Why do the planets in the solar system

orbit on the same plane?

By JoAnna Wendel 5 days ago

To answer this question, we have to go back in time.

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Artwork showing the planets orbiting the sun (from inner to outer): Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. (Image credit: Mark Garlick/science Photo Library via Getty Images)
If you've ever gazed at a model of the solar system, you've likely noticed that the
sun, planets, moons and asteroids sit roughly on the same plane. But why is
that?

To answer this question, we have to travel to the very beginning of the solar
system, about 4.5 billion years ago.

Back then, the solar system was just a massive, spinning cloud of dust and gas,
Nader Haghighipour, an astronomer at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, told
Live Science. That massive cloud measured 12,000 astronomical units (AU)
across; 1 AU is the average distance between Earth and the sun, or about 93
million miles (150 million kilometers). That cloud became so big, that even though
it was just filled with dust and gas molecules, the cloud itself started to collapse
and shrink under its own mass, Haghighipour said.

Related: Why are galaxies different shapes?

How Much Would You Weigh on Other Planets?

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As the spinning cloud of dust and gas started to collapse, it also flattened.
Imagine a pizza maker throwing a spinning slab of dough into the air. As it spins,
the dough expands but becomes increasingly thin and flat. That's what happened
to the very early solar system.

Meanwhile, in the center of this ever-flattening cloud, all those gas molecules got
squeezed together so much, they heated up, Haghighipour said. Under the
immense heat and pressure, hydrogen and helium atoms fused and kick-started
a billions-of-years-long nuclear reaction in the form of a baby star: the sun. Over
the next 50 million years, the sun continued to grow, collecting gas and dust from
its surroundings and burping out waves of intense heat and radiation. Slowly, the
growing sun cleared out a doughnut of empty space around it.

As the sun grew, the cloud continued to collapse, forming "a disk around the star
[that] becomes flatter and flatter and expands and expands with the sun at the
center," Haghighipour said.
Eventually, the cloud became a flat structure called a protoplanetary disk, orbiting
the young star. The disk stretched hundreds of AU across and was just one-tenth
of that distance thick, Haghighipour said.

For tens of millions of years thereafter, the dust particles in the protoplanetary
disk gently swirled around, occasionally knocking into each other. Some even
stuck together. And over those millions of years, those particles became
millimeter-long grains, and those grains became centimeter-long pebbles, and the
pebbles continued to collide and stick together.

RELATED MYSTERIES

—How long is a galactic year?

—How massive is the Milky Way?

—Do other planets have solar eclipses?

Eventually, most of the material in the protoplanetary disk stuck together to form
huge objects. Some of those objects grew so big that gravity shaped them into
spherical planets, dwarf planets and moons. Other objects became irregularly
shaped, like asteroids, comets and some small moons.
Despite these objects' different sizes, they stayed more or less on the same
plane, where their building materials originated. That's why, even today, the solar
system's eight planets and other celestial bodies orbit on roughly the same level.

Originally published on Live Science.

Treasure hunter finds gold hoard buried by

Iron Age chieftain
By Laura Geggel 2 days ago

The stash might have links to the Norse god Odin.

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The sixth-century hoard contained many gold artifacts with elaborate designs. (Image credit: Conservation
Center Vejle)

An amateur treasure hunter wielding a metal detector has discovered a stunning

gold hoard buried by an Iron Age chieftain in the sixth century in what is now
Denmark. The stash includes lavish jewelry, Roman coins and an ornament that
may depict a Norse god.

The treasure hunter, Ole Ginnerup Schytz, uncovered the Iron Age hoard on land
owned by one of his former classmates in the town of Vindelev, earning the stash
the name "Vindelev hoard." Within a few hours of surveying the area with his
newly acquired metal detector, Schytz heard the telltale beeping of possible
treasure. It turned out to be one of the "largest, richest and most beautiful gold
treasures in Danish history," representatives of Vejle Museums said in a
statement released Sept. 9.
The 1,500-year-old hoard contains nearly 2.2 pounds (1 kilogram) of gold,
including large, saucer-sized medallions known as bracteates. An excavation of
the site by archaeologists from Vejle Museums, in collaboration with the National
Museum of Denmark, revealed that the gold valuables were buried in a
longhouse, which may indicate that Vindelev was a powerful village during the
Iron Age.

Related: Photos: Gold, amber and bronze treasures found in Iron Age grave

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A high-status person at the time likely buried the hoard, the archaeologists
surmised. "Only a member of the absolute cream of society would have been
able to collect a treasure like the one found here," Mads Ravn, head of research
at Vejle Museums, said in the statement.
The town of Vindelev is about 5 miles (8 kilometers) from Jelling, a cultural
hotspot where the first monarchs ruled when they united (or reunited) the country
in the 10th century. Until now, "there was nothing that indicated that a previously
unknown warlord or chieftain lived here [in Vindelev], long before the kingdom of
Denmark arose in the following centuries," Ravn added.

However, it appears that the chieftain who owned this hoard managed to garner
wealth and attract skilled artisans who crafted the treasures.

Bracteate with the face of a man, a horse and runes. (Image credit: Conservation Center Vejle)

The hoard contains several bracteates, as well as Roman coins molded into
jewelry using a unique technique that hadn't been seen before, the archaeologists
noted. Some of the gold artifacts' motifs and runic inscriptions likely reference
contemporary rulers, but others may refer to Norse mythology. For instance, one
bracteate shows a man with braided hair surrounded by images of a horse, bird
and another man — as well as runes (ancient or mysterious letters) that may
translate to "houaʀ" or "the high one."

It's possible that "the high one" refers to a ruler, perhaps even the chieftain who
buried the hoard. But according to later Norse mythology, this term is associated
with the deity Odin, the archaeologists said.

The hoard also has older coins from the Roman Empire, including a heavy gold
coin depicting Constantine the Great (A.D. 272-337), the first Roman emperor to
convert to Christianity.

Image 1 of 6
A golden piece of jewelry from the hoard. (Image credit: Conservation Center Vejle)
One of the bracteates from the hoard. (Image credit: Conservation Center Vejle)
A gold artifact from the hoard. (Image credit: Conservation Center Vejle)
Curators carefully placed the hoard's contents in boxes. (Image credit: Vejle Museums)
A researcher examines one of the saucer-sized bracteates. (Image credit: Vejle Museums)
The various gold treasures from the hoard. (Image credit: Vejle Museums)
Volcanic catastrophe

That chieftain could have buried the stash in the wake of a large volcanic eruption
that rocked Europe in A.D. 536, when it sent a cloud of sulfate and ash into the
atmosphere that blocked sunlight and lowered temperatures in the Northern
Hemisphere. It's unclear where the volcano was located, but its eruption can
likely be blamed for the famine, pandemics and socioeconomic decline that
followed, a 2015 study in the journal Nature found.

RELATED CONTENT

—Photos: Gilded Bronze Age weaponry from Scotland

—Photos: Roman-era silver jewelry and coins discovered in Scotland

—In photos: Boneyard of Iron Age warriors

In the years following the eruption, many people in Scandinavia buried hoards,
possibly to protect them from enemies or to appease the gods, according to Vejle
Museums. In fact, more than 88 pounds (40 kg) of gold buried during the Iron Age
has been found in Denmark, museum representatives said.
 The Vindelev hoard will go on display in Vejle Museums' Viking exhibition, which
opens Feb. 3, 2022. The exhibition, a collaboration with Denmark's Moesgaard
Museum, will delve into the story of Harald Bluetooth's Eastern connections and
alliances, and explain how the early Danish kingdom laid the foundation for the
Jelling dynasty.

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Originally published on Live Science.

https://www.livescience.com/gold-hoard-sixth-century-denmark

Ötzi the Iceman: The famous frozen

mummy
By Tom Garlinghouse 7 days ago

Ötzi's discovery ranks as one of the greatest archaeological

finds of the 20th century.

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A facial reconstruction of Ötzi the Iceman. (Image credit: Reconstruction by Kennis © South Tyrol
Museum of Archaeology, Foto Ochsenreiter)

Jump to:
● Discovery
● Who was Ötzi?
● How he died
● Additional resources
Ötzi the Iceman is the well-preserved, 5,300-year-old mummy that caused
an international sensation when it was dug out of a glacier high in the
Italian Alps in 1991.

Since that time, the naturally mummified individual — whom the press
named Ötzi because he was found in the mountains above the Ötztal Valley
— has continued to attract intense public interest and professional scrutiny
as the man's mummified remains, the clothes he wore and the implements
he carried have been studied over the past few decades.

Related: Frozen mammoths, bog men and tar wolves: Ways nature preserves
prehistoric creatures

Indeed, Ötzi's discovery ranks as one of the greatest archaeological finds of

the 20th century.

"He is so important because, for the first time, we have the possibility of
knowing a Copper Age individual who died in the same situation as he had
lived," said Katharina Hersel, a spokesperson for the South Tyrol Museum
of Archaeology in Bolzano, Italy, where Ötzi is housed.

But the story of his discovery, as with many archaeological finds, is a tale
of knowledge gained in small increments. Ötzi has yielded his secrets
slowly, through patient and detailed analysis over time.
5,300-year-old "Iceman" Has Gut Probed

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HOW WAS ÖTZI FOUND?

Ötzi the Iceman was found by two German hikers who were making their
way across the Tisenjoch Pass at an elevation of 10,530 feet (3,210 meters)
above the Ötztal Valley in western Austria in September 1991. The hikers
were skirting a glacier on the border of Austria and Italy when they noticed
the upper part of a human body protruding from the ice.

"The mummy was found lying outstretched on his stomach," Hersel said.
"The left arm was strongly angled to the right and lay under the chin."
That summer had been particularly warm, Hersel said, and the high
temperatures aided in exposing Ötzi's remains. "There had been a warm
Sahara wind that brought sand to the glacier in which Ötzi was stuck," she
said. "So it was not pure white but covered with red sand and melted even
quicker."

Related: Frozen in time: 5 prehistoric creatures found trapped in ice

The German hikers alerted the Austrian authorities, who, at first, thought
the body was the victim of an unfortunate mountaineering accident. This
assumption prompted a hasty attempt to extract the body from the ice the
following day. The rescuers, none of them trained archaeologists, tried to
dig Ötzi out of the ice using axes and jackhammers. In the process, parts of
the mummy — including the left hip and thigh and a few of his tools,
including his bow — were damaged, Smithsonian Magazine reported.

Bad weather scuttled this first attempt to free the body from the ice, so the
authorities tried again the next day. The rescue attempt took longer than
anticipated, but five days after Ötzi's discovery, the mummy was freed from
the ice and fully exposed.

A helicopter carried the mummy off the mountain, and the iceman was
transported to the Institute of Forensic Medicine at Innsbruck Medical
University in Austria. There, Konrad Spindler, an archaeologist at the
University of Innsbruck, examined the remains and announced that the
mummy was not a mountaineer but was "at least 4,000 years old," Scientific
American reported.
A view of the Ötzal Alps glaciers, where hikers stumbled upon Ötzi's mummy hidden in the ice.
(Image credit: Andrea Fischer)

The ice had preserved the body through a process of natural

mummification. This process involves preserving organic tissue without
the aid of human intervention, such as is the case with some ancient
Egyptian mummification, or deliberately applied chemicals. In addition to
extremely cold environments, natural mummification can occur in arid
environments or places that are devoid of oxygen, such as bogs and
swamps.

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A subsequent radiocarbon analysis performed on Ötzi's tissues found that
he was even older than 4,000 years. Radiocarbon dating — which measures
carbon 14, an isotope, or version of carbon — determined that the iceman
was about 5,300 years old, dating to 3300 B.C. This meant that Ötzi lived
during the era of history known as the Copper Age, the transition period
between the Neolithic, or the "New Stone Age," and the latter Bronze Age.

The Copper Age (3500 B.C. to 1700 B.C.), also known as the Chalcolithic
period, represents the time when the populations of what is now Europe
began to make widespread use of metals while still using stone tools but
had not yet smelted copper and tin to make bronze. It was also a time when
the first complex social hierarchies developed and populations began to
erect large, monumental structures made of stone — the famous megalithic
tombs, standing stones and dolmens of Europe.

Once excavated, Ötzi was initially housed at the Institute of Forensic

Medicine at Innsbruck Medical University in Austria. But when researchers
learned that the mummy had been found on the Italian side of the Alps, 100
feet (30 m) from the Austrian border, the Italian government claimed the
remains, Smithsonian Magazine reported. Austria agreed, and six years
later, Ötzi was transferred to the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology.
There, he is housed in a special "cold cell," which is kept at a constant 20.3
degrees Fahrenheit (minus 6.5 degrees Celsius) and can be viewed through
a small window. His artifacts and clothing are also on display.
The mummy of Ötzi the Iceman after being extracted from the ice thousands of years after his death.
(Image credit: © South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology.)
 WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT ÖTZI

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Since his discovery, Ötzi has undergone extensive scientific analyses,

which have broadened our understanding of what Ötzi's life was like and
how he died, as well as revealed more about the time period in which he
lived.

The initial analyses focused on the Iceman's physical characteristics. Ötzi

would have stood about 5 feet, 3 inches (1.60 m) tall and weighed around
110 pounds (50 kilograms), Live Science previously reported. From the low
levels of subcutaneous fat on his body, researchers concluded that Ötzi
had a lean, wiry build. An analysis of the osteons (microscopic structures
in bone that are frequently used to determine the age of a skeleton) in his
femur indicated that he was in his 40s when he died.

"Ötzi was fit but not completely healthy," said Hersel. Analyses
demonstrated that he suffered from several ailments, including Lyme
disease and intestinal parasites. Microscopic analysis of his stomach found
evidence of Helicobacter pylori, a bacterium that causes stomach ulcers
and gastritis, Live Science previously reported. He also has extensive wear
on his teeth, and his joints — especially his hips, shoulder, knees and spine
— showed signs of significant wear and tear, suggesting he suffered from
arthritis. Moreover, his lungs were coated with soot, indicating that he likely
spent a lot of time around open fires during his life. He even had signs of
tooth decay, gum disease and dental trauma, Live Science previously
reported.

DNA analyses have also untangled Ötzi's complex genome. The findings
indicate that he is not related to the current populations of continental
Europe but shares genetic affinity with the inhabitants of the islands of
Sardinia and Corsica. A 2012 paper published in the journal Nature
Communications also revealed that he probably had brown eyes, had type
O blood and was lactose intolerant. His genetic predisposition shows an
increased risk for coronary heart disease, which may have contributed to
the development of calcifications (hardened plaques) around his carotid
artery, Live Science previously reported.
Researchers examining Ötzi's mummy. (Image credit: South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology\Eurac\M.
Samadelli)

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Isotopic analysis, which quantifies isotopes — or different forms of the

same element, such as carbon 12 and carbon 13 — was used to determine
Ötzi's place of origin and reconstruct specific aspects of his diet, including
what he ate before he died. Isotopes are ingested in the foods organisms
eat and then stored in bones, teeth and other tissues. "Everything points to
an origin from the southern side of the Alps," Hersel said.

His last meal included wild meat from ibex and red deer, cereals from
einkorn wheat and — strangely enough — poisonous fern, which may have
served as a "plastic wrap" to hold his food, or maybe was used as a
treatment for his intestinal parasites, Live Science previously reported.

Detailed analyses of Ötzi's artifacts have also revealed much about the
ancient man's life and times. Scattered bits of leather, plant fiber, animal
hide, string, his ax and an unfinished bow were found near him when he
was first dug out of the ice. Later archaeological excavations at the site,
conducted in the fall of 1991 and the summer of 1992, uncovered additional
artifacts, including more hide, leather, a knife, an arrow quiver and pieces
of Ötzi's clothing. In fact, archaeologists were able to reconstruct the
iceman's wardrobe, which consisted of a cloak, leggings, a belt, a loincloth,
a bearskin cap and even shoes. The latter were made out of deer hide
stretched on a string netting and were insulated with grass. Archaeologists
also found a leather pouch containing a tinder fungus, a scraper, a boring
tool, a bone awl and a flint flake.
Ötzi sported 61 tattoos, in the shape of parallel lines and crosses, that
adorned his rib cage, lower back, wrists, ankles, knees and calves, Live
Science previously reported. Unlike modern tattoos, these were not made
with a needle; instead, fine incisions were made on his skin, and the
resulting wound was filled with charcoal. Researchers do not think the
tattoos were decorative; rather, they might have served a little-understood
therapeutic or medical purpose, perhaps a form of primitive acupuncture.

Close up images of some of Ötzi's tattoos. (Image credit: © Marco Samadelli)

 HOW DID ÖTZI DIE?

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Perhaps the greatest mystery surrounding Ötzi is the circumstance of his

death. When he was first recovered from the ice, experts thought Ötzi was
the victim of a mountaineering accident. Researchers speculated as to
whether he had fallen into a crevasse, died of exposure to the elements or
had simply lost his footing on the treacherous ice and tumbled to his death.
However, in 2012, a detailed analysis of Ötzi's body revealed that he was
likely murdered, Live Science previously reported.

Ötzi sustained two significant injuries — one to his shoulder and one to his
head. The first injury consisted of a flint arrowhead embedded in his left
shoulder, a detail that was picked up during an X-ray originally conducted
in 2001, as reported by Scientific American. The second injury was a severe
head wound, possibly from a blunt object. At first, researchers debated
which injury might have caused his death. But a 2012 study published in
the Journal of the Royal Society Interface revealed that the arrow was the
main cause of death.

"The arrowhead pierced through the left shoulder blade and injured an
important artery, the subclavian artery, under the collarbone," Hersel said.

Related: Ötzi the iceman had just sharpened his tools the day before his murder
It's possible that Ötzi bled to death within a matter of minutes, Hersel said.
Moreover, the study found that his red blood cells, surprisingly intact after
5,000 years, showed traces of a clotting protein that quickly appears in
human blood immediately after a wound but disappears soon after,
suggesting that Ötzi didn't survive the wound.

Researchers now think that Ötzi was likely ambushed and that the arrow —
shot by an unknown assailant — struck his back and killed him. It's
possible that he suffered the head wound at the same time as the arrow
wound or afterward, Live Science previously reported. Why he was killed,
however, remains a mystery.

Three decades after his discovery, Ötzi continues to fascinate. The mummy
provides a window into the life and times of an individual who lived over
5,000 years ago — a man who lived in a world far removed from our modern
era of digital communications, space travel and sophisticated technologies
of all kinds. Yet the clothing he wore and the tools he carried suggest he
was acutely adapted to his environment and was well-versed in the plants,
animals and technologies of his era. Future studies using new and
innovative technologies will continue to reveal even more about Ötzi's life
and times.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

● Learn about "The Iceman" exhibit at the South Tyrol Museum of

Archaeology in Italy, where Ötzi is housed.
 ● Read more about the discovery and continuing study of Ötzi in this
feature from Smithsonian Magazine.

https://www.livescience.com/otzi-the-iceman

How to run for longer without getting tired:

increase stamina and mental resilience
By Chloe Page 1 day ago

Knowing how to run for longer is one of the Holy Grails of

fitness, so we've looked at the techniques people use to

reduce fatigue and increase motivation

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(Image credit: Getty Images)

Jump to:
● Stamina
● Avoid boredom
If you’re looking to get fit, or take your fitness regime to the next level, you
might be contemplating how to run for longer without getting tired. To be
clear, we all fatigue at some point, but there are ways of running for
extended periods without having to stop and rest.

There are many potential benefits to starting a regular running routine, but
it can be hard to know how to build up stamina. Along with being a popular
choice to keep up your health, running is a great way to meet the World
Health Organization’s recommended weekly exercise threshold. When you
finally put on your running gear for your first session, it can be easy to
blast through it with confidence. However, many people lose motivation as
the days wear on, and results for their efforts seem slim to none.
While thinking about gaining strong muscles while running, and lowering
your stress levels, those tactics may not be enough to motivate you to
complete a session. This lack of motivation can happen to anyone
regardless of running experience, whether they invest in a treadmill or
choose to run in the great outdoors. Here’s everything you need to know
about how to run for longer without getting tired so you can get into an
improved exercise routine.

● Related: Is running good for you?

INCREASING YOUR STAMINA

While running, your body works various muscles to keep you moving, such
as your glutes, hamstrings, core, calves and quadriceps. According to the
Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism as you start to run, your body converts
adenosine triphosphate into adenosine diphosphate. By converting one to
another, it releases a net gain of energy. This process creates the burst of
power that kickstarts your session. As you continue, your muscles work to
make fuel for your movement through anaerobic glycolysis; a byproduct of
that process, lactic acid, causes you to feel that familiar burn that can make
running difficult. Increased movement means an increased blood flow as
your body works to get more oxygen to your muscles. This feeling, along
with getting a stitch or feeling fatigued, can make you want to call it a day,
but there are other reasons that you may tire easily.
Depending on the type of running you do, you will work your skeletal
muscle fibers differently. These muscles have two types of fibers according
to the National Academy of Sports Medicine - fast- and slow-twitch. Fast-
twitch fibers are used for big, powerful movements for a short time, such as
sprinting. Slow-twitch fibers are largely fatigue-resistant and used during
long-distance runs. If you want to run further for longer, focusing on your
slow-twitch fibers can help. However, the type of training you do is not the
only thing affecting your running performance.

(Image credit: Getty)

Ensuring you are getting the proper nutrients and fuel into your body is
also essential to avoid feeling tired or sluggish during a run. As Amanda
Brooks, an ACE-certified running coach, says: "Nutrition can be more
important than the run itself because eating foods that cause inflammation
or don't fuel you properly will leave you feeling tired and struggling through
runs." Getting enough rest is also key to ensuring that your body avoids
feeling fatigued during a session.

Your form and pace are other key elements in your endurance level. When
running for long periods, try starting at a conversational pace and keeping
proper form. A proper running form includes:

● Keeping your eyes up

● Keeping your shoulders back
● Maintaining engagement in your core
● Relaxing your hands
● Using shorter steps instead of long strides

Alongside running with proper pace and form, it is important to remain

consistent with your training. Persisting even when you seem to be getting
nowhere will ensure that you maintain your progress; simply stopping
when it gets too hard or when you see little improvement can be
detrimental to your training. If you're struggling to connect with jogging, we
have a few suggestions on how to get fit outside of running.

These are just a few tips on how to run for longer. If you are doing all of the
above and still find yourself flagging during a run, you may be taking on too
much, too soon. Overworking yourself is common among runners,
especially those starting a new routine. Plus, if you try to progress too
rapidly, you may find yourself getting injured more often, according to a
study in the Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy. Make sure
to increase your pace and distance gradually and to listen to your body,
especially if you're a novice runner.

(Image credit: Getty)

● Related: How to breathe while running

HOW TO AVOID BOREDOM WHEN RUNNING

Just putting one foot in front of the other and going past the same scenery
will feel monotonous eventually. People often use the same one or two
routes or pre-set programs and find they get stale. Getting bored of your
run is an easy route to giving up running or stopping a session early. Some
of our best tips for avoiding hitting those walls include:

● Try a new running or workout style

● Pick a new goal and adjust your training plan accordingly
● Try running with weights
● Try breathing exercises while running
● Get inspiration from runners, books, or blogs
● Update your running playlist
● Team up with a loved one or local running club
● Change your route
● Listen to podcasts about running while running
● Invest in new gear and pre-run fuel
● Add short walking periods into your run
● Leave your watch at home to avoid concentrating on timings
● Take the pressure off by focusing on the fun of running
● Try cross-training
● Change up your schedule by running at night
● Follow athletes and professional runners on social media

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There are various factors to bear in mind when it comes to knowing how to
run for longer. If you find yourself getting fatigued during a session you
need to work on your stamina slowly, and see if you notice any
improvement over time. We recommend consulting with a local certified
coach and health professional if fatigue during training persists to confirm
that your mental or physical health is suitable for the exercise you're doing.
 Making sure that you are getting enough rest and proper fuel in your body
is vital to keeping you energized throughout your running session. Proper
form and working towards goals gradually can help you build your
endurance and stamina over time. If you find your mind wandering or
getting bored, our tips above should help you stay focused and motivated
while crushing those miles.

Today's best deals on running equipment

https://www.livescience.com/how-to-run-for-
longer-without-getting-tired