New Urban Public Transportation Systems: Initiatives,

Effectiveness, and Challenges

Avishai Ceder1

Abstract: Growing traffic congestion, the need to preserve the environment, and the problems of road safety are the main reasons for
many cities worldwide to consider new initiatives in public transportation 共PT兲 systems. This work discusses the major elements and
challenges around and within the introduction of a new or an improved PT system. The choice between public and private transport is an
individual decision that is influenced by government/community decisions. These decisions are often sending mixed signals to the public
transport passengers and potential users while failing to recognize system-wide and integration implications. This work attempts to
provide the current state of the PT practice and to cover the issues of why or why not to use PT including the willingness to pay, viability
and projection perspectives, the effectiveness of new initiatives mostly in Europe and North America, and achieving multimodal service
integration. In addition a concluding example is provided with reference to the city of Auckland in New Zealand.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲0733-9488共2004兲130:1共56兲
CE Database subject headings: Public transportation; Urban areas; Transportation planning; New Zealand.

Introduction Equally fairness will require spatial PT changes leading to

Many cities worldwide with large populations, low densities, and
congested CBD 共Central Business District兲 are looking into new
initiatives in introducing optimal 共minimum cost–maximum ben-
efit兲 public transportation 共PT兲 systems.
It is known that a problem adequately stated is a problem well
on its way to being solved. The known transportation objectives
for any urban area are to find a reasonable-cost approach in order
to ease traffic congestion, reduce road accidents, and improve the
pollution level. Such a reasonable-cost approach can rely only on
attractive, well distributed, and comfort PT.
Mark Twain said, ‘‘You cannot depend on your eyes when
your imagination is out of focus.’’ Our eyes see what high popu-
lated low density cities have done for their PT. Our eyes can read
reports such as the ones by Viegas 共1998, 1999兲; Mackett and
Babalik 共1998兲; Yang 共1998兲; and Bushell 共1996兲 covering urban
transport characteristics, influence of transport investments, land
transport strategy, and passenger transport action plan, respec-
tively. However, our eyes cannot be used as a trigger for our
imagination. It was Alfred Einstein who said, ‘‘Imagination is
more important than knowledge.’’ One such focused imagination
is the hope for a door-to-door with smooth and synchronized
transfers PT service to achieve the above-stated known objec-
tives. It will require changes in travel behavior, and hence must
be done carefully, and especially gradually.
1
Professor, Civil Engineering Dept., Transportation Research Institute,
Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Technion, Haifa, 32000 Israel.
E-mail: ceder@tx.technion.ac.il
Note. Discussion open until August 1, 2004. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on February 27, 2002; approved on November 20, 2002.
This paper is part of the Journal of Urban Planning and Development,
Vol. 130, No. 1, March 1, 2004. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9488/2004/1-
56 – 65/$18.00.
unfeasibility due to the high cost involved. However, if creating
pilot projects on certain segments 共corridors兲 with ideal PT ser-
vice, shifts from cars to PT can gradually be built. The pilot
projects 共if successfully implemented兲 can then become elements
of a city plan along with some complementary measures 共higher
parking prices, road pricing, fuel taxes, etc.兲. We cannot change
the direction of the wind 共evolution of lifestyles and land use
patterns兲, but we can adjust the sails 共create four and five star PT
which eventually will pay off its expenses兲.
The purpose of this work is to construct a review of the current
state of PT practice and discuss the main elements that need to be
emphasized while introducing a new or an improved PT system.
Fig. 1 exhibits the main themes that are described and discussed
in the following sections. It starts with the individual choices
between PT service and a car through viability and projection
perspectives with a clear indication on the PT effectiveness and
integration elements.
This work is comprised of six sections including this introduc-
tion. The next section describes the elements on why or why not
to use PT including the willingness to pay. ‘‘Viability and Projec-
tion Modeling’’ discusses the issues of viability from both the
user and operator perspectives, and projection modeling. ‘‘Effec-
tiveness of New Public Transportation Initiatives’’ describes the
effectiveness of new PT initiatives mainly in Europe and North
America. ‘‘Integration and Interchanges’’ discusses how to
achieve PT multimodal service integration, and finally ‘‘Conclud-
ing Example: Auckland, New Zealand’’ provides a concluding
example with reference to the need of new PT systems in Auck-
land, New Zealand.
Why to Use or Not to Use Public Transportation
General
The evolution of lifestyles 共more free time available, more rev-
enue, lavished activities兲 and of land use patterns 共greater disper-
sion of activities, low density peripheral developments兲 favor

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 Table 1. Passengers’ Willingness to Pay, from Kottenhoff 共1998兲
Subject of change Fare levela
Timetable factors
Change of train: one less 19%
Speed: 20% less travel time 15%
Frequency: 2 to 1 h 5%
Comfort
Shaking and vibrations: ‘‘a little less’’ 11.5%
Noise: ‘‘a little less noisy’’ 10%
Climate: better ventilation 10%
Seat adjustment: reclinable seat backs 8%
Seat orientation: face-to-face or -back 8%
Fig. 1. Main themes of work Leg-room: 10 cm less or more 6.5%
Seat size: 5 cm wider 4%
On-board services
adoption of the car as the universal mode of transport, making full Restaurant with hot food 13%
use of its flexibility and availability. Bistro with some food 10%
Viegas 共1999兲 based on the European Commission perspective Division: reading salon/quiet salons 9%
indicates that the mission of PT has changed: ‘‘whereas until the Division: play areas 9%
70’s its main function was to satisfy the individual needs of the Coffee: free coffee and tea in the car 6%
less affluent members of society, progressively the policy dis- Entertainment: video or cinema on board 5%
course has been changing, pointing instead to the necessary con- Entertainment: music/radio outlets 3%
tribution of public transport for congestion relief and environmen- Office: service 2%
tal preservation. This represents a fundamental change of Quality satisfaction
emphasis, in the sense that public transport now would be a role Punctuality: from 80 to 90% 16%
geared more to the satisfaction of collective wellbeing than to the Lavatories: ‘‘modern and roomy’’ 14%
direct individual needs of those who use it.’’ Modernity: modern coach 9%
The choice between public and private transport is an indi- Reservation: optional seat booking 9%
vidual decision that is influenced by government/community de- Cleanliness: clean inside 5%
cisions. These decisions are often sending mixed signals to the PT DD: to go by double decker 3.5%
systems and potential PT passengers while failing to recognize a
Percent of fare level to be paid as extra.
more system-wide and integrated implications. Generally speak-
ing the majority of large cities has effectively encouraged the use
of a private car, through planning 共dispersed land use in the sub-
urbs兲, infrastructure 共available parking and circulation traffic customers. In the case of PT, customer surveys only have
flow兲, pricing, and financial decisions. Consequently in many of partial value as they may help limit the rate of loss of pa-
those cities there is growing and moreover confusion about what tronage, but the really important thing would be listening to
to do. the recent ex-clients 共those who have recently left兲, try to
One way to handle the decline in PT use is to retain a high understand what made them leave, and then progressively
level of satisfaction of PT users while fully retaining the protec- bring them back.
tion of access to the less affluent citizen. Some research in Europe
共Kottenhoff 1993, 1998; ISOTOPE 1997; QUATTRO 1998兲 at- Willingness to Pay
tempt to show ways to overcome this decline in PT patronage.
Providing the minimum level-of-service of PT certainly helps There is a challenge to achieve the satisfaction of the potential
retain some of its current passengers, but rigid supply patterns and and current PT users. However, this challenge depends strongly
poor quality have also led to the loss of many more over the on the cost element and there is a question on the willingness of
years. Regarding these issues two notes are made by the European the PT user to pay for the increase in his/her satisfaction. This
Union reports QUATTRO 共1998兲 and Viegas 共1999兲: section reviews recent studies that address this issue on trains.
1. Efforts towards 共productive兲 efficiency are normally applied Kottenhoff 共1998兲 used the stated preference 共SP兲 method to
through tendering processes, in which the authority defines find out the willingness to pay of train passengers in Sweden. His
the service it wants 共network, service standards, and time- main question was how to increase the attractiveness of the rail
tables兲 and tries to get the cheapest supplier for that. Only system 共the willingness to pay兲 and simultaneously to decrease
when the operator has a direct interest on the number of the cost?
passengers will he do something for it, but even then his To perform these quantifications of willingness to pay, train
freedom of initiative is quite limited in most cases. Most passengers have been interviewed by the Royal Institute of Tech-
efforts in the late 1980s and early 1990s were directed al- nology 共KTH兲 and were asked to answer computer-assisted self-
most exclusively at efficiency; and interviews 共CASI兲 on lightweight PCs. Table 1 关from Kottenhoff
2. Sustained efforts and programs towards quality are more re- 共1998兲兴 presents the results of several KTH studies by Schmidt
cent, and they are systematically formulated as to what is 共1996兲 and Kottenhoff 共1993兲. These results have been checked
needed to achieve satisfaction of the client, as it is recom- against the results of other European countries which appear in
mended in all quality management books. But those books the British Railways Board Report共1996兲 and in Steer et al.
do not address the case of industries which have been losing 共1997兲.

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Table 2. Attractiveness of Interior Design Attributes, from
Kottenhoff 共1998兲
Willingness
Attributes to pay
Play areas for children ⫹8%
Reading rooms and conversation corners ⫹7%
Free coffee/tea self-service ⫹5%
Smoke-free cars, with dedicates smoking corners ⫹4%
Leg-room about 5 cm greater due to new type of chair ⫹3%
Better distribution of nonfacing/face-to-face seats ⫹1.5%
Revolving chairs 共a few兲 ⫹ 共small兲
Closet in midcompartment ⫹ 共small兲

One example of train service in which the conditions have

been improved and the payment has increased is the Danish IC/3
train service, marketed under the name of Kustpilen which re-
placed simple rail-bus services. The number of travelers rose by
almost 200% in the first 4 years as it is reported by Kottenhoff
and Lindh 共1996兲. The traveling time from Karlskrona to Malmoe
was reduced by 15 min 共7%兲, and passengers traveling all the way
no longer had to make a transfer 共change trains兲. The frequency
was increased from 6 to 11 trains per day and direction. The fare
level was reduced by about 10–30%. Nonetheless it was found
that the enhanced comfort by the new IC/3s was the main at-
tribute for the increase in patronage.
Consequently, Kottenhoff 共1998兲 suggested a willingness
to pay scale 共Table 2兲 based only on interior design attributes.
Kottenhoff also added that dimmed lights and reading lamps, bet-
ter ventilation, a modern interior design 共color scheme, shapes,
etc.兲, and music outlets by all seats can further raise the willing-
ness to pay by 15–20%. Finally the Kustpilen study also found
out that car drivers have a higher willingness to pay for comfort
in trains than existing rail passengers.
Certainly train service is not the same as other PT services
共e.g., bus, passenger ferry兲. Nonetheless the items of timetable,
comfort, and quality of service in Table 1 could be useful to serve
as indicators for other PT services.
Viability and Projection Modeling
Among the amenities that match PT passenger values there are
also amenities that are concerned with the viability of service.
This section discusses the importance of the viability components
and in addition provides precautions on the often use of projec-
tion models with respect to PT service.
Viability Perspectives
One of the predominant motives of new urban PT systems is the
general continuous decline in PT patronage; the two main reasons
for this: poor level-of-service and better competitors. New roads,
bridges, and tunnels are serving the cars and to some extent, the
rails, whereas the investment in PT terminals is relatively at a
lower level. On one hand there is no need to promote PT in a free
market environment, but on the other hand PT has the best safety
record, can relieve some traffic congestion, and can preserve the
environment.
The PT viability can be looked at through two perspectives:
the user and the operator. Fig. 2 attempts to draw the three cases
in which a passenger will use PT: 共a兲 when there is no alternative,
Fig. 2. Viability of public transportation: User perspective
共b兲 when there are features such as short travel time and/or extra
comfort 共e.g., preferential and priority treatment, self-serve free
coffee/tea, newspaper and magazines兲, and 共c兲 when the PT can
be linked comfortably to a door-to-door trip chain with smooth
and synchronized transfers. While cases 共a兲 and 共b兲 are self-
explanatory, case 共c兲 deserves some clarification. From the com-
muter perspective the use of PT will become attractive 关even
without the feature in 共b兲兴 if it can easily serve the commuter’s
door-to-door purpose. No doubt that this is a central point in
understanding the commuter’s travel behavior, and it has to do
with the integration between the PT end point and the commuter’s
destination point. Fig. 2 shows that the commuter will choose the
PT if at its end point he/she can have a comfortable access to
his/her destination via walking or a synchronized 共with an on-line
information system兲 smooth transfer.
Fig. 3 presents the operator perspective for viability. While
providing subsidy and commercial concessions are self-
explanatory, the need to have enough passengers cannot always
be realized. Following the same arguments as for the user per-
spective, some new ideas are recommended to be considered in
order to ease the commuter door-to-door trip chain. One such idea
is to allow for the operator to have on-line intelligent information
and communication systems such that maximum synchronization
between arrival and departures 共connections兲 can be realized.
Moreover, and with same significant level, this intelligent infor-
mation system will reduce the uncertainty of the riders, and there-
fore will increase the reliability of service.
Projection Modeling
PT problems can be examined via three perspectives: the user
共increase ridership兲, the government/community 共future develop-
ments, interchanges, pedestrianization兲, and operators 共efficient,

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Fig. 3. Viability of public transportation: Operator perspective
and minimum-cost system兲. No doubt that people are looking for
door-to-door services, with maximum comfort, minimum wait
time, and highly reliable service. All these aspects are taken into
account in order to create the best objective functions for the
decision makers. The objective functions are used as a tool to
shed light on the alternatives, and to come up with the best deci-
sion possible.
Generally when one does not know what to expect on the PT
demand side, one relies on projection modeling. It should often be
the contrary! That is, to use the modeling only if one has a clear
picture of the alternatives, and their possible change-in-demand
implications. Otherwise, the best is to look into all the factors,
variables, and parameters one can think of, and simulate various
scenarios of the future. The next step is to examine them with the
objective functions.
There are enough analytical tools for estimating the potential
benefits which stem from a given solution alternative. Once a PT
development alternative is under consideration an evaluation ma-
trix can be constructed with respect to the main components in the
objective functions. That is, projection on passenger O–D
共origin–destination兲 movements for each PT alternative can be
based on a simple survey of both PT and non-PT users. The
interpretation of the survey results must be based on existing
experience 共real-life case, pilot study兲, or alternatively on a range
共sensitivity兲 of the best and worse cases. These O–D estimations
can then be used for the evaluation of total passenger wait time,
passenger-hours difference from the shortest path 共car path兲,
empty-seat hours 共on PT vehicles兲, minimum fleet size required,
capital cost, operating cost, social impacts, environmental im-
pacts, potential land use benefits 共interchanges in the vicinity of
the PT routes兲, and more.
Having done this procedure for each PT development alterna-
tive, a complete picture can be drawn for the decision makers.
Mathematical models such as the models that appear in Ceder and
Wilson 共1997兲, Ceder and Israeli 共1998兲, and Ceder 共1999兲 can be
used for the estimation of passenger wait times, passenger-hours
differences from the shortest path, empty-seat hours, minimum
fleet size, differential costs, and more. The models are not used
for prediction but rather as a tool to speed-up calculation.
All in all, projection models, no matter how good they are,
should be treated carefully, due to the vast amount of assumptions
共behavioral and others兲 that are inherent in them.
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Effectiveness of New Public Transportation
Initiatives
Following the overview of the major themes that affect the use of
PT service it would be beneficial to look into some current PT
initiatives and their effectiveness.
Worldwide Comparison
Based on Bushell 共1996兲, worldwide, 49 metro lines have opened
since 1970, of which 26 were opened after 1980. In addition
Taplin 共1997兲 indicates that there are 107 light rail schemes since
1970 of which 92 opened since 1980. Many more cities are cur-
rently developing new urban PT systems.
Mackett and Babalik 共1998兲 identified the following transport
objectives that represent a successful PT system: to have high
patronage; to increase total public transport usage; to be profit-
able; to relieve road congestion; and provide access for low-
income households. They also identified the following land ob-
jectives: to reinforce downtown; to revitalize declining areas; to
help manage urban growth; and to improve the environment.
Mackett and Babalik examined five new urban PT systems to
see how successful they are. Four of the systems are in the United
States and one in Canada. One of the U.S. systems is a metro,
namely the Miami MetroRail system. The other three U.S. sys-
tems are all light rail: the St. Louis MetroLink, the San Diego
Trolley, and Sacramento Light Rail. The Canadian example is the
Vancouver SkyTrain, which is an automatic metro system using
small vehicles. The characteristics of these systems are shown in
Table 3 as well as the information about patronage and cost.
In addition there are, in Table 3, four urban PT systems from
France: two with LRT 共Light Rail Transit兲 at Lille and Nantes,
one system called VAL 共Automatic Guidance兲 in Lille, and a
Metro in Marseille. These systems are described in Yang 共1998兲.
Table 3 shows that all the systems have been open since 1981
with San Diego the oldest and St. Louis the newest. Five of the
systems 关Miami, St. Louis, Vancouver, Lille 共VAL兲, and
Marseille兴 are all segregated from other traffic while the San
Diego, Sacramento, Lille, and Nantes systems have street run-
ning. The difference in technology is reflected in the capital cost,
with Miami MetroLink the most expensive and the Nantes system
the cheapest. The most frequent service is Vancouver, followed by
the VAL system in Lille. For Marseilles, Lille, and Nantes only
partial information is available and thus Table 3 contains ‘‘?’’ for
unknown data.
The second group of columns in Table 3 shows the patronage
on the USA and Canada systems for projected 1996, and actual
1996 figures. It can be seen that the Vancouver SkyTrain has by
far the highest patronage. Mackett and Babalik 共1998兲 explain
that this is partly due to its nature as a high-frequency metro. The
other metro, in Miami, carries only about half of that patronage. It
is worth noting that the light rail systems have fewer passengers
because they were designed to have such capacity. Another com-
parison is with the projected forecasts. On one hand the St. Louis
MetroLink is carrying 44% above the projected patronage, the
San Diego Trolley 26% above, and the Vancouver SkyTrain 16%
above. On the other hand, Miami MetroLink is 82% below fore-
cast and the Sacramento Light Rail 37% below. On the evidence
of these figures, the St. Louis, Vancouver, and San Diego systems
are successful, and the others are not. In terms of passengers per
route km Vancouver is first and if passengers per vehicle km are
considered then the St. Louis system is the most successful.
The last group of columns in Table 3 is related to cost indica-
tors: operating cost and capital cost per passenger, fare revenue
Table 3. Comparison among Special Projects of Public Transport Systems, from Mackett and Babalik 共1998兲 and Yang 共1998兲
Characteristics Patronage 共for 1996兲 Cost
Cost
Length 共U.S. dollars No. Frequency Justified projected Actual %
Site, PT mode, year of start 共km兲 共thousand/km兲 of stops 共train/h兲 patronage patronage difference 共1兲 共2兲 共3兲 共4兲
San Diego, Trolley, Light Rail, 1981 65.5 9,960 41 3– 6 9,500 12,000 ⫹26 1.18 3.70 0.78 0.31
Miami, Metro, 1984 33.8 43,700 21 4–8 202,000 36,000 ⫺82 2.12 10.3 0.62 0.14
Vancouver, SkyTrain Metro, 1986 28.9 33,570 20 12–24 100,000 116,000 ⫹16 0.65 2.46 0.24 0.18
Sacramento, Light Rail, 1987 29.2 7,870 29 4 20,500 12,900 ⫺37. 2.10 3.27 0.84 0.19
St. Louis, MetroLink Light Rail, 1993 27.2 13,330 18 4–8 17,000 24,515 ⫹44 0.87 2.79 0.40 0.22
Marseilles, Metro, 1986 15.5 17,920 ? 8 –10 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Lille, VAL System, 1986 13.2 11,950 ? 14 –18 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Lille, Light Rail, 1991 19.0 5,970 ? 4–8 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Nante, Light Rail, 1991 12.6 3,770 ? 4–8 ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Note: 共1兲 Operating cost per passenger 共U.S. dollars兲; 共2兲 capital cost per passenger 共U.S. dollars兲; 共3兲 fare revenue per passenger 共U.S. dollars兲; and 共4兲
fare revenue/operating cost.

per passenger, and the ratio of fare revenue to operating cost.
Mackett and Babalik 共1998兲 indicate that one factor that helps to
keep revenue up is enforcement of payment fares. The metro
systems have barriers, but these are not practical on a light rail
system unless it is completely separated. In San Diego the tickets
of 30% of passengers are inspected which is a large proportion for
random checking.
The profitability indicator is the ratio of fare revenue to oper-
ating cost and the San Diego system comes closest to covering its
operating cost, at 66%. The Vancouver SkyTrain is unsuccessful
covering its operating cost given its high patronage, but has low
revenue per passenger. It is mainly due to the extensive use of
travelcards which permit travel on several public transport modes
including SkyTrain. It is possible that the revenue has not been
allocated correctly. Overall, none of the systems is anywhere near
profitable.
Mackett and Babalik concluded their study by emphasizing
three points: 共1兲 Vancouver is the most successful system, mainly
because it is automatic with a high level of service, integrated fare
policy, and enforcement of tickets; 共2兲 coordinating bus routes
and thorough ticketing helps patronage, but the latter may ad-
versely affect revenue; and 共3兲 the land use policies 共improve-
ments and coordination around the PT systems兲 seem to have
been very effective in helping to make the systems more success-
ful and in using them as catalysts for change to the urban fabric
and helping to slow down the decentralization process.
European Union Studies
The European Union 共see, for example, 具http://www.cordis.lu/
transport典兲 initiated many projects about new directions and stud-
ies of PT operations and control.
Many European Union 共EU兲 projects were and are executed in
Europe. Table 4 summarizes the known EU projects. Also some
case studies have been carried out to examine the PT priority
measures. In what follows is a summary of such case studies in
six European cities: Athens, Dublin, Munich, Turin, Vienna, and
Zurich.

Table 4. Main European Projects Dealing with PT Issues

Project Main PT topics 共operation/control兲 Cities involved in trains and pilot applications
ANTARES AVM, integrated ticketing passenger information, Barcelona 共E兲, Bologna 共I兲, Dublin 共IRL兲, Leipzig 共D兲, Toulouse
zone access 共F兲
ENTRANCE Advance PT applications Caen 共F兲, Cork 共IRL兲, Dresden 共D兲, Evora 共P兲, Cologne 共D兲,
Piraeus 共GR兲, Portsmouth 共GR兲, Rotterdam 共NL兲, Santiago 共E兲,
Southampton 共GB兲
EUROBUS PT data models—passenger information Birmingham 共GB兲, Madrid 共E兲, Marseilles 共F兲, Thessaloniki
共GR兲
GAUDI PT ticketing—zone access Barcelona 共E兲, Bologna 共I兲, Dublin 共IRL兲, Marseilles 共F兲,
Trondheim 共N兲
JUPITER Passenger information, PT priority Aalborg 共DK兲, Bilbao 共E兲, Florence 共I兲, Gent 共B兲, Liverpool
共GB兲, Patra 共GR兲
LLAMD Integration of PT information in traffic and travel Amsterdam 共NL兲, Dublin 共IRL兲, London 共GB兲, Lyon 共F兲,
information systems Munich 共D兲
PHOEBUS Vehicle scheduling and control system Alcala de H. 共E兲, Brussels 共B兲, Gent 共B兲, Madrid 共E兲, Zeist 共NL兲
Task force PLATO Integration of UTC and PT systems
PRIMAVERA PT priority on arterials Leeds 共GB兲, Turin 共I兲
PROMT PT priority, in different UTC systems Gothenburg 共S兲, London 共GB兲, Southampton 共GB兲, Turin 共I兲
QUARTET Modal shift to PT through strategic, integrated use Athens 共GR兲, Birmingham 共GB兲, Stuttgart 共D兲, Turin 共I兲
of RTI/ATT
SCOPE Travel information, transportation planning and control Cologne 共D兲, Piraeus 共GR兲, Southampton 共GB兲

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Table 5. Comparison of Results
City 共population兲
Athens 共4 million兲
Component Impact of component
PT priority Reduction of PT travel time and its variance on bus lanes
Some bus routes with 10% increase in patronage
Ticketing systems Electronic ticketing increase passenger boarding times
ITS technologies Only testing PT information systems

Vienna 共1.6 million兲 PT priority Reduction in PT travel time on bus lanes

Possible 共not clear兲 increase in patronage

Munich 共1.2 million兲 PT priority Reduction of 1.9% in travel time for tram priority at one traffic light

Dublin 共1 million兲
PT priority
Ticketing systems
ITS technologies
No reduction in travel time but reduction in its variance on bus lanes
Reduction in boarding times
Increase patronage with a new fare scale
Increase in revenue
Reduction in the variance of PT travel time and headways 共more reliable service兲
using AVM system

Good response from drivers and passengers using AVM systems

Turin 共1 million兲 PT priority Reduction in tram travel time, and more reliable tram reliability using AVM 共called SIS兲 system

Zurich 共0.36 million兲 PT priority Increase of average PT speed by 19 km/h due to priority at traffic light, AVM, and some passenger
information system

Athens 共4 million inhabitants兲 has a wide bus and trolleybus
network 共besides a limited metro and a suburban railway兲, oper-
ating at an unsatisfactory level of service, mainly due to heavy
traffic congestion. Priority PT measures were introduced with
positive but limited effects, and their extension is in progress.
That is, automatic vehicle monitoring 共AVM兲, and priority at traf-
fic light and interchanges facilities. The real solution of the trans-
port and traffic problems is expected by the extension of the
metro with supplemented light rail lines.
Dublin 共1 million inhabitants兲 has mainly buses, with one rail
line 共integrated with a local bus network and offering ‘‘park and
ride’’ at its stations兲. Priority treatment for PT is based on quality
bus corridors, on system AVM installed on all the fleet, a priority
at critical traffic light intersections, and passenger real time infor-
mation systems.
Munich 共1.2 million inhabitants兲 has a well integrated PT sys-
tem, comprised of railways, subway lines, trams, urban and re-
gional buses. There is a coordinating body, formed by the federal
railways and the city. The general quality of service is good and
comprised of short bus headways 共high frequencies兲 and adequate
PT information both for pre- and on trip users. Priority measures
include reserved lanes, traffic light priority, and fleet control.
Turin 共1 million inhabitants兲 has trams 共partially operated as
LRT兲 and buses. Consideration is given for a plan to build some
subway lines. In spite of certain improvements in service, the use
of PT has diminished both in absolute and in relative values.
Priority measures have been extensively applied and include: re-
served lanes and an advanced fleet control system coordinated
with a centralized traffic light priority.
Vienna 共1.6 million inhabitants兲 has subway, trams, and buses,
operated by a municipal company, while the outer region is
served by the federal railways, local railways, and several bus
operators. The different operators are coordinated and supported
by a dedicated company owned by the state and the provinces.
The city network offers a good quality service 共short headways,
regular, comfortable兲.
Zurich 共360,000 inhabitants兲 has a well-integrated PT net-
work, based on trams in the city, buses, and trolleybuses mainly
out of the center. Also there are fast suburban, fast regional, and
local railways service, and suburban and regional buses with dif-
ferent operators, coordinated by a special public organization. Pri-
ority measures are widely applied, without extensive restrictions
to cars.
Table 5 summarizes the results of the implementation of new
PT initiatives in these six cities. Overall there are indications of
PT improvements in Table 5 whereas the magnitude of these im-
provements is not always satisfactory. That is, the reduction in the
average and the variance of travel times is insignificant in many
cases. Table 6 summarizes the future PT improvement plans in the
six cities, illustrating an on-going process for making the PT sys-
tems more attractive.
Integration and Interchanges
One major theme to effect the use of PT service is on how to
achieve multimodal service integration. This PT integration theme
presents one of the substantial weaknesses of current PT practice.
This section covers the important points of integration that are
recommended to be taken into account.
System Integration
Viegas 共1998兲 in a study on the legal and regulatory framework of
PT in Europe introduced three levels for the potential for integra-
tion of urban PT:
• Strategic level: where mobility policy is defined reflecting the
needs of the citizens. At this level minimum accessibility,
quality standards, target market share, etc., should be defined;
• Tactical level: where the translation of the political goals to the
product specification should be done, thus assuring the effec-
tiveness of the systems; and

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Table 6. Future Plans to Improve PT
City 共population兲 Component Future activities
Athens 共4 million兲 PT priority More bus priority lanes
Construction of more Metro lines
Testing guided systems
Ticketing systems Introducing new systems
Integration across mode
ITS technologies New passenger information systems
Park-and-ride advanced facilities
Terminal and interchange facilities

Vienna 共1.6 million兲 PT priority Extension of underground and tram network

To introduce minimum requency of 8 vehicles/h
To increase passenger comfort on vehicles

Munich 共1.2 million兲 PT priority Extension of U-Bahn; new train lines

More PT special lines, and traffic light priority
More ITS application for PT control

Dublin 共1 million兲 PT priority Construct 3 LRT lines

Increase number and length of bus lanes
ITS technologies Advance AVM systems, and passneger information systems
Ticketing integration
Improved terminal, interchange and park⫹ride system

Turin 共1 million兲 PT priority New railway links

Traffic light priority
Considering underground system
ITS technologies Better PT control via advance AVM system
Information systems on vehicles and at stops

Zurich 共0.36 million兲 PT priority Increase passenger comfort

Conversion of bus lines to trolleybus lines

• Operational level: where transport is produced and consumed,
and its efficiency and quality provided can be effectively
monitored.
The principles for increasing the PT patronage are to have a
PT system with:
1. Comfort 共see ‘‘Why to Use or Not to Use Public Transpor-
tation’’兲;
2. Low perceived out of pocket cost; and
3. Flexibility 共always there when needed, allows its user to
enjoy door-to-door services, low level of information re-
quired for its use兲.
These three principles can be achieved with the use of the
essential elements required for a coherent PT integration system.
Viegas 共1998兲 listed three major essential integration elements:
共1兲 Good information on the available options; 共2兲 stability of
perception of service; and 共3兲 network integration. Two more es-
sential elements are 共4兲 ticketing integration using smart cards;
and 共5兲 maximal synchronization.
Good information on the user’s options should cover all PT
modes and needs to be tailored to the user’s needs. The informa-
tion should be based on simplicity and accuracy while taking into
account the exact way to reach B from A for any A,B points on
the PT network. The information should comprise all PT modes
and all operators in a single system. The stability of perception of
service implies infrequent changes that may introduce confusion
among the users such as long validity periods for PT timetables.
Network integration implies smooth transfers and comfortable in-
terchanges. That is, easy change of routes in a single trip no
matter if routes are operated by one or more modes and/or opera-
tors, and available interchanges to allow for smooth transfers.
Ticketing integration is based on a combined tariff using the same
payment method such as the same smart card 共e.g., the Octopus
card in Hong Kong used across heavy rail, metro, bus, and ferry兲.
Finally to maximize synchronization for better coordination
among the routes and PT modes and minimization of the transfer
and wait times. This synchronization of the user timetables should
be carried out both off-line 共planning stage兲 and on-line 共consid-
ering actual situations of the PT vehicle being behind or ahead of
schedule兲.
European Union Studies
Based on the European Union 共EU兲 papers and studies, successful
integration requires a road network hierarchy design that inte-
grates surface PT, private cars, bicycles, and pedestrians.
Physical integration is pursued by means of the optimal ar-
rangement of individual motorized transport 共IMT兲 and PT and
transfers from individual motorized transport 共IMT兲 to PT. These
include park⫹ride (P⫹R), kiss⫹ride (K⫹R), bike⫹ride
(B⫹R), and taxis. Interconnections between different types of PT
systems 共rail, bus, taxi, ferry兲 take place in many architectural
forms.
The number of cities in Europe considering IMT-PT schemes
continues to grow, as well as developed interchanges for different
PT systems.
Currently in Europe combined mode (P⫹R⫹PT) is character-
ized by the following figures:

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Fig. 4. The basic phase No. 1 共heavy solid line兲 of the proposed
subway/rail system for Auckland
• About 70,000 vehicles parking every day at the level of P
⫹R;
• An average overall occupancy rate of P⫹Rs is about 50%; and
• 2 to 3% of the total PT trips.
The P⫹R facilities are located primarily at rail stops. These range
from small, surface-level sites through major multistory com-
plexes.
An innovative P⫹R solution is a fully automated underground
parking facility, for example, the Parcoville system in Toulouse.
This system is characterized by:
1. It is financed, built, and operated by the private sector, which
is able to reinvest the parking charges; and
2. Car drivers can use a chip card to leave their vehicles in
automated car parks and use then the same card for access to
PT.
One emerged benefit of P⫹R systems is the economic and envi-
ronmental enhancement. A successful P⫹R scheme can help pe-
destrianization, which might otherwise be resisted.
A successful PT practice at interchanges is the combined ac-
tivities of different PT systems, e.g., feeder buses and local train
services using the same platform. As part of EU interchange stud-
ies, emphasis is given to short-distance transport facilities. These
include continuous systems 共pedestrian corridors, constant-speed
and accelerated conveyors, and escalators兲, semicontinuous sys-
tems 共vehicles are slowing down in stations兲, and discontinuous
systems 共shuttles兲. A recently developed innovative system is an
accelerated conveyor called ‘‘Walkway’’ produced by Mitsubishi,
Japan.
Transfers
PT passengers are usually perceiving a transfer 共vehicle to vehicle
either using the same PT mode or from mode to mode兲 as one of
the most inconvenient factors while using PT. Such a transfer
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involves walking and waiting 共often in a queue兲, the two elements
that usually are not part of using a car. In existing PT systems it is
recommended to minimize this type of transfer or at least to mini-
mize one 共or both兲 of the elements of walking and waiting.
Whenever a PT development alternative is under consideration
there is a need to evaluate the adverse effect of inherent transfers
in the alternative plan. However, instead, one should think how to
avoid an inconvenient transfer by introducing the ideas of smooth
and synchronized transfers.
This smooth and synchronized transfer relies on new technolo-
gies; some of which are mentioned in previous sections 共e.g.,
moving walkways, escalators, elevators, using carts, electrical
slow-speed vehicles, etc.兲. The synchronization is based on an
exact arrival/departure timing that can be handled by a certain
real-time intelligent control system, and by using certain algo-
rithms to create the transfer meetings in the timetables. Therefore
any PT development alternative that contains large walking
⫹waiting transfers should be eliminated, or revised.
Concluding Example: Auckland, New Zealand
There is a saying: ‘‘The best way to make our dreams come true
is to wake up.’’ It is true that implementation of any PT plan will
cost the taxpayer a fortune. However, the same and worse will be
the case without implementation. The PT plan should be imple-
mented gradually, with necessary complementary measures, and
with the innovative and challenging ideas expressed in the above
sections. It is as simple as using the carrot and stick technique.
Investment in advanced PT 共carrot兲 should be accompanied with
increased parking pricing and restriction on car movements
共stick兲. This section attempts to illustrate successful planning in
light of the major themes from this paper.
In order to sum up the review and challenges of this paper an
example of a large city with a need for PT development was
selected. This is Auckland City in New Zealand that has a popu-
lation approaching 1 million, low density, 14% employment in
CBD from which 27–30% work trips to CBD by bus, and is
experiencing increased traffic congestion. Auckland is looking
now into new initiatives in introducing a new PT system. Several
documents by Auckland Regional Council 共1999a,b兲, Mead et al.
共1999兲, and PKK 共1999兲 indicate that something must be done to
ease the traffic congestion and to reduce the pollution level by
means of new PT systems.
Based on the overview expressed in this work, it is recom-
mended for Auckland to gradually build a combination of subway
and rail systems. The public of Auckland deserves to see that
some measures are being taken relatively soon, and that there is a
solid stepwise plan for relieving traffic congestion, improving
traffic safety, and reducing traffic pollution. Based on the reports
by the Auckland Regional Council 共1999a,b兲 an example of a
stepwise PT plan for Auckland City is illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5
in five phases. It starts 共phase No. 1兲 in Fig. 4 with a subway line
from the Downtown Terminal to the Railway station 共this link
cannot be seen in Fig. 4 since both locations are close to each
other兲 on one side and to Newmarket on the other side. Both the
Downtown Terminal and Newmarket points should be major in-
terchanges for the expended plan. In Figs. 5共a and b兲 the other
four steps are shown. In Fig. 5共a兲 the subway extension to Albany
共phase No. 2兲, is illustrated, and then a two-branch links to Hen-
derson and Papakura, and from the Railway station to Botany
Down 共phase No. 3兲. The plan continues in Fig. 5共b兲 with con-
necting the existing subway system to Avondale and Panmure,
and to the airport and Manukau City 共phase No. 4兲, and finally
 Fig. 5. Proposed subway/rail system Auckland: 共a兲 phases No. 2 and No. 3; 共b兲 phases No. 4 and No. 5
from Henderson to Albany, and from Manakau City to Botany
Down 共phase No. 5兲. Each initiative and extension in Figs. 4 and
5 will be supported by feeder and distributor bus routes 共could be
shuttle services as well兲. With such a plan in mind buses will get
priority, and it is possible to reconstruct the bus route with smooth
transfer facilities 共interchanges兲 at the major four interchanges
shown in Figs. 4 and 5. The challenging and innovative ideas
expressed in this work can be also applied to the bus services in
the Auckland plan.
Based on the previous sections one definition of a smart bus
service 共for Auckland, and in general兲 can be: Advanced and at-
tractive bus system that operate reliably, and relatively rapidly,
part of the passenger door-to-door chain with smooth and syn-
chronized transfers. The interpretation of each component in this
definition is as follows:
Attractive: available information 共telephone center, Internet,
newspaper, radio, TV, mail leaflets兲, simple communication 共short
telephone number, automatic storage of user telephone and ad-
dress兲, clear user/service intersect 共smart bus color and logo, user
waving smart bus card兲, boarding/alighting/riding comfort 共low
floor, extra space next to driver, comfort seats, possible features
for physically challenged people, low noise兲, on-board service
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共newspapers, magazines, free coffee/tea, TV/video display of
timetable, weather, etc.兲, simple payment 共electronic ticketing and
prepaid, transfer and smart card ticketing兲;
Reliability: small variability of concern to users 共total travel
time, waiting time, in-vehicle time, seat availability兲, small vari-
ability of concern to smart vehicles 共schedule adherence, head-
ways, on-time pullouts, missed trips, breakdowns, load counts,
late reports兲, small variability of pretrip information using tele-
phone communication 共on line timetable, travel time to caller,
suggested time interval for second call from or to the user兲;
Rapid: local authority permission for smart buses to stop along
the route 共fixed stops with shelters and information, bus bays at
timepoints with extra approach lane at signalized intersection,
flexible stops along the route where the smart vehicle is with
flashing lights兲, smart bus preference at unsignalized intersections
共‘‘yield’’ or ‘‘stop’’ not according to traffic procedures, special
bypass arrangements at strategic points兲, smart bus preference at
signalized intersections 共passive priority by extending or preced-
ing green, active priority using AVL/actuated smart vehicle sig-
nals, e.g. radio, inductive loop兲, purchase and validate tickets
共electronically, ordinary兲 on smart buses 共one-way, round-trip,
transfer, daily, weekly, monthly兲;
 Smooth: comfortable routing 共minimax criterion on walking
distance, round-trip deviation from designated route in bad
weather, evolution of flexible routing and scheduling兲, special
train station entrance 共smart bus special gate, smart bus entrance
door with comfortable stairs/escalator to the train platform兲, spe-
cial train exit 关exit door next to the train platform for smart bus
ticket holders, smart bus wait at exit, or under shelter wait with
vehicle arrival announcement on VMS 共variable message sign兲兴;
Synchronizes: on-line communication between the train ser-
vice and the smart bus 关bus equipped with 共1兲 arrival information
of the train service to relevant station共s兲, 共2兲 time difference, posi-
tive or negative, for synchronization兴, smart bus subscription with
serial numbers 共adding variable scheduling element to meet sub-
scribers, planning the fixed scheduling component with subscrib-
ers’ information兲, short-turn and short-cut routing strategies 共com-
puterized suggestion for the smart bus driver on short-turn and
short-cut, VMS on-board information on meeting time兲. These
ideas can be successfully implemented in a new PT plan for the
Auckland city.
The stepwise PT plan should take into account proper prepa-
ration. The planned special bus lane from the north to the CBD
could act as an intermediate component with long buses 共e.g.,
double articulated兲 that are fed 共and synchronized with兲 by other
共possible shuttle兲 bus routes. The Downtown Terminal inter-
change will not only be linked to the heavy rail and buses, but
also to the ferries, and possibly will be the largest interchange of
the proposed system. It is worth mentioning that the switch from
car to PT will start only if the PT system could ‘‘beat’’ the car in
certain aspects 共less travel time, better access, special comfort,
etc.兲. For example, if the bus can be reliable, with clean and
comfortable seats, offering a fresh morning newspaper and possi-
bly coffee, and can bring the passengers close to their work, the
desired shift 共car to bus兲 can be foreseen.
New Zealand is the second country in the world with car own-
ership 共0.65 cars per person兲. It is a country, like the USA, with
orientation to use private cars whereas the image of the buses and
trains is somewhere down the list. An analog to the current New
Zealand situation is to assume what would happen if elevators
were operated like buses, every 20 or 30 minutes! The PT in New
Zealand should be with a face toward door-to-door services with
smooth and synchronized transfers in comfortable interchanges.
As a summary this work constructs a review of the current
state of public transport 共PT兲 practice and discusses the main
elements that need to be emphasized while introducing a new or
an improved PT system. It also provides profound thoughts on the
existing challenges for achieving an effective, advanced, and at-
tractive PT system.
Acknowledgments
Many thanks and appreciation to the City of Auckland, New
Zealand, that partially supported this study and provided the in-
formation for the example used in this work. Appreciation and
thanks are also due to the three referees who helped to improve
this paper.
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