
3. June 02 (Q5)
Some gas is contained in a cylinder by means of a
moveable piston, as illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
[2]
(b) the change in momentum of the ball, of mass 45 g,
State how, for this mass of gas, the following changes during contact of the ball with the surface,
may be achieved. [4]
(a) increase its gravitational potential energy
[1] (c) the average force acting on the ball during contact
(b) decrease its internal energy with the surface.
[1] [2]
(c) increase its elastic potential energy
[1]
5. Nov 02 (Q4)
(a) Explain what is meant by the concept of work.
[2]
(b) Just before impact with the plate, the ball of mass 35
g has speed 4.5ms-1. It bounces from the plate so that
its speed immediately after losing contact with the plate
is
3.5ms-1. The ball is in contact with the plate for 0.14 s.
Calculate, for the time that the ball is in contact with the
plate,
(i) the average force, in addition to the weight of the ball,
that the plate exerts on the ball, [4]
(ii) the loss in kinetic energy of the ball. [2]
8. June 04(Q5)
Two forces, each of magnitude F, form a couple acting
on the edge of a disc of radius r, as shown in Fig. 5.1.
9. Nov 04 (Q3)
A girl stands at the top of a cliff and throws a ball
vertically upwards with a speed of 12ms-1, as illustrated
in Fig. 3.1.
At the time that the girl throws the ball, her hand is a
height h above the horizontal ground at the base of the
cliff.
The variation with time t of the speed v of the ball is
shown in Fig. 3.2.
(ii) Show that the initial speed of the block and the bullet,
after they began to move off together, was 1.3ms-1.
[1]
[3]
not constant.
[2]
[1]
(c) Name the feature of Fig. 2.2 that indicates the Deformation of Solids
presence of
(i) random error, 1. Nov 01 (Q5)
[1] In the following list of solids, underline those materials
(ii) systematic error. which are crystalline.
[1] rubber copper nylon glass aluminium
[2]
17. Nov 06 (Q3) (b) The three graphs A, B and C of Fig. 5.1 represent
Francium-208 is radioactive and emits α-particles with a the variation with extension x of the tension F in
kinetic energy of 1.07 × 10-12 J to form nuclei of astatine, specimens of three different materials. One of the
as illustrated in Fig. 3.1. materials is polymeric, one is brittle and the other is
ductile. They are not shown in that order in Fig. 5.1.
For Dennis Phiri
The wire is straight but not under tension and the length
between the supports is 0.62 m. The wire is then
allowed to cool to 300 K.
When the wire is allowed to contract freely, a 1.00 m
length of the wire decreases in length by 0.012 mm for
(i) State the type of material which would produce the every 1K decrease in temperature.
line shown in each graph. (i) Show that the change in length of the wire, if it were
[2] allowed to contract as it cools from 650 K to 300 K,
(ii) Use graph B to estimate the work done in stretching would be 2.6 mm.
the specimen from 0 to 4 mm. [2]
[3] (ii) The Young modulus of steel is 2.0 × 1011 Pa.
Calculate the tension in the wire at 300 K, assuming that
2. Nov 02 (Q9) the wire obeys Hooke’s law.
An aluminium wire of length 1.8 m and area of cross- [2]
section 1.7 × 10−6m2 has one end fixed to a rigid (iii) The ultimate tensile stress of steel is 250MPa. Use
support. A small weight hangs from the free end, as this information and your answer in (ii) to suggest
illustrated in Fig. 9.1. whether the wire will, in practice, break as it cools.
[3]
4. June 05 (Q4)
A glass fibre of length 0.24m and area of cross-section
7.9 x 10-7 m2 is tested until it breaks.
The variation with load F of the extension x of the fibre is
shown in Fig. 4.1.
(iii) the maximum strain energy stored in the fibre before 6. Nov 06 (Q5)
it breaks. (a) Distinguish between the structure of a metal and of a
[2] polymer. [4]
(b) Latex is a natural form of rubber. It is a polymeric
material.
(c) A hard ball and a soft ball, with equal masses and (i) Describe the properties of a sample of latex.
volumes, are thrown at a glass window. The balls hit the [2]
window at the same speed. Suggest why the hard ball is
more likely than the soft ball to break the glass window.
[3]
5. June 06(5) (ii) The process of heating latex with a small amount of
Fig. 5.1 shows the variation with force F of the extension sulphur creates cross-links between molecules. Natural
x of a spring as the force is increased to F3 and then latex has very few cross-links between its molecules.
decreased to zero. Suggest how this process changes the properties of
latex.
........................................................................................[
2].
7. Nov 06 (Q6)
A straight wire of unstretched length L has an electrical
resistance R. When it is stretched by a force F, the wire
extends by an amount ΔL and the resistance increases
by ΔR. The area of cross-section A of the wire may be
assumed to remain constant.
The initial height of the stone above the level of the sea
is 16 m. Air resistance may be neglected.
(i) Calculate the change in gravitational potential energy
of the stone as a result of falling through 16 m.
[2]
When the trolley is in equilibrium, the springs are each (ii) Calculate the total kinetic energy of the stone as it
extended by 4.5 cm. Each spring has a spring constant reaches the sea.
16Ncm-1. [3]
The trolley is moved a distance of 1.5 cm along the
direction of the springs. This causes the extension of (b) Use your answer in (a)(ii) to show that the speed of
one spring to be increased and the extension of the the stone as it hits the water is approximately 25 m s-1.
other spring to be decreased. The trolley is then [1]
released. The trolley accelerates and reaches its
maximum speed at the equilibrium position. (c) State the horizontal velocity of the stone as it hits the
Assuming that the springs obey Hooke’s law, use the water.
expression in (b) to determine the maximum speed of [1]
the trolley.
[4] (d) (i) On the grid of Fig. 4.2, draw a vector diagram to
For Dennis Phiri
Electric Fields
1. June 02 (Q6)
Two horizontal metal plates are situated 1.2 cm apart,
as illustrated in Fig. 6.1.
3. June 05 (Q6)
Two parallel metal plates P and Q are situated 8.0 cm
apart in air, as shown in Fig. 6.1.
6. June 07 (Q2)
(a) Define electric field strength.
[1]
(b) Two flat parallel metal plates, each of length 12.0 (a) On Fig. 1.1,
cm, are separated by a distance of 1.5 cm, as shown in (i) calibrate the scale at 20 × 103 cm3 intervals,
Fig. 2.1. [2]
(ii) mark a possible position for a volume of 1.0 × 105
cm3.
[1]
(b) Suggest one advantage of this scale, as compared
with a uniform scale, for measuring fuel volumes in the
tank of the car.
[1
The space between the plates is a vacuum.
The potential difference between the plates is 210 V.
The electric field may be assumed to be uniform in the
region between the plates and zero outside this region.
Calculate the magnitude of the electric field strength
DC Current
between the plates. [1] 1. Nov 01 (Q7)
(a) A student has been asked to make an electric
(c) An electron initially travels parallel to the plates along heater. The heater is to be rated as 12 V 60W, and is to
a line mid-way between the plates, as shown in Fig. 2.1. be constructed of wire of diameter 0.54 mm. The
The speed of the electron is 5.0 × 107 m s-1. material of the wire has resistivity 4.9 x 10–7Ωm.
For the electron between the plates, (i) Show that the resistance of the heater will be 2.4Ω.
(i) determine the magnitude and direction of its [2]
acceleration, [4] (ii) Calculate the length of wire required for the heater.
(ii) calculate the time for the electron to travel a [3]
horizontal distance equal to the length of the plates.
[1] (b) Two cells of e.m.f. E1 and E2 are connected to
resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3 as shown in Fig.
(d) Use your answers in (c) to determine whether the 7.1.
electron will hit one of the plates or emerge from
between the plates.
[3]
For Dennis Phiri
5. June 04 (Q8)
A thermistor has resistance 3900Ω at 0 °C and
resistance 1250Ω at 30 °C. The thermistor is connected
into the circuit of Fig. 8.1 in order to monitor temperature
changes.
The power dissipation in the 100Ω resistor is 0.81W.
Calculate
(i) the current in the circuit,
(ii) the power dissipation in each of the 25Ω resistors.
[4]
3. Nov 02 (Q7)
A student set up the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1.
The battery of e.m.f. 1.50V has negligible internal
resistance and the voltmeter has infinite resistance.
(a) The voltmeter is to read 1.00V at 0 °C. Show that the
resistance of resistor R is 7800Ω. [2]
For Dennis Phiri
(a) Identify the faulty lamp, and the nature of the fault.
[2]
9. June 06(Q7)
A circuit contains three similar lamps A, B and C. The
circuit also contains three switches, S1, S2 and S3, as
shown in Fig. 7.1.
For Dennis Phiri
Forces
The cells are connected to resistors of resistance R1, R2
and R3 and the currents in the branches of the circuit are 1. Nov 01(Q1)
I1, I2 and I3, as shown. Distinguish between the mass of a body and its weight.
(i) Use Kirchhoff’s first law to write down an expression [4]
relating I1, I2 and I3. [1]
(ii) Use Kirchhoff’s second law to write down an 2. Nov 01 (Q3)
expression relating (a) State the two conditions necessary for the
1. E2, R2, R3, I2 and I3 in the loop XBCYX, [1] equilibrium of a body which is acted upon by a number
2. E1, E2, R1, R2, I1 and I2 in the loop AXYDA. [1] of forces. [2]
The lid is held open by means of a horizontal cord A rod AB is hinged to a wall at A. The rod is held
attached to the edge F of the lid. The centre of gravity of horizontally by means of a cord BD, attached to the rod
the lid is at point C. On Fig. 3.2 draw at end B and to the wall at D, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
(i) an arrow, labelled W, to represent the weight of the
lid,
(ii) an arrow, labelled T, to represent the tension in the
cord acting on the lid,
(iii) an arrow, labelled R, to represent the force of the
hinge on the lid. [3]
3. June 02 (Q3)
(a) Explain what is meant by the centre of gravity of an
object. [2]
5. June 06 (Q2)
For Dennis Phiri
5. June 05 (Q8)
For Dennis Phiri
Phases of Matter
1. Nov 01 (Q4)
A sphere has volume V and is made of metal of density
ρ.
(a) Write down an expression for the mass m of the
sphere in terms of V and ρ.
[1]
7. June 07 (Q7)
The radioactive decay of a strontium (Sr) nucleus is
represented in Fig. 7.1.
Waves, Suspension
1. Nov 01(Q6)
Light of frequency 4.8 x 1014 Hz is incident normally on
a double slit, as illustrated in Fig. 6.1.
4. June 07 (Q3)
(a) Define density.
[1] Each slit of the double slit arrangement is 0.10 mm wide
and the slits are separated by 1.5 mm. The pattern of
(b) Liquid of density ρ fills a container to a depth h, as fringes produced is observed on a screen at a distance
illustrated in Fig. 3.1. 2.6m from the double slit.
The container has vertical sides and a base of area A. (c) The intensity of the light incident on the double slit is
(i) State, in terms of A, h and ρ, the mass of liquid in the increased. State the effect, if any, on the separation and
container. [1] on the appearance of the fringes. [3]
(ii) Hence derive an expression for the pressure p
exerted by the liquid on the base of the container. 2. June 02(Q7)
Explain your working. Figs. 7.1(a) and (b) show plane wavefronts approaching
[2] a narrow gap and a wide gap respectively.
4. June04 (Q2)
Fig. 2.1 shows the variation with distance x along a
wave of its displacement d at a particular time.
The diffraction grating is situated at the centre of a
circular scale, marked in degrees.
The readings on the scale for the second order
diffracted beams are 136° and 162°.
The wavelength of the laser light is 630 nm.
Calculate the spacing of the slits of the diffraction
grating.
[4]
(c) Suggest one reason why the fringe pattern produced
by light passing through a diffraction grating is brighter
than that produced from the same source with a double
slit.
[1]
3. Nov 02 (Q5)
The variation with time t of the displacement x of a point
in a transverse wave T1 is shown in Fig. 5.1.
of 330ms-1.
(a) (i) Use Fig. 2.1 to determine the wavelength of the
wave.
(ii) Hence calculate the frequency of the wave.
[3]
6. Nov 04 (Q2)
The spectrum of electromagnetic waves is divided into a
number of regions such as radio waves, visible light and
gamma radiation.
8. June 05 (Q5)
(a) Explain what is meant by the diffraction of a wave.
[2]
For Dennis Phiri
9. Nov 05 (Q5)
Fig. 5.1 shows the variation with time t of the
displacements xA and xB at a point P of two sound
waves A and B.
A loud sound is first heard when the water level is as
shown in Fig. 6.1, and then again when the water level
is as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Fig. 6.1 illustrates the stationary wave produced in the
tube.
(a) On Fig. 6.2,
(i) sketch the form of the stationary wave set up in the
tube,
[1]
(ii) mark, with the letter N, the positions of any nodes of
the stationary wave.
[1]
(c) The length of the column of air in the tube in Fig. 6.1
is 15.7 cm.
(a) By reference to Fig. 5.1, state one similarity and one Suggest where the antinode of the stationary wave
difference between these two waves. [2] produced in the tube in Fig. 6.1 is likely to be found.
(b) State, with a reason, whether the two waves are [2]
coherent. [1]
For Dennis Phiri
Triangle of vectors If two vectors are represented in size and direction by the consecutive sides (nose to
tail) of a triangle drawn to scale, then the third side represents the resultant vector in
size and direction
Resultant vector a single vector that has the same effect as all the vectors present
2. Measurement
Systematic errors All measurements taken are faulty in one direction
Accuracy is not improved by taking more readings
Random errors Result in a scatter of readings about a mean value
Accuracy is improved by taking an average of several readings
Combining errors 1. ADDING & SUBTRACTING – add absolute errors
2. MULTIPLYING & DIVIDING – add % error
3. POWERS – multiply % errors by the power
Accuracy A measure of the fractional uncertainty in a measurement
An accurate experiment has a small systematic error
Precision A precise experiment has a small random error
A measure of the size of the smallest measurement that can be made
with an instrument
e.g. 1.0 mm with a metre rule, 0.1 mm with a vernier callipers, 0.01
mm with a micrometer
3. Kinematics
Displacement The length of the path between two points in a straight line, a
vector
Speed Rate of change of distance, a scalar
Velocity Rate of change of displacement, a vector
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity, a vector
Gradient of a displacement-time velocity
graph
Gradient of a velocity-time graph acceleration
Area under a velocity-time graph displacement or distance moved
Area under an acceleration-time change in velocity
graph
Equations of motion v = u + at v 2 = u 2+ 2 a s
s
= ½ (u + v) s = ut + ½ a t 2
t
Projectile motion The vertical and horizontal motions are independent of each other.
There is acceleration in the vertical direction as gravity acts
downwards.
No horizontal acceleration if friction is ignored.
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4. Dynamics
Newton’s first law All bodies remains at rest or continues with uniform motion
in a straight line unless an unbalanced force acts on it.
Newton’s second law The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the unbalanced force on the body and takes place in the direction of
the force
Newton’s third law If one body exerts a force on a second body then the
second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body.
Resultant force A single force that represents the combined effect of all the
forces present in a given situation
Newton’s second law mv mu
formula F= = ma (for a constant mass)
t
F = mass per second x velocity change (for a changing
mass)
Momentum The product of mass and velocity.
p = mv a vector, units: kg ms-1
One Newton The force which gives a mass of 1kg an acceleration
of 1ms-2
Impulse The change in momentum, or
product of force and time, Units N s
Mass A measure of the inertia of a body
Weight The force of gravity on a mass
Area under a force- Impulse or change in momentum
time graph
Principle of In a system of interacting (e.g. colliding) bodies the total
conservation of linear momentum remains constant if no external forces
momentum are acting
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
Collisions and In an elastic collision KE is always conserved,
momentum in an inelastic collision KE is not conserved.
Momentum is conserved in all collisions
Relative velocity rule In an elastic collision the relative speed of approach
equals the relative speed of separation
i.e. u1 - u2 = - (v1 – v2)
5. Forces
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Internal energy The sum of the KE and PE possessed by all the particles in that
system
Power Rate of doing work or rate of energy transferred. Unit: watt
Power and velocity P = Fv where P = power required to move a steady force F at speed v
Efficiency Ratio of energy output to energy input, or
ratio of power output to input power
7. Electric Fields
Electric field A region of space where a charge experiences a force
Electric field strength The force per unit positive charge at a point in the field
F
E= where F = electric field strength where the charge
q
+q is placed and F = force on the charge +q
Field lines Lines which positive test charges follow in an electric field
Equipotential A line joining points of equal potential
Field strength of a uniform field V
E=- where V = pd between the plates,
d
d = separation of plates
minus sign shows that field lines are from positive to the
negative plate while the potential increases from the negative to the
positive plate
8. Current of Electricity.
Electric current Rate of flow of charge.
Q
I = where I = current (A), Q = charge (C), t = time (s)
t
Coulomb The amount of charge that passes appoint in a circuit when
a current of 1 ampere flows for 1 second. 1 C = 1 A x 1 s
Ampere The current in two infinitely long straight wires 1 m apart
in a vacuum which produces a force of 2 x 10 -7 N m-1 on
each wire.
Potential difference The electrical energy converted into other forms of energy when 1 C of charge
(p.d). passes from one point to another.
W
V= where W = energy transferred (J), Q = charge (C)
Q
Volt The p.d. between two points in a circuit when 1 J of
electrical energy is transferred for each coulomb of charge
1 V = 1 J C-1
Resistance The ratio of the p.d. across a conductor to the current
passing through it.
V
R=
I
Ohm 1 Ω = 1 V A-1
Ohm’s Law The current through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the p.d. across its
ends, provided the temperature and other physical conditions are constant.
Power The rate at which energy is converted from one form to another.
P=IV unit: watt (W)
Kilowatt hour The electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW device in 1 hour
Resistivity The resistance of a material per unit length and cross sectional area.
R A
ρ= unit : Ω m
l
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For Dennis Phiri
Emf The emf of a source is the electrical energy produced per coulomb of charge
passing through the source.
W
E= where W = energy transferred (J), Q = charge (C)
Q
Maximum power A given source of emf delivers the maximum amount of power to a load when the
theorem resistance of the load equals to the internal of the source.
9. D.C. Circuits.
Kirchhoff’s laws At a junction in a circuit, the current arriving equals the current leaving.
(ΣI=0)
Around any closed loop in a circuit, the sum of the emf’s is equal to the
sum of the p.d.’s. ( Σ E = Σ I R )
Resistors in series RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors in parallel 1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3
13. Waves
Progressive wave The movement of a disturbance from a source which transfers energy
and momentum from the source to places around it.
Wavefront A line or surface on which the disturbance has the same phase at all
points.
A ray A line which represents the direction of travel of a wave.
Displacement The vector distance a particle is moved from its rest position.
Amplitude The maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position.
Wavelength The distance from one particle to the next particle in phase with it, e.g.
distance between adjacent crests or troughs.
Period The time for one complete oscillation, or time taken for a wave to travel
one wavelength.
Frequency The number of oscillations per unit time made by a particle,
or the number of wavelengths that pass a fixed point in one second.
Wave speed v=fλ
Phase of a point in a wave A measure of the fraction of a complete wave cycle the point has
completed from a chosen start position.
Phase difference between two The fraction of a cycle by which one wave moves behind the other.
particles along a wave x x
phase difference φ = x 2 П radians or φ = x 360°
λ λ
Intensity of a wave The power passing through unit area at right angles to the direction of
propagation. Units : W m-2
Intensity α (amplitude)2
Transverse wave Particle vibration is at right angles to the direction of wave motion
Longitudinal wave Particle vibration is parallel to the direction in which the wave is
travelling
14. Superposition
The principle of Wherever two or more waves meet, the total displacement at any point is equal to
superposition the sum of the individual displacements at that point.
Stationary waves Result from the superposition of two waves of the same speed, frequency and
amplitude which travel in opposite directions
Stationary waves consist of nodes or points of zero displacement and antinodes or
points of maximum displacement. NN =λ/2 = AA and NA = λ/4
Huygens’ principle Each point on a wavefront becomes a new centre of disturbance and emits
wavelets in the forward direction.
The new wavefront is the surface which touches all the wavelets.
Diffraction The result of superposing waves from coherent sources on the same wavefront
after the wave has been distorted by an obstacle.
The smaller the width of the gap in relation to the wavelength, the greater the
diffraction
Interference The superposition of waves from a finite number of coherent sources.
Interference conditions Sources S1 and S2 must have the same wavelength and be coherent.
Coherent sources Those which emit waves of the same wavelength or frequency which have a
constant phase difference.
Constructive interference The waves arrive at a point Q in phase.
For a bright fringe at Q: S2 - S1 Q = n λ
(where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,….)
The path difference between the waves is zero or a whole number of wavelengths.
Destructive interference The waves arrive at a point Q out of phase by half a cycle.
For a dark fringe at Q, S2 Q - S1 Q = ( n + ½ ) λ
(where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….)
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The path difference between the waves is a whole number of wavelengths plus a
half a wavelength.