Fundamentals of Electronic Communications Chapter 6: Communications Circuits

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. To be able to determine the different types of communications circuits.
2. To be able to calculate parameters in different communications circuits.

Activities

Search for a block diagram of a communications circuit. Identify the different types.

Processing
COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS

Pad / Attenuator

A passive Circuit That variably reduces the amplitude or power of a signal without

considerably distorting its waveform.

Fixed attenuators which are called pads are used to lower voltage, dissipate power and

improve impedance matching in circuits.

Insertion loss, (IL) – a measure of attenuation introduced by the system in dB

Power Ratio, N

Current Ratio, k

Decibel (dB) Notation

The dB does not express exact amounts; Instead, it represents the ratio of the signal

level at one point in a circuit to the signal level at another point in a circuit.

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Classifications of Pad / Attenuator

A) According to configuration

L-Type

T-Type Bridged-T

Pi-Type O-Type

H-Type Bridged-H

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k-Derived Equations

Resistance values for a designed attenuator/pad

B) According to Symmetry

Symmetrical

T-Pad, Pi-Pad, O-Pad, H-Pad, and Bridged-T, and Bridged-H are all symmetrical n

networks.

Asymmetrical

L-Pad is an example of a asymmetrical network.

C) Balanced/unbalanced

Balanced

O-Pad, H-pad, and Bridged-H are examples of balanced network

Unbalanced

L-Pad, T-Pad, Pi-Pad, and Bridged-T are examples of unbalanced networks.

Network Impedances

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Iterative Impedance – the impedance which when used to terminate one end of a two-port

network will make the impedance seen on another end equal.

Adjusting the source impedance or the load impedance, in general, is called impedance

matching.

Iterative Impedance

Characteristic Impedance

For a symmetrical network, the characteristics impedance can be calculated as

Where:

Filters

A filter is a frequency-selective designed to pass some frequencies and reject others.

In filters, the range of frequencies that have a high output is called passband, and the

range of frequencies between a passband and a stop band is called cut-off frequency.

The rate of transition from passband to stopband and vice versa, given dB/decade or

dB/octave, is called the roll-off rate.

Cut-off Frequency

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A cut off frequency is also the frequency at which the output power is 50% of the maximum or

the output amplitude is 70.7% of the maximum. Other terms for cut-off are critical frequency,

corner frequency, break frequency, and half-power point frequency.

Where:

Frequency Response

A graphical representation of the output with respect to frequency.

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Filter Construction

A) Based On Configuration

B) Based on Order

One method of creating a more selective filter is to cascade filter stages.

C) Based on Materials Used

Passive

Composed of only passive components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors), and

provides no amplification.

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At higher frequencies (above 100-kHz), it is more common to find LC filters made of

inductors and capacitors.

Active

Typically employs RC networks and amplifiers with feedback and offers a number of

advantages.

D) Based on Design

Butterworth

Butterworth filters are termed maximally-flat-magnitude-response filters, optimized for

gain flatness in the passband and have slow transitions.

Bessel

Bessel filters are optimized for maximally flat time delay (or constant-group delay).

Chebyshev

Chebyshev filters are designed to have ripple in the passband, but they have a steeper

roll-off after the cut-off frequency.

Elliptic

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Has an almost perfect frequency response (very fast transition) but has variations on

both the passband and stopband.

The response Curves of the Major Families of Filters

NOTE:

E) Based On Frequency Response

Low-Pass Filter

Passes frequency below a critical frequency called the cut-off frequency and attenuates

those above.

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High Pass filter

Passes frequencies above critical frequency but rejects those below.

Bandpass filter

Passes only frequencies in a narrow range between the upper and lower cut-off.

Bandstop Filter

Rejects or stops frequencies in a narrow range but passes others.

Interval is the ratio between the frequencies at two signals. An interval of 10:1 is termed as

decade while an interval of 2:1 is termed as octave.

Audio Octaves with an interval of 2:1

10Hz fundamental

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20Hz 1st octave

40Hz 2nd octave

80Hz 3rd octave

Audio Decades with an interval of 10:1

10Hz fundamental

100Hz 1st decade

1kHz 2nd decade

10kHz 3rd decade

Low-Pass Filter Circuits

Notice the placement of the elements in the RC and the RL low-pass filters.

Consider the RC low-pass filter circuit and determine the following:

a) Output Voltage, Vo,

b) Voltage gain ratio, Vo/Vs,

c) Cut-off frequency, fc

Solution:

a) Using the voltage divider principle

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To simplify the equation, multiply a factor of 1 equivalent to:

b) Voltage gain, Vo/Vs becomes

c) To determine the cut-off frequency, remember that the gain at cut-off is equal to 70.7%

of the maximum so that

The maximum gain for passive filter is 1, so the equation is reduced to

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At cut-off, the voltage gain equation becomes

Simplify and evaluate Xc at the cut-off of frequency.

The equation is reduced to Xc = R

High-Pass Filter Circuits

Consider the RC high-pass filter circuit and determine the following:

a) Output voltage, Vo,

b) Voltage gain ratio, Vo/Vs,

c) Cut-off frequency, fc

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Solution:

a) Using the Voltage Divider Principle,

To simplify the equation, multiply a factor of 1 equivalent to

b) Voltage gain, Vo/Vs becomes

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c) To determine the cut-off frequency, remember that the gain at cut-off is equal to 70.7%

of the maximum so that.

The maximum gain for a passive filter is 1, so that the equation if reduced to

At cut-off, the voltage gain equation becomes

Simplify and evaluate Xc at the cut-off frequency.

The equation is reduced to Xc =R

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Band Pass Filter Circuit

The bandpass filter circuit frequency response as shown is a combination of high pass filter and

low pass filter frequency response where f1 and f2 are cut-off frequencies.

Assumption:

Consider frequencies that are very low, and since becomes open and the circuit

is now a high pass filter.

Cut-Off frequency becomes

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Now, consider frequencies that are very high and since becomes shorted and

the circuit is now a low pass filter.

The cut-off frequency becomes

Shape Factor

The shape factor of a filter is the ratio of -60 dB bandwidth to its -3dB bandwidth

Band Reject Filter (Wien Bridge)

Resonance

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At any given coil and capacitor, as the frequency increases, the reactance of the coil

increases, and the reactance of the capacitor decreases. Because of these opposite

characteristics, any LC combination should have a frequency at which the inductive

reactance of a coil equals the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. This condition in an

AC circuit where equals Xc is called resonance.

Resonant circuits are the basis of all transmitters, receivers, and antenna operations.

Without these circuit, radio communication would not be possible.

Resonant Frequency

The frequency at which the opposite reactance are equal.

Where:

Series Resonance

The series-resonant circuit across an AC source

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In any circuit, the same value of current flows in all parts of the circuit at any instance.

However, the inductive reactance leads by 90° compared with the zero-reference angle of the

resistance, and the capacitive reactance lags by 90°.

Therefore, XL and Xc are 180° out of phase.

Minimum impedance at series resonance

Since reactance cancel at resonant frequency, the impedance of the series circuit is

minimum and equal to the low value of the series resistance. This minimum impedance

at resonance is resistive, resulting in a zero-phase angle.

Maximum Current at Series Resonance

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The amount of current is greatest at the resonant frequency since impedance is at its

lowest resonance. The response curve of the series resonant circuit shows that the

current is small and below resonance, rises to its maximum value at resonant frequency,

and then drop off to small values above resonance.

Resonant Rise in Voltage across L or C

Since the Current is the same in all parts of a series circuit, the maximum current at

resonance produces the maximum voltage IXc across C and an equal IXL voltage across L

for the resonant frequency.

Unity Power Factor

Since the circuit acts as a purely resistive (zero-reactance) load to the source at resonance,

power factor is therefore equal to 1.

Parallel Resonance

The parallel-resonant circuit across an ac source

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In the parallel turned circuit, the same voltage is across both the coil and the capacitor.

In the inductive branch, the circuit lags the source voltage by 90°. In the capacitive branch, the

current leads the source voltage by 90°.

Because the line current is ideally zero at resonance, it should be possible to disconnect

the source and the current should continue the oscillate back to forth between the coil and the

capacitor indefinitely. This exchange of energy between the inductor and the capacitor is called

the flywheel effect and produces a damped sine wave at the resonant frequency. The primary

purpose of the parallel tuned circuit is to form a complete ac sine wave output.

Maximum Line Impedance at Parallel Resonance

Since reactance are equal at resonance, it follows that susceptance are also equal and

they cancel at resonant frequency; the admittance of the parallel circuit is therefore

minimum and thus produces maximum impedance. The maximum impedance at

resonance is resistive, resulting in a zero-phase angle.

Minimum Line Current at Parallel Resonance

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The amount of current is least at the resonance frequency since impedance is at its

maximum at resonance. The responsive curve of the parallel resonant circuit shows that

the current is high below resonance, drops to its lowest value at a resonant frequency,

and then rise

again above

resonance.

Resonant Rise in Current through L and C

The current through each reactance is equal to I = V/X and will usually be greater than the

source current.

Unity Power Factor

Since the circuit acts as a purely resistive (zero-reactance) load to the source at resonance,

power factor is therefore equal to 1.

Quality Factor

Q of a circuit is defined as the ratio of reactive power to the true power or

𝑃𝑄
𝑄=
𝑃𝑅

Q is also a measure of the bands pass filter’s selectivity. A high Q indicates that a filter

selects a smaller band of frequencies (more selective). The quality factor Q is defined as

the ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth or

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𝑓𝑅
𝑄=
𝐵

Q of a Series Circuit

When the resistance is in the series with any reactance (like in the case of a series

resonant circuit), an increase in the resistance produces a lower Q.

𝑃𝑄 𝐼𝑋𝐿
Q𝑠 = =
𝑃𝑅 𝐼𝑅

𝑋𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝑅 𝐿
𝑄𝑆 =
𝑅 𝑅

2𝜋𝐿
𝑄𝑆 =
𝑅 ∗ 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

√𝐿/𝐶
𝑄𝑆 =
𝑅

Q of a Parallel Circuit

When a resistor is connected across a coil or capacitor reactance (like in the case of a

parallel resonant circuit), the effective Q of the circuit will vary directly with the value of

the resistance.

𝑃𝑄 𝑉 2 /𝑋𝐿
𝑄𝑃 = = 2
𝑃𝑅 𝑉 /𝑅

𝑅 𝑅
𝑄𝑃 = =
𝑋𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝑅 𝐿

𝑅 ∗ 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑄𝑃 =
2𝜋𝐿
𝑅
𝑄𝑃 =
√𝐿/𝐶

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A shunt resistor is often connected across a parallel LC circuit to lower its Q. This makes

the circuit less sensitive to being resonant at any one frequency and broadens the

frequency response.

Bandwidth

The frequency range over which a signal is transmitted or which a receiver or other

electronic circuit operates. One method of measuring the bandwidth is to measure the

width of either the voltage or the current response curve between points at 0.707

maximum. Since power is proportional to voltage or current squared, the 0.707 point is

also the half-power point (0.707² = 0.5) or down 3dB. Thus, the bandwidth is normally

measured between half-power points, or -3dB points.

𝑓𝑅
𝐵𝑊 =
𝑄

Where:

𝑓𝑅 = Resonant Frequency, (Hz)

Q = Quality Factor

BW = Bandwidth, (Hz)

Review on Amplifiers

AF and RF Amplifiers

The fundamental difference between the audio frequency amplifier and the radio

frequency amplifier is the band of frequencies they are expected to amplify. True “high-

fidelity” sounds would require circuits capable of handling audio frequencies from as low

as 15 to over 1500 Hz without distortion. Most RF amplifiers amplify only a relatively

narrow portion of the RF spectrum, attenuating all other frequencies.

Power Amplifiers

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One or more low-level (low power) amplifiers may be required to drive the input of a

power amplifier adequately. The first stage of an amplifying system showed a low-noise

type because all following stages will be amplifying any noise that the system generates.

Class A

A Class A amplifier is biased so that it conducts continuously for 360° of an input sine

wave. The bias is set so that the output never saturates or cuts-off. In this way, its output

is an amplified linear reproduction of the input. The Class A amplifier is used primarily as

a small-signal voltage amplifiers or for low-power amplifiers.

Class AB

A Class AB amplifier is biased near cut-off. It will conduct for more than 180° but for less

than 360° of the input. It is used primarily in push-pull amplifiers and provides better

linearity than a Class B amplifier but with less efficiency.

Class B

A Class B amplifier is biased at cut-off and conducts only one-half of the sine wave input.

This means that one-half of the sine wave is amplified. Normally, two Class B amplifiers

are connected in a push-pull arrangement so the both positive and negative alternations

of the input are amplified simultaneously.

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Class C

A Class C amplifier is one whose output conducts load current during less than one-half

cycle of an input sine wave. The total angle during which current flows is less than 180°.

The Class C amplifier, being the most efficient, makes a good power amplifier.

Reading Assignment

Read on oscillators.

Assessment Tasks

Practice Problems
1. Convert an absolute power ratio of 100 to a power gain in dB.

2. Convert a power level of 200mW to dBm.

3. Determine the iterative impedance of the T-pad and the H-pad.

4. What is the insertion loss, IL, in dB of a symmetrical T-network whose series arm is 50 Ω

and whose shunt arm is 200 Ω when inserted in a circuit, whose impedance is equal to

the characteristic impedance of the network?

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5. Design an H-pad with an iterative impedance of 300 Ω and an insertion loss of 26 dB.

6. Determine the iterative impedance of the Pi-Pad and the O-Pad

7. Compute for the resistance value of an O-network for an iterative impedance of 600 Ω

and

insertion loss of 35dB.

8. What resistor value, R, will produce a cut-off frequency of 3.4 KHz with .047µF

capacitor?

9. Suppose that a low-pass filter has a cut-off frequency of 1KHz. If the input voltage for a

signal at this frequency is 30mV, what is the output voltage?

10. Calculate the cut-off frequency, fc, and Vout at fc. Assume Vin = 10 Vpp for all

frequencies

References:

1. Tomasi W. Electronic Communications Systems – Fundamentals through Advanced 5th

Edition, New Jersey, Prentice Hall
2. Roddy J., Coolen E., Electronic Communications 5th Edition, New Jersey, Prentice Hall
3. Frenzel L., Principles of Electronic Communication Systems, New York, Mc Graw Hill

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