Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

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Integrated seismic and well-log analysis for the exploration of stratigraphic T

traps in the Carbonera Formation, Llanos foreland basin of Colombia
Lucia Torradoa,1,∗, Luis Carlos Carvajal-Arenasa,1, Paul Mannb, Janok Bhattacharyac
a
Department of Earth & Atmospheric Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77004, USA
b
Department of Earth & Atmospheric Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77004, USA
c
School of Geography & Earth Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

A B S T R A C T

The Llanos foreland basin of Colombia is the country's most prolific oil producer, with the most known oil fields found in normal fault traps created during flexure of
the foreland basin. The objective of the study is to evaluate the potential of stratigraphic traps in the Late Eocene-Early Miocene Carbonera Formation, a 400-1800 m-
thick reservoir unit with numerous traps related to unfaulted, sand-prone fluvial deposits. We integrated 700 km2 of 3D seismic data with eight wells near the ~8600
bcd Cubiro field in the central area of the Llanos foreland. Interpretations of well logs and stratal slices through multi-attribute and iso-frequency amplitude cubes
show that the Carbonera Formation contains tectonically-controlled, sinuous channel belts seen on seismic lines as strong, high-amplitude, concave reflections with
variable width-to-depth ratio. Well logs through the Carbonera Formation record two regressive-transgressive cycles with greater preservation of non-reservoir, shaly
transgressive deposits within the intermediate Carbonera members 5 and 3, and sandy, lowstand deposits in the lower and uppermost Carbonera members 7 and 1,
respectively. Seismic and gamma-ray facies analyses allowed the distinction of prospective, sand-rich point bars, scrolls, and basal lag deposits from non-prospective,
mud-rich abandoned channels. Stratal slices within the Carbonera Formation show changes from Late Eocene-Early Oligocene, northeast-flowing channel belts of a
main axial fluvial system -proposed to be the proto-Meta River-, to a Late Oligocene southeast-flowing tributary channels interpreted as a result of eastward flexural
migration, enhanced accommodation from loading of the Eastern Cordillera and a shift from an underfilled to overfilled foreland basin.

1. Introduction foreland basin. We differentiate sand intervals for potential hydro-

The commercial success of oil companies exploring the study area of
the Llanos foreland basin of Colombia (Fig. 1) is based on the under-
standing of the Paleogene fluvial depositional system, and the most
common, four-way dip closures associated with normal faults related to
the flexure of the foreland basin (Barrero et al., 2007). The Llanos basin
production is ~754,000 bcd with reserves of ~144 million barrels
(ANH, 2015) and is one of the most prolific South American foreland
basins along the eastern flank of the Andes mountains (Barrero et al.,
2007).
Exploration in the Llanos foreland basin has been mainly focused on
structural-type traps consisting of gently-dipping monoclines associated
with normal faults related to foreland basin flexure (Barrero et al.,
2007), and up to this time, there has been little exploration of strati-
graphic traps.
In this study, we integrated gamma-ray log and seismic facies ana-
lysis, seismic geomorphology, and multi-attribute analysis within a
sequence stratigraphy framework to assess the potential of stratigraphic
traps of the Carbonera Formation in the central area of the Llanos
carbon accumulations from least prospective intervals, identified dif-
ferent types of channel deposits, and related our observations to re-
gional depositional controls reported in the study area during Late
Eocene-Early Miocene times.
2. Geologic setting of the Llanos basin
The Llanos foreland basin of northeastern Colombia is an elongate
(96,000 km2) and asymmetrical sub-Andean foreland basin formed
during Late Cretaceous to Recent convergent events between the
Andean Mountains and cratonic rocks of northwestern South America
(Moreno et al., 2011; Nie and Horton, 2012) (Fig. 1A and C). The study
area is located in the central area of the Llanos foreland basin near the
Meta River and the town of Orocue (Fig. 1B).
The basin exhibits a typical cross-sectional configuration of an
asymmetrical, clastic sedimentary wedge thickening westward towards
the thrusted eastern margin of the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes, and
thinning and pinching out to the east on the gently westward-dipping
surface of cratonic rocks of the Guyana shield (Cooper et al., 1995;

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: lucia.torrado@agiexploration.com (L. Torrado), lccarvajal@agiexploration.com (L.C. Carvajal-Arenas), pmann@uh.edu (P. Mann),
bhattaj@mcmaster.ca (J. Bhattacharya).
1
Now at: AGI Exploration LLC, Houston, TX, USA - 77063.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2020.102607
Received 15 July 2019; Received in revised form 14 March 2020; Accepted 12 April 2020
Available online 20 April 2020
0895-9811/ © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 1. (A) Location of main structural elements and rivers of Colombia, northwestern South America. The Llanos foreland basin (LLFB), located in the eastern portion
of Colombia is shown in yellow shading. (B) Topographic map showing a zoomed display of the location study area within the Llanos foreland basin and the different
structural provinces defined in the basin by Campos and Mann (2015). The study area is located within the maximum zone of flexure. (C) Schematic structural cross-
section of the eastern flank of the Eastern Cordillera (Llanos foothills) and the Llanos foreland basin (LLFB) showing the relationship between known hydrocarbon
occurrences and its structural provinces. Modified from Barrero et al. (2007), and Campos and Mann (2015). The location of the study area is shown by a black star.
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Campos and Mann, 2015) (Fig. 1C). Towards the south, the Llanos
foreland basin is bound by two ranges of exposed Precambrian and
Cretaceous rocks, the Serrania de la Macarena and the Vaupes arch,
respectively (Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010; Moreno-Lopez and
Escalona, 2015) (Fig. 1A). These basement highs separate the southern
Llanos foreland basin from the Putumayo foreland basin of southern
Colombia (Barrero et al., 2007) (Fig. 1A). The Arauca arch, a more
subtle structural boundary, separates the northern Llanos basin from
the Barinas-Apure foreland basin of Venezuela (Fig. 1A).
According to Campos and Mann (2015), four structural provinces
are recognized in the Llanos foreland basin: 1) The blind thrust area:
this area is adjacent to the Eastern Cordillera thrust and contains large
buried folds and blind thrusts (Fig. 1B and C). Significant hydrocarbon
reserves occur in this area, in oilfields like Cusiana, La Gloria, Trinidad,
and Barquerena (Campos and Mann, 2015); 2) The maximum tectonic
flexure area: this area contains normal faults striking in a SW−NE di-
rection related to bending of the lithosphere mainly as the result of
tectonic loading from the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 1B and C) (Gomez
et al., 2005). Several small and mid-size oilfields related to structural
traps have been discovered in this area, including Sardinas, Jordan,
Guarilaque, Guarimena, and Cubiro field, the latter located in the area
of study (Fig. 1B and C); 3) The basement inversion area: this area is
characterized by basement-related, small-heave normal faults oriented
in a north-south strike direction that affect older successions (Fig. 1C).
Major oilfields like Rubiales are located in this area (Fig. 1B and C)
(ANH, 2015); and 4) The backstep wedging area: the most eastern area
of the Llanos foreland basin consists of a thin zone of sedimentary onlap
onto cratonic rocks of the Guyana shield, which makes it a good can-
didate for the occurrence of stratigraphic traps (Fig. 1B and C). Small
and noncommercial hydrocarbon accumulations like in the El Miedo
field have been discovered in this part of the basin (ANH, 2015)
(Fig. 1C).
The Llanos foreland basin records shallow marine to a transitional
deposition in a Cretaceous passive margin setting represented by three
units: 1) the basal, Aptian-Cenomanian sandstone of the Une
Formation, 2) the shaly Cenomanian-Coniacian Gacheta Formation
considered to be a source rock in the basin, and 3) the Santonian-
Maastrichtian, shallow-marine, regressive sandstone of the Guadalupe
Formation at the top (Cooper et al., 1995). Shallow marine deposition
terminated abruptly due to a Maastrichtian accretion of arc and plateau
rocks of the Western Cordillera against the continental basement of
northwestern South America (Cooper et al., 1995) (Fig. 2).
By the Cenozoic, fluvial conditions prevailed in the Llanos foreland
basin from the Paleocene until the Late Eocene, and resulted in the
deposition of several units: 1) the Paleocene, sand-rich, estuarine de-
posits of the Barco Formation (Cooper et al., 1995); 2) the Late Pa-
leocene to Early Eocene, shaly Los Cuervos Formation corresponding to
another source rock interval (Barrero et al., 2007); and 3) the Middle to
Late Eocene, Mirador Formation represented by a massive, coarse-to-
medium-grained sandstone of a braided fluvial system that constitutes
one of the reservoir units in the western the Llanos foreland basin
(Villegas et al., 1994; Cooper et al., 1995) (Fig. 2A). The Barco For-
mation, Cuervos Formation, and the Mirador Formation all pinch-out
against the gently-sloping metasedimentary Paleozoic basement and are
absent in the study area as observed in well data (Figs. 1C and 2A).
Inversion along the western flank of the Eastern Cordillera -origin-
ally a Mesozoic graben (Mora et al., 2019)- started as early as the Late
Paleocene–Early Eocene (60–50 Ma) with an initial phase of shortening

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L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 2. (A) Generalized stratigraphic column of the Llanos foreland basin showing a summary of the main petroleum systems elements, regional events and de-
positional environments (modified from Barrero et al., 2007); (B) Type gamma-ray log (Well D); and (C) Predominant lithology taken from well cutting descriptions
in the area of study (Montes et al., 2012).

and cooling (Parra et al., 2012). A renewed period of tectonism occurs
during the Late Eocene (De la Parra et al., 2015; Reyes-Harker et al.,
2015), represented by an increased in accommodation vs. sediment
supply as reflected in the deposition of fine-grained sediments of the
base of the Carbonera Formation (Member 8) (De la Parra et al., 2015;
Reyes-Harker et al., 2015).
The Oligocene epoch marks a time of major paleogeographic
changes in the Llanos foreland basin (Figs. 2A and 3B) with further
eastward overthrusting of the Eastern Cordillera (Gomez et al., 2005),
and inversion and propagation of the Mesozoic graben (Caballero et al.,
2010; Mora et al., 2019) (Fig. 3B). An Oligocene fluvial system flowing
along the axis of the Llanos foreland basin,-equivalent to the Carbonera
Member 5- has been referred to as the “Proto-Orinoco River system”
(Hoorn et al., 1995; Diaz de Gamero, 1996; Villamil, 1999; Escalona
and Mann, 2006), although more recent work have concluded that the
proto-Orinoco River was not established until the Middle Miocene
(Pestman et al., 1998; Hoorn et al., 2010; Bande et al., 2012; Rincon
et al., 2014). In this study, we refer to this main axial fluvial system
within the Carbonera Formation as the “proto-Meta River” due to its
morphological resemblance and proximity of the study area to the
present-day Meta River in the central area of the basin (Fig. 3B).
Fluvial drainage systems in the Middle Magdalena basin and the
Llanos foreland basin became separated by the Late Eocene-Early
Oligocene as a result of the uplift of the intervening Eastern Cordillera
(Gomez et al., 2005; Saylor et al., 2012; Reyes-Harker et al., 2015) with
the most dramatic eastward advance of the orogenic front in the Late
Oligocene (Parra et al., 2009) and consequently, both basins acquired
their approximate present-day shape and dimensions by this time
(Moreno et al., 2011; Nie and Horton, 2012) (Fig. 3C).
Conformably overlying the Carbonera Formation, the Middle
Miocene Leon Formation was deposited during the major phase of uplift
of the Eastern Cordillera where the consequent increase in accom-
modation allowed the deposition of lagoonal shale under restricted,
quiescent conditions over an extensive area of the Llanos foreland basin
(Villamil, 1999; Gomez et al., 2005; Bayona et al., 2008a, 2008b)
(Fig. 2C).
The deposition of a thick fluvial succession, referred to as the
Guayabo Formation, occurred from the Late Miocene until the Pliocene
during the latest exhumation of the Eastern Cordillera (Fig. 2A) (Cooper
et al., 1995). These rocks are discordantly overlain by Quaternary al-
luvial sediments composed of unconsolidated gravels of variable
thickness known as the Necesidad Formation (Cooper et al., 1995)
(Fig. 2A).
2.1. The Carbonera Formation in the Llanos foreland basin
The Late Eocene-Early Miocene Carbonera Formation has been de-
scribed by Cooper et al. (1995) as a thick succession of interbedded,
sand-rich members (Carbonera members 1, 3, 5 and 7) and muddy
members (Carbonera members 2, 4, 6 and 8) deposited on fluvial plains
with local tidal-influence (Malagon, 1997; Bande et al., 2012) (Fig. 2A).
This dominantly sinuous fluvial system (Moreno et al., 2011; Saylor
et al., 2012) becomes increasingly sandier towards the flanks of the
basin (Barrero et al., 2007). The Carbonera Formation unconformably
overlies Late Cretaceous rocks in the study area (Fig. 2A), and Late
Cretaceous and Paleozoic beds in the eastern and southern parts of the
Llanos foreland basin (Ecopetrol, 1995; Moreno-Lopez and Escalona,
2015).

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L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 3. Eocene-Miocene paleogeographic reconstruction of northwestern South America showing: (A) A Late Eocene period of marine regression and fluvial de-
position in the Llanos foreland basin influenced by the onset of the Eastern Cordillera (EC) uplift, the establishment of a foreland basin with sediments mainly sourced
from the Guyana Shield (GS); (B) An Early Oligocene – Late Oligocene period of marine-influenced fluvial deposition in Llanos foreland basin triggered by the initial
eastward migration of the Eastern Cordillera, the deepening of the foredeep with clastic source areas located in both the fold-thrust belt and craton; and (C) An Early
Miocene – Middle Miocene period of widespread, marine incursion influenced by high accommodation triggered by the main phase of uplift of the Eastern Cordillera
(EC) with most clastic source areas located in the expanding fold-thrust belt adjacent to the foreland basin. Subsequently, an enclosed lacustrine and wetlands system
called the Pebas system developed which covered a large area of eastern Colombia. Paleogeographic maps modified from Hoorn et al. (2010), and schematic cross
sections modified from Moreno et al. (2011) and Nie and Horton (2012).

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L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 4. (A) Location of seismic volumes A, B, and C used in this study. (B) Parameters of the seismic volumes used in this study including dominant frequency (Hz),
bin size (m), and vertical resolution (m) with a frequency window of ~8–80 Hz. (C) Example of seismic-well tie with Well H in Survey C (left) and seismic-well tie
using trace spectral decomposition with frequency of 54 Hz (right), where both ties show a good correlation between seismic and well data.

The Carbonera Formation has an average thickness of ~762 m
(~2500 ft) across the Llanos foreland basin with a thickness range from
~61 m (~200 ft) to the Eastern Llanos area to 1220 m (~4003 ft) to the
west near the foothills (ANH, 2006) with the highest thicknesses of
2700 m (~8858 ft) reported close to the Meta River. To the east of the
Meta River, the Carbonera Formation thickness decreases to less than
~300 m (~984 ft) (ANH, 2006). Along with these thickness changes,
porosity varies from 26% in the eastern Llanos area to 16% near the
foothills (ANH, 2006). The Carbonera Formation has been dated as Late
Eocene to Early Miocene by Jaramillo et al. (2011) based on palyno-
logical information of 70 sections of the entire Cenozoic along the
Llanos basin and Llanos foothills.
The sandier members of the Carbonera Formation, -particularly the
Carbonera Member 7- exhibit porosities ranging from to 14–30% (ANH,
2006). These sandier members are considered the main reservoir units
in the central and eastern portions of the Llanos foreland basin
(Fig. 2A), whereas the Mirador Formation serves as the main reservoir
unit in the southwestern Llanos foreland basin (Ecopetrol, 1995;
Barrero et al., 2007) (Fig. 2A). In the study area, the oil and gas pro-
ducing intervals correspond to the Carbonera Member 7 and the top of
the Late Cretaceous, Guadalupe Formation (Fig. 1C). The Carbonera
Member 2 acts as an intraformational regional seal due to its relatively

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L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 5. (A) Uninterpreted; and (B) Interpreted, northwest to southeast, arbitrary line through seismic volumes A, B and C showing westward dip of sedimentary
section and high-angle antithetic normal faults related to flexure of the Llanos foreland basin as shown schematically in Fig. 1C. Horizon tops were picked at the top
of the sandy members 1, 3, 5 and 7 within the Carbonera Formation as shown by the well-seismic tie in Fig. 4C. Major fluvial channel belts within the Carbonera
Formation are highlighted in yellow shading, and examples of reflection terminations and seismic character are indicated by the yellow squares. (For interpretation of
the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

broad distribution across the basin (Cooper et al., 1995; Ecopetrol, 2012; Reyes-Harker et al., 2015). These data confirm that active de-
1995). formation and advance of the Eastern Cordillera had already started by
the latest Oligocene (Mora et al., 2010) with a rapid orogenic advance
(Parra et al., 2009; Mora et al., 2010), and a broadening of the basin
2.1.1. Paleographic controls on the deposition of the Carbonera Formation
(Reyes-Harker et al., 2015).
The controlling mechanisms for the deposition of the Carbonera
The unit also exhibits marine influence as reported in the Carbonera
Formation include an interaction between flexural tectonics (Caycedo
members 8 and 2, where the ANH (2006) has described benthic for-
Garcia and Catuneanu, 2018), changes in sediment provenance (Reyes-
aminifera, along with palynomorphs characteristic of marginal-marine
Harker et al., 2015) and short-lived, marine incursions (Bayona et al.,
and lagoonal environments (Cazier et al., 1995; Bande et al., 2012).
2007).
Fresh to brackish-water dinoflagellate cysts and foraminiferal tests are
Previous work by Ecopetrol (1995), Cooper et al. (1995), and ANH
found in the uppermost section of the Carbonera Member 2 in the
(2006) defined the Guyana shield as the main source area for Oligocene
southern flank of the Llanos foreland basin (Bayona et al., 2007) with
fluvial sediments in the Llanos foreland basin area with dominant east
pronounced mangrove swamp influence (ANH, 2006).
to west channel paleoflow direction. However, newer paleoflow direc-
The presence of glauconite -a mineral restricted to shallow marine
tions studies show the influence of an early uplift of the Eastern Cor-
settings-, Skolithos ichnofacies, sparse foraminifera, and marginal-
dillera by Late Eocene as an important clastic source for the Carbonera
marine palynomorphs were reported by Bayona et al. (2008b) in Car-
Formation (Bayona et al., 2007; Nie and Horton, 2012; Bande et al.,
bonera Member 2 indicating a locally marine-influenced area despite its
2012; Reyes-Harker et al., 2015) (Fig. 3).
inland location by Late Oligocene. Glauconite and disseminated pyrite
Tectonically, the Carbonera Formation records the eastwardly mi-
were also reported in well data in the study area, as shown in Fig. 2C.
gration of foreland-basin-related subsidence associated with a thick-
Plant debris found in the shalier members of the Carbonera Formation
ening, gradual increase in sand percentage derived from both source
(Hoorn et al., 1995) have been interpreted as having been deposited in
areas, to the west from the Eastern Cordillera and to the east from the
a vegetated tidal flat with low diversity assemblages of Skolithos ich-
Guyana shield, with continental influence increasing towards the wes-
nofacies as described by Malagon (1997) in the basal Carbonera For-
tern flank of the basin (Fig. 3) (Campos and Mann, 2015). In the wes-
mation close to the Llanos foothills. Marine and coastal deposits re-
tern Llanos foreland basin, detrital geochronology documents the ap-
ported by Caycedo Garcia and Catuneanu (2018) in the
pearance of clasts and zircons coming from sources in the Eastern
sedimentological description of the Carbonera Member 5 indicate
Cordillera since the latest Oligocene (Hoorn et al., 2010; Parra et al.,

6
L. Torrado, et al.
advances of marine sedimentation during periods of tectonic quiescence
and consequent flexural subsidence even with small amounts of relative
sea-level rise.
3. Dataset
The subsurface data used for this study comprises a total of three,
post-stacked time migrated 3D seismic surveys tied to eight wells that
cover an area of approximately 700 km2 (Fig. 4). The three seismic
surveys are referred to as “Survey A″, “Survey B″, and “Survey C’
(Fig. 4A) where the Carbonera Formation ranges between 1.2 and 1.7 s
two-way-time with an average seismic velocity of 1750 m/s calculated
from well data for the interval of interest (Fig. 4B). Well data accessed
included well logs (gamma-ray, density and neutron porosity logs), and
drilling and lithology reports. The well data does not include core data,
but well cuttings' descriptions were incorporated in this study.
4. Methodology
The initial step of seismic horizon interpretation calibrated to wells
was conducted by Pacific Rubiales Energy for each of the seismic vo-
lumes in the study area (Fig. 4). The seismic-well tie has a good fit in
the time domain and an even better fit in the frequency domain from
Petrel's standard spectral decomposition (SD) algorithm, in this case, at
the best fit with the 54 Hz (Fig. 4C) where standard SD acts as a low
bandpass filter.
From this initial seismic interpretation phase (Fig. 5), we conducted
the following: 1) Gamma-ray log analysis (Figs. 6 and 7); 2) Multi-at-
tribute analysis and spectral decomposition (Figs. 8–11); 3) Seismic
facies analysis integrated with multi-attribute and gamma-ray log
analysis (Fig. 12); 4) Calculations of channel sinuosity and width/depth
ratios (Fig. 13); and 5) Sequence stratigraphic interpretation based on
seismic and well data (Figs. 15–17).
4.1. Identification of fluvial elements based on the integration of
electrofacies and seismic facies analysis
We used gamma-ray logs as the main tool in the identification of
electrofacies, which correspond to a set of well-log responses that
characterize a specific lithologic unit. In this study, we used gamma-ray
log values, log shape, stacking patterns, and vertical dimension cali-
brated with well cuttings descriptions for electrofacies analysis fol-
lowing techniques by Emery and Myers (1996), Rider (2002), Miall
(2006) and the SEPM (Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists), for the identification of fluvial architectural elements
(Fig. 6) and stacking patterns (Figs. 6 and 7) that were later used in the
sequence stratigraphic analysis (Figs. 15 and 16).
Five types of gamma-ray log patterns were identified in the
Carbonera Formation (Fig. 6) which include: 1) Coarsening upward
patterns (or funnel trend) with the finest grain sediment at the bottom;
2) Fining upward patterns (or bell trend) with the finest grain sediment
at the top; 3) Cylindrical patterns (or boxcar trend) of low gamma-ray
values corresponding to an even pattern with a sharp top and base of
coarser-grained sediments; 4) Serrated trend characterized by a lack of
character and related to aggradation of fine-grained sediments; and 5)
Symmetrical trends which combine coarsening and finning upward
patterns and vice-versa. The stacking patterns associated with these
gamma-ray logs trends are illustrated as a black triangle for finning-
upwards patterns, an inverted black triangle for coarsening-upwards
patterns and a black rectangle for aggradating patterns (Figs. 6 and 7).
On the other hand, seismic facies analysis was done based on the
recognition of seismic stratal terminations whose parameters including
configuration, amplitude, continuity, frequency, and interval velocity
(Mitchum and Vail, 1977). Seismic facies are confined to a unit with a
seismic character that is different from the adjacent units at a de-
termined seismic sampling rate (Zeng, 2004). Due to the difference
7
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607
between well and seismic data scales (i.e., resolution), the gamma-ray
facies are contained within the seismic facies, whereas the seismic fa-
cies comprise more than one gamma-ray facies (Fig. 12).
4.2. Fluvial architecture based on time and stratal slices through multi-
attribute seismic cubes and iso-frequency amplitude cubes
The company that provided the data required the use of Kingdom
software for the seismic-well tie, seismic interpretation and the com-
putation of smoothed similarity (“coherence”), most positive and most
negative curvature attributes and envelope spectral decomposition.
During the review of this paper, we acquired limited access to Petrel to
complement our observations by calculating other seismic attributes
that included sweetness, chaos and ant-tracker, and standard spectral
decomposition for RGB blending (Fig. 10). These attribute cubes were
calculated for a subset of the interval of interest for each of the three
seismic volumes using a sampling interval of 2 ms.
Stratal slices (known as horizon probes in Petrel) were extracted
from the three seismic amplitude and calculated attribute cubes in
order to identify and map seismic stratigraphic features that produce
sharp discontinuities, such as faults and stratigraphic boundaries like
fluvial channel belts (Bahorich, 1995; Davies et al., 2007; Torrado et al.,
2014) (Figs. 8–11). Attributes like smoothed similarity (coherence) that
are computed along time slices can contribute to structural dip artifacts
such as apparent discontinuities (Marfurt and Alves, 2015). To avoid
these artifacts, Marfurt and Alves (2015) suggest calculating the co-
herence attribute along the structural dip. Since Kingdom's version used
in this study does not allow computation along structural dip -it does
allow computation along flattened slices-, the smoothed similarity
(coherence) attribute calculation with this software along time slices
were done for a small area where the regional dip of the basin is
minimum (Fig. 14).
4.2.1. Multi-attribute analysis for identification of stratigraphic and
structural features
The smoothed similarity attribute, also known as coherence or
variance, is a commonly used tool that calculates “the similarity of
waveforms or traces adjacent to a lateral and/or vertical windows” (as
defined by Kingdom's user guide) and is used to image geologic features
like faults, channels, deltas, submarine canyons, and mass transport
complexes among others (Chopra and Marfurt, 2018). Some of the
pitfalls with using coherence is associated with seismic quality data
including acquisition footprint (see example in Fig. 8A), processing
artifacts, and velocity pull-up/push-down effects, the latter commonly
observed in the pre-Miocene successions of the Llanos basin along “fault
shadows” in the footwall of normal faults caused by changes in velocity
from the Leon Formation (Corredor, 2012). Other pitfalls include al-
gorithmic pitfalls and associated with signal and noise (Marfurt and
Alves, 2015).
The sweetness attribute is derived by dividing reflection strength
(also known as ‘‘instantaneous amplitude’’ or ‘‘amplitude envelope’‘) by
the square root of instantaneous frequency (Hart, 2008). Instantaneous
frequency refers to the rate of change of phase and is related to both the
bandwidth of the seismic data and bed thickness (Hart, 2008). Sweet-
ness can be a useful tool in differentiating sand vs. shale intervals as
long as there is a strong contrast of acoustic impedance between these
two lithologies. If this is the case, the reflections characterized by high
amplitudes and low frequency will correspond to high sweetness zones
(Mitra et al., 2017), whereas other combinations of those attributes will
have low sweetness zones (Hart, 2008). In term of lithology variations,
since shale-dominated intervals tend to be characterized by smaller
acoustic impedance contrasts (low amplitudes) and relatively higher
frequency (i.e., closely spaced reflections), the sweetness attribute
would highlight shale-prone lithologies as areas of low sweetness zones,
where coarser-grained lithologies would be highlighted as high sweet-
ness zones (Hart, 2008; Azeem et al., 2016) (Fig. 10A).
L. Torrado, et al.
Fig. 6. Gamma-ray log facies analysis observed in well data including an example of gamma-ray log display, shape, scale, stacking patterns and abbreviations for six
distinctive fluvial facies (GRF1-6) present in the Carbonera Formation in the study area. Gamma-ray log analysis was based on Emery and Myers (1996) and Rider
(2002). See text for discussion.
The chaos attribute is a dip and azimuth estimation method that
measures the “lack of organization”, which represents either seismic or
geologic noise or a combination of both (Chopra and Marfurt, 2016)
(Fig. 10B). Chaos, disorder or randomness if often characterized by
seismic reflections that change abruptly in different directions, ex-
hibiting no specific waveform shape, amplitude, or orientation (Chopra
and Marfurt, 2016). Hence, the chaos attribute can detect disorganized
(chaotic) textures within seismic data, which can highlight positions of
reflector disruption directly (Koson et al., 2014). In the case of fluvial
environments, the discontinuous character of coarse-grained sediments
within channel infills can give the chaotic signal pattern contained
within seismic data, i.e., chaos attribute can be used to distinguish
different lithology (Koson et al., 2014).
The most positive and most negative attributes are geometric at-
tributes that measure lateral changes in dip and how deformed is a
surface at a particular point (Chopra and Marfurt, 2007). We used most
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607
positive and most negative attributes as an indicator of lithology and
identification of fluvial elements (Chopra and Marfurt, 2012). An esti-
mation of lithology within the channel fill in seismic data was done
based on differential compaction observed in the seismic section
(Torrado et al., 2014) (Fig. 10C). The concept of differential compac-
tion consists of sediment deformed at different rates under overburden
conditions (Chopra and Marfurt, 2012), where soft sediments -e.g.,
mudstone-deform easier under overburden conditions and sand-prone
material is harder to compact (Chopra and Marfurt, 2012; Torrado
et al., 2014). Therefore, mud-prone fill would be imaged as concave
seismic reflections with a negative curvature and sand-prone deposits
would resemble “structural highs” with a positive curvature (Chopra
and Marfurt, 2007; Torrado et al., 2014).
The ant-tracker attribute was created based on the concept of ant
colony systems to determine discontinuities such as faults in 3D seismic
data. In the ant attribute algorithm, large numbers of electronic “ants”
L. Torrado, et al.
Fig. 7. Gamma-ray log correlation, formation tops, gamma-ray log facies and stacking patterns in a dip well section of the Carbonera Formation along surveys A, B
and C. Sand-prone facies (GRF1, GRF2, and GRF3) are more common in Carbonera members 7 and 1, whereas mud-prone facies (GRF4, GRF5, and GRF6) are more
common in Carbonera members 5 to 2. Locations of wells used in the C-C' section are shown on the inset map.
are distributed in the seismic volume allowing them to move along
faults, where ants are more likely to choose the shortest route (Ngeri
et al., 2015). We calculated the ant-tracker attribute along time slices to
better highlight faults and differentiate them from low sinuosity
channels (Fig. 10D).
4.2.2. Spectral decomposition and RGB blending for frequency bands
display
Aside from the attributes calculated for the three seismic cubes, we
also conducted spectral decomposition (SD), also known as time-fre-
quency decomposition as an effective method for the definition of
stratigraphic and structural features (Partyka et al., 1999), and to define
thin layers that cannot be resolved in the time domain because of the
low seismic resolution (Castagna and Sun, 2006). We calculated ten iso-
frequency amplitude cubes in Kingdom using the SD envelope where
the output corresponds to the amplitude envelope of the frequency/
wavenumber bands that allows the search for amplitude anomalies at
different frequencies. We also conducted standard spectral decom-
position in Petrel with frequency volumes of 20 Hz, 30 Hz, and 50 Hz
that were visualized in RGB blending (Fig. 10E).
We used blending of red-green-blue (RGB) color model, which is
one of the most popular multiple seismic attribute analysis methods
(Henderson et al., 2007; Stark, 2006). RGB co-rendering was used with
the iso-frequency amplitude cubes extracted from the standard spectral
decomposition done in Petrel to show thinner stratigraphic features
with greater clarity and increased detail compared to standard displays
by blending the low (20 Hz in red color)-, medium (35 Hz in green
color)-, and high (50 Hz in blue color)-frequency components of the
amplitude spectrum of seismic data (McArdle and Ackers, 2012)
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607
(Fig. 10E). Co-rendering of multiple data sets using different attribute
volumes was also done in this study (Figs. 10 and 11A).
4.3. Estimation of channel width-to-depth ratio and sinuosity
Calculations of channel sinuosity (S) -calculated as stream length
over valley length-, were done on abandoned channels observed in
stratal slices extracted at the top of the sandier Carbonera Formation
members through amplitude and smoothed similarity cubes (Fig. 13), as
an approximation to discriminate if the channels are suspended, mixed
or bed-load dominated (Rosgen, 1994; Gibling, 2006; Miall, 2006).
Channel width-to-depth ratio calculations were also done (Fig. 13B),
where the channel width was calculated on stratal slices, and channel
depth calculations were done on the vertical seismic display (Fig. 13A).
4.4. Sequence stratigraphy: definition of major surfaces and system tracks
The sequence stratigraphy model for non-marine settings by Wright
and Marriott (1993), Shanley and McCabe (1993a,b), Posamentier and
Allen (1999), and Catuneanu et al. (2009) in a foreland setting
(Schwans, 1995) was applied to this largely enclosed-sea, transitional to
continental setting, where the sequences were likely controlled by a
combination of short-lived eustatic transgressions from the distant
Atlantic Ocean (Haq et al., 1987), tectonically-controlled subsidence
within the Llanos foreland basin (Campos and Mann, 2015), and
changing patterns of clastic sediment discharge from topographically
elevated source areas to the west (Eastern Cordillera) and east (Guyana
shield) of the basin (Blum and Törnqvist, 2000; Moreno et al., 2011;
Reyes-Harker et al., 2015).
L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 8. (A) Uninterpreted; and (B) Interpreted stratal slices through smoothed similarity (“coherence”) attribute cubes of seismic surveys A, B and C extracted along
the top of the sandy members of the Carbonera Formation: Carbonera Member 7, Carbonera Member 5, and Carbonera Member 3. The smoothed similarity
(“coherence”) attribute highlights lateral lithology discontinuities like the edges of abandoned channels (mug-plugs) within sinuous channel belts and straight, low
coherence features with a northeast orientation that correspond to faults (modified from Torrado et al., 2014). Also shown is the proto-Meta River a prominent
feature located at the top of the Carbonera Member 5. Interpreted stratal slice through amplitude cube along the top of the Carbonera Member 1 show channel belts
not highlighted by the smoothed similarity attribute. Directions of fluvial paleoflow is shown by the blue arrow while channels colors represent relative ages and do
not represent lithology. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

The identification of major flooding surfaces, sequence boundaries,
and the extent of marine influence was carried out combining seismic
geomorphology with well data, and integrating previous paleogeo-
graphic reconstructions from Villamil (1999), Gomez et al. (2005),
Escalona and Mann (2006), Hoorn et al. (2010), and Reyes-Harker et al.
(2015).
In this study, the three distinctive chronostratigraphic key surfaces
identified in well data are the Sequence Boundary (SB), the
Transgressive Surface (TS), and the Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS)
(Fig. 15).
Following Posamentier and Allen (1999), all wells were tied to the
Maximum Flooding Surface Datum (Datum MFS in Fig. 15) that in this
case represents the maximum flooding during the transgression of the
“Leon lake” in the Early Miocene (Bayona et al., 2008a) and is re-
cognizable in well logs by very high gamma-ray values close to the base
of the Leon Formation (Fig. 15). On seismic data, the Datum MFS was
observed as a thin but strong, very continuous, laterally extensive, high
amplitude reflection of positive polarity throughout the study area
(Fig. 16) and in well data corresponding to laminated shale packages
rich in iron minerals, i.e., a condensed section (Fig. 15). This same
surface has been described by Bayona et al. (2008b) as a coal-rich
horizon interbedded with siderite and dolomite-rich layers. Other
“Maximum Flooding Surfaces (MFS1 and MFS2)” were defined as
gamma-ray peaks that separate prograding, finning-upwards succession
from regressive, coarsening upward successions with serrated hourglass
a gamma-ray log pattern (Figs. 6 and 15).
The “Sequence Boundaries” (SB1) was defined in well data as the
first sharp, low gamma-ray log peak marking the base of the onset of
fluvial deposition (Fig. 15). In seismic data, the sequence boundaries
are easily recognizable as a strong, wavy, continuous, high amplitude
reflection with toplap-truncated reflections of the underlying units
indicated channel incision (Fig. 16).
Additionally, neutron porosity (NPHI), density (RHOB), and
gamma-ray logs were combined in a three-dimensional plot (Z-plot
diagram) from wells C and D. Z-plot diagrams (NPHI vs. RHOB vs. GR)
calculated in Kingdom are used to discriminate lithofacies clustering for
geological interpretations. Similar to the methodology followed by
Saeid et al. (2020) in Paleocene to Early Eocene successions in the
western flank of the Llanos foreland basin, clear cluster patterns were
identified tying sequence boundaries and defined system tracts
(Fig. 17).
5. Results
5.1. Seismic expression of the study area
An arbitrary seismic section crossing all three seismic cubes over a
distance of 20 km in the study area shows a slight westward sediment
thickening characteristic of the overall structural profile of the Llanos
foreland basin (Campos and Mann, 2015) (Fig. 5). High-angle, normal
faults related to flexure of the foreland basin penetrate to basement, cut
the entire sedimentary succession, and control broad monoclinal and
anticlinal structures that form the most productive structural traps of
the Llanos foreland basin (Fig. 5B). The top of the metasedimentary
Paleozoic succession, -commonly referred to in the Llanos foreland
basin as “economic basement”-, is seen as a strong, irregular reflection
at the base of the Tertiary-Cretaceous sedimentary sequence (Moreno-
Lopez and Escalona, 2015) (Fig. 5B).
A regional unconformity formed between Cretaceous and Late
Eocene strata is expressed as a strong reflection with top-lap termina-
tions against the top of the Late Cretaceous, Guadalupe Formation in-
dicated as the light green horizon in the study areas (Fig. 5B).

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L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 9. (A) An example of a dry well (“Well X”) targeting a stratigraphic trap in the eastern flank of the Llanos foreland basin (Carvajal-Arenas, 2008). The well was
drilled in a proposed sandy-channel at the top of the Carbonera Member 3 that was observed in a time slice along with a coherence cube (white arrow on time slice).
However, the gamma-ray log indicated that this channelized feature corresponds to a mud-prone, abandoned channel rather than a prospective, sand-prone channel;
(B) Stratal slice displayed through amplitude cube along the base of the Carbonera Member 3 showing a sinuous channel belt with an abandoned channel (white
arrows) and point bars (yellow arrows); (C) Uninterpreted stratal slice displayed through smoothed similarity (“coherence”) cube along the base of the Carbonera
Member 3 highlighting the mud-prone, abandoned channel within the sinuous channel belt shown in item (B); (D) Vertical seismic display of the channel shown in
item (B) and (C). The muddy abandoned channel is shown as a laterally-confined, concave-downward reflection as a result of soft sediment deformation and
differential compaction. In contrast, sandy levees are shown as a laterally-confined, flat to concave upwards reflections; and (E) Interpreted stratal slice displayed
through smoothed similarity (“coherence”) cube at the top of the Carbonera Member 3 highlighting the mud-prone, abandoned channel within the sinuous channel
belt shown in items (B), (C) and (D). Also shown in red are normal and reversed, en echelon faults oriented in a northeastern direction following the basin's main
deformation trend. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)
11
L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 10. Stratal slice (horizon probe) extracted along the top of the proto-Meta River in Survey B through (A) sweetness; (B) chaos; (C) most positive curvature co-
rendered with most negative curvature attribute cubes showing the different fluvial elements identified in Fig. 11. Item (D) shows the ant tracker attribute used for an
enhanced fault visualization. Also shown is a (E) trace spectral decomposition shown in RBG blending display of frequency bands of 20 Hz (red), 35 Hz (green) and
50 Hz (blue) where fluvial elements are better delineated. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version
of this article.)

The interpreted horizons correlate to the tops of the four sandy
members of the Carbonera Formation (Carbonera members 7, 5, 3, and
1). The general seismic character within the Carbonera Formation in-
cludes continuous to discontinuous reflectors, seismic polarity inver-
sion, variations in the reflector's shape, lateral and vertical changes in
seismic amplitude, and low-dipping reflections with locally-onlapping
truncations produced by intraformational and lithologic heterogeneities
(Fig. 5B). Some of the channelized features within this unit that were
easily recognized on the seismic volumes are highlighted in yellow
(Fig. 5B). The overlying Leon Formation forms a widespread regional
shale seal interval of Middle Miocene age characterized by homo-
geneous dull, discontinues, wavy, weak amplitude strength reflections
with minimal thickness variations throughout the study area.
5.2. Gamma-ray log facies analysis of the Carbonera Formation
Based on gamma-ray log values and tying log shapes to well
cuttings, six gamma-ray facies associated with fluvial architecture ele-
ments were identified in the study area (Fig. 6), and are described
below:
Gamma-ray facies 1 (GRF1): This facies is characterized by mod-
erately thick (average thickness ~ 20 m [~66 ft]), blocky gamma-ray
log patterns with low values and sharp bases (Fig. 6). GRF1 was mostly
observed within Carbonera members 1 and 7, where cuttings in wells A
to F within these members indicate that this facies corresponds to beds
of quartz-rich, medium-to-coarse-grained, angular to subrounded, well-
sorted sandstone (Fig. 7). We interpret GRF1 as amalgamated fluvial
channels and point bars (Rider, 2002; Escalona and Mann, 2006;
Donselaar et al., 2015; Naseer Ahmad and Rowell, 2012) (Fig. 7).
Gamma-ray facies 2 (GRF2): This facies exhibits a gamma-ray
“bell shape” trend with sharp bottom and with an average bed thickness
of ~10 m (~33 ft) (Fig. 6). Well cuttings show that this facies is
characterized by fining-upwards successions of quartz-rich, pre-
dominantly medium-to fine-grained sandstone, occasionally coarser-

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L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 11. (A) Chair display of seismic amplitude cube (inlines 138 and 345 in Survey B), and a stratal slice (horizon probe) through most positive curvature attribute
cubes co-rendered with iso-frequency cube of 50 Hz along the base of the proto-Meta River within the Carbonera Member 5, where a transparency has been applied to
the lowest curvature values. The most positive curvature attribute highlights topographically higher features like crevasse splays and levees along the proto-Meta
River. Also shown is a correlation of gamma-ray log facies with fluvial elements associated observed in the proto-Meta River. Location of inlines is shown on the inset
map. (B) Vertical seismic displays along the proto-Meta River showing the different fluvial elements identified in item (A).

grained at the bottom, with subangular to angular grains, and fair to
well-sorted intervals (see GRF2 in wells A to E within the uppermost
portion of the Carbonera Member 1 in Fig. 7). We interpret GRF2 as a
point bar, mid-channel bar, or basal channel-fill deposits based on Rider
(2002), and was mostly observed within the Carbonera members 7 and
1 (Fig. 7).
Gamma-ray facies 3 (GRF3): This facies includes funnel-shaped,
coarsening-upward, gamma-ray log patterns (Fig. 6). GRF3 mostly
corresponds to silty, quartz-rich, very fine-to-medium-grained, sub-
angular to subrounded sandstone in coarsening upward successions as
seen in well F (Fig. 7). This facies is thinner (average thickness ~5 m
[~14 ft]), siltier than GRF1 and GRF2, and is interpreted as crevasse
splay deposits (Rider, 2002) mostly observed within Carbonera mem-
bers 7, 3 and 1 as shown in wells B to F (Fig. 7). This type of gamma-ray
log response may be interpreted as shoreface distributary mouth bar
deposits, delta front and submarine fan (Rider, 2002); however, there is
no lithologic evidence in well data that indicates a marine environment
associated with this electrofacies.
Gamma-ray facies 4 (GRF4): This facies includes serrated and
sawtooth patterns with a spiky, irregular gamma-ray log trend lacking
an internal reflection character (Fig. 6). Wells cuttings in Fig. 7 show
that this facies corresponds to intercalated beds of gray, brown, purple
and greenish claystone, siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone, with
coaly beds interpreted as aggrading floodplain deposits (Rider, 2002;
Donselaar et al., 2015) of up to 152 m (500 ft) thick. The presence of
disseminated pyrite, siderite, iron minerals, and some plant debris in
well cuttings is also common in this facies (GRF4 in wells in Fig. 7).
GRF4 was observed mostly in Carbonera members 5, 3, and at the base
of the Carbonera Member 1.
Gamma-ray facies 5 (GRF5): This facies is characterized by ser-
rated, hour-glass gamma-ray log pattern with higher gamma-ray values
than GRF4, and a finning-to-coarsening-upward trend (Fig. 6). GRF5 is
closely associated with Carbonera members 8, 6, 4, and 2, and unlike
the sandier GRF4, this facies corresponds to dark to light gray, lami-
nated and fissible shale that lacks interbedded sandstone (Fig. 7). Do-
lomite occurrences are more common compared to GRF4, whereas
coaly intervals are rare (see Carbonera Member 6 in wells A to F in
Fig. 7). We interpret the highly serrated, hourglass gamma-ray log
pattern as shale deposition during small pulses of relative sea-level rise
in brackish water conditions (Caycedo Garcia and Catuneanu, 2018).
According to Bayona et al. (2008b), glauconite inclusions have been
reported within the Carbonera members 2 and 8, as far as the south-
eastern flank in the Llanos foreland basin, which supports a marine
influence.
Gamma-ray facies 6 (GRF6): This facies exhibit a sharp, hourglass
trend with a sharp top (Fig. 6), consisting of gray, brown and greenish
clayey and laminar coaly material (e.g., Well B in Fig. 7). We interpret
GRF6 as a fluvial mud-plug formed during channel abandonment (see
example of Well X in Fig. 9A), or oxbow cut-offs(?) and is observed
within the Carbonera members 7 and 1 in wells A and B (Fig. 7) al-
though it may be present in the other odd members of the Carbonera
Formation.

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L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 12. (A) Summary chart of main seismic facies (SF1 to SF4) observed within the Carbonera Formation, along with uninterpreted and interpreted seismic facies
example, description of seismic facies, seismic to gamma-ray log facies correlation, and associated channel deposits; and (B) Vertical seismic display B–B′ in Survey B
correlated with Well E showing the relationship between seismic facies and gamma-ray log facies.

5.3. Seismic characterization, attribute analysis and application of
differential compaction for lithology estimation within the Carbonera
Formation
An important part of this study was the use of several seismic at-
tributes combined within the complex Carbonera Formation that were
key for 1) the interpretation of fluvial architectural elements, 2) the
determination of sand-prone vs. mud-prone intervals, and 3) faults
detection.
Stratal slices extracted at the top of each of the odd members of the
Carbonera Formation show a series of channels oriented in a north-
eastern direction, similar to the main deformation trend during the
maximum Eocene-Oligocene flexure of the foreland basin (Campos and
Mann, 2015) (Fig. 8). Faults are recognized by en echelon, elongated
lineaments of low coherence values that lack an oblique-slip component
(Corredor, 2012) and are also oriented in a northeastward direction
(Fig. 8). Ant-tracker also helped with the differentiation of low-si-
nuosity channels from faults. On the other hand, high coherence values
are dominantly observed within the abandoned channels that exhibit
variable sinuosity and width through time, where the biggest channel is
proposed to be the proto-Meta River at the top of the Carbonera
Member 5 (Fig. 8B). The edges of the abandoned channels also have low
coherence values (Fig. 8) (Torrado et al., 2014).
Similar attributes to smoothed similarity (“coherence”) have been
used in the past to identify channels within the Carbonera Formation as
shown in Fig. 9A (Carvajal-Arenas, 2008; Torrado et al., 2013a, 2013b,
2014; Osorio et al., 2008; Arango, 2014; Castillo and Vargas, 2018). In
the example shown in Fig. 9A, a time slice was extracted at the top of
the Carbonera Member 4 in the southeastern flank of the Llanos fore-
land basin by an unnamed oil and gas company. The main features
observed in the time slice was interpreted as a sand-filled channel
(Fig. 9A). However, after well completion, it was revealed that the
drilled feature was a mud-plug resulting from channel abandonment,
i.e., the last position of the channel before avulsion (Slingerland and
Smith, 2004) as seen in the gamma-ray log of Well X (white arrows in
Fig. 9A). We correlate the abandoned channel shown in Fig. 9A
(Carvajal-Arenas, 2008) to GRF 6 (Fig. 6) observed in Well B (Fig. 7) in
this study. Torrado et al. (2014) showed that the smoothed similarity
(“coherence”) attribute mostly highlights the mud-plugs within the
Carbonera Formation, and works well in enhancing bigger features (like
the proto-Meta River in Fig. 8) but misses thinner fluvial elements that
could be resolved with the iso-frequency amplitude cube (see example
in Fig. 10E).
An example of a channel-belt observed within the Carbonera

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L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

(caption on next page)

15
L. Torrado, et al.
Fig. 13. (A) Calculation of channel sinuosity and width-to-depth ratio along abandoned channels of the Carbonera Formation using stratal slices through amplitude
and smoothed similarity (“coherence”) cubes extracted from surveys A, B and C; and (B) Table summarizing channel width (m), depth (m), width/depth ratio,
average sinuosity values, and schematic representation for the channel belts of members 1, 3, 5, and 7 of the Carbonera Formation observed on amplitude and
smoothed similarity (“coherence”) stratal slices in Fig. 8. In general, the channels within the Carbonera Formation exhibit an average moderate sinuosity with the
lowest sinuosity measured in the proto-Meta River. In the case of the Carbonera Member 7, only one measurement could be done due to the homogeneous, connected,
amalgamated nature of the channel belts (SF1 in Fig. 11), where the computed attributes had difficulties picking up discontinuities along abandoned channels
(Torrado et al., 2014).
Member 3 in Survey B shows the difference in visualization between the
amplitude cube (Fig. 9B) in comparison to the smoothed similarity
(“coherence”) cube (Fig. 9C). In the amplitude cube, the mud-plug
within the channel belt is observed (white arrows in Fig. 9B), as well as
the adjacent point bars (yellow arrows in Fig. 9B). The same stratal slice
through the smoothed similarity cube only highlights the mud-plug
within the whole channel belt (Fig. 9C).
A vertical seismic display cutting perpendicular to the channel belt
on Fig. 9B and C shows a high-amplitude, laterally discontinuous,
concave reflection, which corresponds to the abandoned channel. The
concave shape and relative lower position compared to the surrounding
sediment is explained by differential compaction, where softer sediment
(such as mud) is easier to compact, resulting in morphologic depression
(see Fig. 9D) as described by Chopra and Marfurt (2012). Features like
levees with sandy, harder lithology (as observed in Fig. 9B and D) are
more resistant to compaction and observed as positive features in the
vertical seismic display (Fig. 9D) as shown by Chopra and Marfurt
(2012) and Torrado et al. (2014).
The sweetness attribute highlights areas of sand-prone deposits as
the highest sweetness zones (gray tones Fig. 10A), whereas areas with
finer-grained deposits like levees and crevasse splays (compared to
sandier point bars and channel fills) are identified as areas of low
sweetness (light blue tones in Fig. 10A). Moderate sweetness zones
(dark blue tones in Fig. 10A) are related to muddy abandoned channels
and an isolated feature that we interpreted as an oxbow lake (?). Hart
(2008) also shows a relationship of high sweetness zones with sandy
lithologies within channel fills in a deep-water setting, and with deltaic
sandstone in Azeem et al. (2016).
Similar to the sweetness attribute, laterally confined crevasse splays
and levees are seen with the highest chaotic signal (Fig. 10B). On the
contrary, the lowest chaotic signal corresponds to point bars. We in-
terpret that the highest chaos is not only a result of a finer lithology but
also of the lateral facies variations within a succession of stacked levees
and crevasse splays. Therefore, the sweetness and chaos attributes work
well as lithology indicators, particularly in laterally confined features
like crevasse splays and levees in the Carbonera Formation (Fig. 10A
and B).
The most negative curvature attribute cubes highlighted abandoned
channels as elongated features (blue tones in Fig. 10C) reflecting the
concept of differential compaction shown in Fig. 9D. The most positive
curvature attribute has been used to identified sand-prone, point bars
deposits in the case of isolated channels (Torrado et al., 2014). How-
ever, in this study, we show that in a more complex feature like the
proto-Meta River, this attribute also highlights features like levees and
crevasse splays with less sand content than point bars, but that are
located topographically higher with respect to the main channel
(Fig. 11A and vertical seismic displays C–C′ and D-D’ in Fig. 11B). The
use of spectral decomposition combined with the RGB blending helped
to the better delineated thinner, finer-grained fluvial elements like le-
vees (Fig. 10E) that were not initially detected in the amplitude and
smoothed similarity (coherence) volumes.
Also shown in Fig. 11B is the correlation between gamma-ray log
facies observed in Figs. 6 and 7, with the iso-frequency amplitude cube,
where a variety of fluvial architectural elements were observed in-
cluding levees and crevasse splays (GRF3), point bars (GRF1 and
GRF2), floodplain deposits (GRF4), and mud-plugs (GRF6) (Figs. 6 and
7).
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607
As reported previously in Torrado et al. (2014), the seismic attri-
butes and iso-frequency amplitude cubes did not pick discontinuities
within amalgamated channels of the Carbonera members 7 and 1
(Fig. 8A). This phenomenon has to do with reservoir homogenization
-rather than the use of time vs. stratal slices according to Marfurt and
Alves (2015)- where the lateral seismic response is so similar that minor
discontinuities (such as lateral facies changes from mud plug to point
bar) cannot be detected. The opposite occurred with isolated channels
of the Carbonera members 5 and 3, where the attributes worked well
(Fig. 8B and C). Hart (2008) also notes that an attribute like sweetness
is not a particularly useful attribute for distinguishing sand from shale
when the contrast in acoustic impedance is low between those lithol-
ogies, for example, in successions with many closely spaced sand like
the case of the Carbonera Member 7.
The collective seismic response of each of these fluvial features
observed in the seismic data within the Carbonera Formation were
grouped in a total of four seismic facies, which are correlated to several
gamma-ray log facies as explained in the following section (Fig. 12).
5.3.1. Seismic facies analysis
Based on the seismic wave character, amplitude, differential com-
paction, and stratal slices through multi-attribute and iso-frequency
amplitude cubes, four different seismic facies (SF1 to SF4 in Fig. 12)
were identified in the study. The proposed facies are correlated to the
six gamma-ray log facies shown in Figs. 6 and 7:
Seismic facies 1 (SF1): This facies consist of laterally continuous to
semicontinuous, strong, straight to wavy, parallel to subparallel re-
flection packages with high amplitude strength (Fig. 12A). This facies
correlates to gamma-ray log facies 1, and 2 and 3 (GRF1 and GRF2) and
is interpreted as sand-prone, amalgamated channel deposits with good
lateral and vertical connectivity (Fig. 12A). SF1 is commonly observed
within the Carbonera Member 7 and locally in the Carbonera Member 1
(Fig. 12B).
Seismic facies 2 (SF2): This seismic facies consists of laterally semi-
continuous to discontinuous, parallel, wavy, and weak to dull reflection
packages with low to locally moderate amplitude strength and mod-
erate amplitude values (Fig. 12A). Well data (Fig. 7) show that this
seismic facies correlates to gamma-ray log facies 4 and 5 (GRF4 and
GRF5, respectively), corresponding to floodplain aggradation with
marine episodes, preservation of tidal flats and locally crevasse splay
deposits. SF2 is commonly observed within the Carbonera members 6,
5, 4, and 3 (Fig. 12B).
Seismic facies 3 (SF3): This facies consists of laterally confined,
straight-to-convex shape, strong to moderate amplitude strength re-
flections with positive curvature values, and onlapping at the top
(Fig. 11A). The most positive curvature attribute indicates low differ-
ential compaction; therefore, this seismic facies is correlated to laterally
confined, sandy channel deposits including channel fill, point bars and
levees correlated to gamma-ray log facies 1, 2 and 3 (GRF1, GRF2, and
GRF3, respectively). SF2 is commonly observed within the Carbonera
members 7, 5, 4, and 1 (Fig. 12B).
Seismic facies 4 (SF4): This seismic facies consist of laterally
confined, concave to wavy, moderate to high amplitude strength re-
flections with negative curvature values and truncation at the bottom
interpreted as mud-plugs (Fig. 12A). SF4 is commonly observed within
the Carbonera members 5, and 3, and 1, and locally observed within the
Carbonera Member 7 (Fig. 12B).
L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 14. Examples of the different seismic expression of the channel deposits (CD1 to CD7) observed in seismic data within the Carbonera Formation. Seismic
examples are interpreted from stratal slices though iso-frequency amplitude cubes and smoothed similarity (“coherence”) attribute cubes, and vertical seismic
displays within the seismic volumes. See text for discussion.

17
L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 15. Gamma-ray log correlation and sequence stratigraphy including system tracts and major bounding surfaces. The well correlation shows two cycles of
regression-transgression within the Carbonera Formation in the study area where the lowstand system tracts are associated with relative low sea-level, higher
sediment supply and channel incision (Carbonera members 1 and 7), in comparison to the transgressive and highstand system tracts which are associated with marine
incursions (Carbonera members 2 and 8), and floodplain aggradation (Carbonera members 3 and 5) driven by tectonically-enhanced accommodation from the uplift
of the Eastern Cordillera. Location of wells shown on inset map.

5.3.2. Width-to-depth ratio and sinuosity variations within the Carbonera
Formation in the study area
Based on the identification of mud-plugs with the smoothed simi-
larity (“coherence”) attribute and using differential compaction in
vertical seismic display, we calculated the width/depth ratio and si-
nuosity of the abandoned channels observed in Fig. 8 at the top of the
odd members of the Carbonera Formation (Fig. 13A).
Overall, the Carbonera Formation exhibits an average low to mod-
erate channel sinuosity, where the lowest sinuosity value (~1.04)
corresponds to the proto-Meta River (Fig. 13B). A general increase in
average sinuosity occurs within the unit (Fig. 13B), where we inter-
preted as a rising of the base level caused by the gradual increment in
flexure occurring at the time in the Llanos foreland basin (Gomez et al.,
2005; Bayona et al., 2007; Caballero et al., 2010; Mora et al., 2010; Nie
and Horton, 2012; Saylor et al., 2012; Campos and Mann, 2015).
This is also evidenced by an increase of shale deposition vs. sand
deposition, particularly in the Carbonera members 6 to 2 (Fig. 7), where
a less steep base level favors deposition of lower energy deposits with
higher avulsion frequency (Slingerland and Smith, 2004) as the systems
tried to catch-up with the newly enhanced accommodation (Schwans,
1995). This increase in avulsion frequency can be seen in Fig. 8, where
channel belts in the Carbonera members 5 and 3 have less connectivity
than the highly-connected, sheet-like deposits observed within the
Carbonera Member 7 (SF1 in Fig. 12).
5.3.3. Type of channel deposits observed within the Carbonera Formation
The variety of inherent complexity of channel-fill deposits and flu-
vial architecture is described below for each member of the Carbonera
Formation and illustrated in Fig. 14. A particular seismic character is
associated with one or several channel belt deposits grouped as
“Channel Deposit” as shown below:
Channel deposit 1 (CD1): This channel deposit represents a series
of remarkable morphologic channelized features of ~4 km (~2.5 mi)
wide and up to 50 m (~164 ft) deep. These features truncate the un-
derlying strata, juxtaposing genetically unrelated strata (Catuneanu,
2006), in this case, fluvial incision that erodes the underlying Carbo-
nera Member 2 and locally, into the Carbonera Member 3 (as shown in
Fig. 14 and “item E” of Fig. 5). We interpreted these features as incised
valleys that are characterized by a series of laterally confined channel
belts with extensive point bar accretion seen as high amplitude, strong,
laterally continuous reflections (Fig. 14). The sinuosity of the upper-
most abandoned channels within these incised valleys is moderate
(~1.43 in Fig. 13B). However, the overall valley exhibits a straight
morphology which is typical of an overall incision of the system rather
than lateral migration (Posamentier, 2001; Catuneanu, 2006).
According to Catuneanu (2006), incised valley fills tend to have
lower width/depth ratios (ratio of ~12 as shown in Fig. 13B), than
unincised valley system like the proto-Meta River. These valley fills
represent only the uppermost portion of the Carbonera Member 1 in the
area of study and marks an abrupt basinward shift of the fluvial system

18
L. Torrado, et al.
Fig. 16. Vertical seismic display showing seismic sequence stratigraphy interpretation for the Carbonera Formation in the study area: (A) Inline across Survey B
shows main bounding surfaces and system tracts recording two transgressive-regressive cycles within the Carbonera Formation that are also shown in Fig. 15; and (B)
Major bounding surfaces correlated to Well D.
(Posamentier, 2001).
Channel deposit 2 (CD2): This seismic character consists of strong,
small (~100 m-wide [0.06 mi]), concave reflections that are inter-
preted as mixed to sand-dominated load channels with adjacent, lat-
erally extensive point bars expressed as strong, flat reflections of up to
500-m wide (0.31 mi) (CD2A in Fig. 14). In stratal slices, these types of
channels have moderate sinuosity and good development of scrolls and
are characteristic of the Carbonera member 1 and 7 (Fig. 14). In the
vertical seismic display, these channels correspond to vertically-
stacked, wavy, semicontinuous reflections of high-amplitude strength,
where channel belts show good vertical and lateral connectivity (CD2B
in Fig. 14).
Channel deposit (CD3): This seismic character consists of isolated,
wide (~500 m [0.31 mi]), very concave, high to moderate amplitude
reflections with dull, alternating reflections interpreted as mud-filled,
abandoned channels. Because of their pronounced concave shape, we
propose that these channels are more mixed to mud load-dominated
than channels in CD2 and CD1 (Donselaar and Overeem, 2008). In
stratal slices, these channel belts show moderate sinuosity with good
point bar development and are thicker than the individual channel belts
than those observed in CD1 and CD2 (Fig. 14).
Channel deposit 4 (CD4): CD4 is characterized by a strong, very
wide (~2 km [1.2 mi]), and dominantly concave to locally convex re-
flection (Fig. 14). We propose that this channelized feature corresponds
to the proto-Meta River with a depth that varies from 35 to 40 m
(~115–131 ft). In comparison to the incised valleys of the uppermost
Carbonera Member 1 (CD1), we interpreted the proto-Meta River at the
top of the Carbonera Member 5 as an unincised valley system with
stacked, multistory channels, as shown by the several channel threads
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607
observed in stratal slices in Fig. 11 and vertical seismic display in
Fig. 14. The higher W/D ratio of ~25 calculated for the proto-Meta
River (Fig. 13B) is more typical of unincised valleys (Caycedo Garcia
and Catuneanu, 2018) - in this case, it has twice the width/depth ratio
of the incised valleys in CD1 (Fig. 12B) - and a shallower scour was
observed into the underlying unit, indicating vertical aggradation of the
system (Posamentier, 2001) with no nickpoint migration like with in-
cised valleys. Unincised valleys with similar dimensions to the proto-
Meta River have been reported within the “lower” sequence of the
Carbonera Formation by Caycedo Garcia and Catuneanu (2018), which
is equivalent to the Carbonera Member 5. Additionally, the lateral and
underlying deposits mostly consist of floodplain, tidal flats, and inter-
fluve mudstone (GRF4 and GRF5 in Figs. 6 and 7), indicating a juxta-
position of genetically-related successions, which is the opposite to the
incised valleys in CD1.
Channel deposit 5 (CD5): Isolated, very narrow (~300 m wide
[0.18 mi]), concave, low amplitude strength reflections interpreted as
mud-filled channels characteristic of CD5 (Fig. 14). In stratal slices,
these channels are seen as dull features with moderate sinuosity. Point
bar preservation is not evident, possibly as the result of thin beds below
the tuning thickness and/or the low sinuosity of the channel.
Channel deposit 6 (CD6): These types of channels exhibit similar
characteristics as CD5 and also appear as isolated, narrow (~200 m
wide [0.12 mi]), low amplitude features but with a flat basal reflection
of negative amplitude (similar to the flat reflection in seismic display A-
A' in Fig. 11B), interpreted as dominantly, mud-filled deposits with
sandy channel lag deposits that are little affected by differential com-
paction (Fig. 14). In stratal slices, these channels are seen as strong
reflectors with low sinuosity and with little point bar preservation
L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 17. Density (RHOB) and Neutron (NPHI) logs crossplots of the Carbonera Formation of (A) Well C and (B) Well D. The crossplosts show the clear cluster patterns
that coincided with 1) lowstand, sand-prone, amalgamated channels, b) shaly floodplain deposits of the transgressive system tract 2, 3) coal beds and 4) flooding
surfaces associated with marine incursions (?). See Fig. 4A for location of wells.

(Fig. 14). feature like the valleys observed in CD1 in Fig. 14, so we interpreted
Channel deposit 7 (CD7): This type of channel deposits forms this as pseudo-sheets of aggrading channels rather than incised valleys.
strong, laterally continuous reflectors of highly amalgamated sand- The total thickness of these amalgamated, sheet-like deposits is the
prone channels with excellent lateral and vertical connectivity. In equivalent to the thickness of the Carbonera Member 7 up to ~91 m-
stratal slices through the smoothed similarity (coherence) cube, parti- thick (300 ft).
cularly in the Carbonera Member 7 (Fig. 8), these channels are not
easily identifiable due to their amalgamated nature where the attribute
cannot distinguish lateral discontinuities or facies changes (Torrado
et al., 2014) (Fig. 14). Similarly, the amplitude cubes didn't show any

20
L. Torrado, et al.
5.4. Late Eocene-Early Miocene, sequence stratigraphy and seismic
sequence stratigraphy of the Carbonera Formation
The sequence stratigraphic framework of the Carbonera Formation
in the study area is comparable to those proposed for mixed fluvial-
coastal stratal by Shanley and McCabe (1995) and Blum and Törnqvist
(2000) which corresponds from bottom to top to a series of 1) amal-
gamated fluvial channels (equivalent to the marine lowstand), 2) tid-
ally-influenced channels correlated to marine transgressions, and 3)
isolated, meandering channels embedded in thick floodplain deposits
preserved during base level rise.
The lower boundary of the Carbonera Formation is defined by the
“Transgressive Surface 1” (TS1) located at the base of the shaly, thin
(~20 m [65 ft]) Carbonera Member 8 that separates underlying Late
Cretaceous shoreface sandstone of the Guadalupe Formation from the
overlying dominantly shallow marine sediments of the Carbonera
Member 8 and records an episode of sea rise during the Eocene at
~35 Ma (Haq et al., 1987) (Fig. 15).
The Sequence Boundary 1 (SB1) represents a diachronous surface
separating non-conformable successions of the fluvial progradational
deposits of the Carbonera Member 7 from the marine transgression of
the Carbonera Member 8 (Fig. 15). In seismic sections, the SB1 is lo-
cated above the TS1, where a maximum flooding surface (MFS1) is only
observed as a continuous gamma-ray peak in well data (Fig. 15). The
onset of the Lowstand System Tract 1 (LST1) is bound by SB1 at the
bottom and TS2 at the top, and marks the amalgamation of fluvial
channels of the Carbonera Member 7 driven by gradual, eustatic sea-
level fall during a forced regression causing erosion of the underlying
cycle (Fig. 16).
The “Transgressive Surface 2” (TS2) separates fine-grained deposits
of the Carbonera members 6, 5, 4, and 3 from the underlying, sand-
prone Carbonera Member 7 (Fig. 15). These deposits exhibit serrated
patterns of high gamma-ray values (GRF4 in Figs. 6 and 15) correlated
with continental, varicolored, coaly shale, siltstone and fine-grained
sandstone observed in well data (Figs. 2C and 7). These deposits in-
dicate floodplain preservation and aggradation with no evidence of
major eustatic marine transgressions, i.e., tectonically-triggered in-
undations within a Transgressive System Tract 2 (TST2) (Torres et al.,
2001). The shift from amalgamated channels of the LST1 to floodplain
aggradation with isolated channels within TST2 is observed in seismic
data as a change from laterally continuous, high amplitude strength
reflections (Fig. 16) corresponding to SF1 to dull reflection packages
that correspond to SF2 (Fig. 12). According to Bayona et al. (2007),
finer-grained strata within Carbonera members 5 and 3 show evidence
of eastward migration of coastal-plain environments. We interpreted
that the preservation of crevasse splays and overbank deposits in the
proto-Meta River (as seen in the attribute analysis in Fig. 10) indicate
flooding episodes (Blum and Törnqvist, 2000), which in terms of fluvial
sequence stratigraphy is equivalent to a marine transgression or the
TST2 in this study.
The “Maximum Flooding Surface 2” (MFS2), interpreted at the top
of the Carbonera Member 3, records a regional marine transgression as
a sharp, high gamma-ray peak in well data (Fig. 15) separating finning
upward from coarsening upwards successions also seen as GRF5
(Fig. 6). The MFS2 is attributed to a Late Oligocene, short-lived, global
sea-level rise defined by Haq et al. (1987) at ~25 Ma marked the in-
itiation of the Highstand System Tract 2 (HST2), and the deposition of
the Carbonera Member 2 (Fig. 15). In seismic sections, TS2 is observed
as a continuous to locally discontinuous, soft, low-to-moderate ampli-
tude strength reflection of positive polarity (Fig. 16).
“Sequence Boundary 2” (SB2 in Fig. 15) is marked by a sharp, low-
gamma-ray peak correlating with sand-rich, erosive incised valley de-
posits at the base of the Carbonera Member 1, and unconformably
overlying marine mudstone of the Carbonera Member 2. The SB2 has
the same seismic response as SB1 (Fig. 16). The progradation of the
Carbonera Member 1 fluvial sandstone is related to the Lowstand
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Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607
System Tract 2 (LST2) that is bound at the bottom by the SB2 and the
TS3 at the top (Figs. 15 and 16). Sediment supply increases again from
erosion of the uplifting Eastern Cordillera, surpassing the effect of ac-
commodation and causing basinward fluvial progradation.
“Transgressive Surface 3” (TS3) is manifested by a sharp, flat, high-
gamma-ray peak on top of the Carbonera Member 1 (Fig. 15). On
seismic section (Fig. 16), this surface is represented by high-amplitude,
laterally discontinuous reflection, marking a drastic shift from the flu-
vial setting of the Carbonera Formation to lagoonal deposition of the
Leon Formation.
Both the LST1 and LST2 are characterized by gamma-ray log facies
1, 2, and 3 and seismic facies 1 (Figs. 6, 7 and 12) which correspond to
a clear cluster of sandstone with the lowest gamma-ray values within
Carbonera members 7 and 1, respectively (Fig. 17). Also shown in
Fig. 17 are defined clusters of low-density coal intervals within trans-
gressive and highstand system tracts that correlated with seismic facies
2 and gamma-ray log facies 4 and 5 (Fig. 12), and high-density clusters
related to flooding surfaces from marine incursions within the even
members of the Carbonera Formation. The biggest cluster corresponds
to intermediate density and gamma-ray values mostly correlated to
floodplain aggradation within Carbonera members 5 to 3.
6. Discussion
6.1. Stratigraphic traps of the Carbonera Formation
A summary of the inherent complexity of channel-fill deposits and
fluvial architecture is described below for each member of the
Carbonera Formation, as well as a distinction of sand-prone, pro-
spective, reservoir, channel deposits vs. non-prospective, channel de-
posits:
Carbonera Member 7: The producing reservoir of the Carbonera
Member 7 in the area of study corresponds to amalgamated, sand-
dominated channel belts which formed as a result of low accommoda-
tion (Fig. 18), base level fall and initial steep slope in an early under-
filled foreland setting during a forced regression (Fig. 19). Little pre-
servation of abandoned channels and floodplain deposits - as seen in
Fig. 8-, indicate dominant channel incision where the channels have
good lateral connectivity and low avulsion frequency, that results in
sandy, sheet-like deposits (SF4 in Fig. 12 and CD7 in Fig. 14) corre-
sponding to an excellent reservoir (Donselaar and Overeem, 2008) in
the adjacent Cubiro oil field.
Carbonera member 5 and 3: This member exhibits isolated,
shallow, narrow (~300 m [0.18 ft]), muddy, single channels embedded
within thick (up to 500 m [~1640 ft]) floodplain deposits (GRF 4 and
GRF5 in Fig. 7), with the exception of the proto-Meta River that cor-
responds to the biggest channelized feature (~1 km wide or 0.6 mi)
within the Carbonera Member 5 (Figs. 8 and 16). We propose that
stratigraphic traps within these members occur in isolated sandstone
beds within basal lags (vertical seismic display A-A’ in Fig. 11B and CD6
in Fig. 14), crevasse splays, and fair to poorly-developed point bars
(CD3 in Figs. 14). In the particular case of the proto-Meta River, lat-
erally continuous point bars bound by finer-grained elements like well-
defined levees and crevasse splays (Fig. 11 and CD4 in Fig. 14) and
overlain by floodplain shale may constitute the best stratigraphic trap
within the Carbonera Member 5.
The slight increase of the channels’ sinuosity within the Carbonera
Member 3 marks the continuous lowering of the slope (i.e., orogenic
unloading in a late underfilled foreland stage as shown in Fig. 19)
causing higher avulsion frequency, with potential development of cre-
vasse splays, but more probabilities for the preservation of non-pro-
ductive, sealing shale-prone channel abandonment facies (Slingerland
and Smith, 2004; Lynds and Hajek, 2006) (Fig. 8 and CD5 in Fig. 14).
Abandoned loops from oxbow lakes are also seen in seismic data at the
top of this unit which may also act as an effective seal (Fig. 8B). We
propose that these mud-plugged channels may repeatedly cut across
L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 18. Schematic diagram showing the Eocene-Miocene channel evolution of the Carbonera Formation in relationship to enhanced accommodation, changes in
channel aggradation, channel avulsion frequency and channel migration, resulting in: (1) Amalgamated, sand-prone channel belts of the Carbonera Member 7; (2)
Mixed, mud-to-sand-prone channel belts of the Carbonera Member 5; (3) Isolated, mud-dominated channel belts of the Carbonera Member 3; and (4) Amalgamated to
vertically stacked, sand-dominated channels and incised valleys of the Carbonera Member 1. Also shown are changes in the paleoflow direction of the reservoir
members of the Carbonera Formation and sequence stratigraphic interpretation; and (B) Schematic representation of controls on fluvial architecture taken from
Bristow and Best (1993).

each other, further isolating sand-prone intervals, and creating re-
servoir compartments (Reijenstein et al., 2010; Hossain, 2019).
Carbonera Member 1: The lowermost portion of the Carbonera
Member 1 exhibits wide, moderately sinuous channel belts with good
development of scrolls, lower avulsion frequency, and high lateral-
channel accretion (CD2 in Figs. 14 and 18). Incised valleys observed at
the uppermost portion of this member (CD1 in Fig. 14) occur during a
normal regression caused by an increased sediment supply from de-
nudation of the partially exhumed Eastern Cordillera during an over-
filled foreland stage (Fig. 19). Incised valleys with similar dimensions of
~5 km wide (3.1 mi) and up to ~50 m depth (164 ft or 50 ms in seismic
data) have also been reported by Caycedo Garcia and Catuneanu (2018)
within the “upper sequence” of the Carbonera Formation, equivalent in
this study to the Carbonera Member 1. Development of incised valley
fills along the southern and southeastern flanks of the Llanos foreland
basin have also been observed in the Apiay field by Malagon (1997), the
Brujas High by Bayona et al. (2007), and at Rubiales oil field by Lugo
and Isea (2013).
The amalgamated and incisive nature with good lateral point bar
accretion, along with valley incision account for a connected, laterally
extensive reservoir similar to the Carbonera Member 7. We propose that
the potential for hydrocarbon accumulation within this member would
depend on carrier beds (such as leaky faults) and simple, short migra-
tion patterns. However, no hydrocarbon has been encountered within
this member in the study area, which indicated that the intermediate,
mud-rich successions of the Carbonera members 5 and 3 act as an ef-
fective intraformational seal.
6.2. Implications on the Late Eocene – Early Miocene changing fluvial style
and sequence stratigraphic framework of the Carbonera Formation
The change in fluvial dynamics within the Carbonera Formation
during the Late Eocene–Early Miocene epoch corresponds to a pro-
longed pulse of increased flexural subsidence from the Late Eocene
(~34 Ma) to Early Miocene (~23 Ma) caused by the uplift of the
Eastern Cordillera as stated by previous work (Gomez et al., 2005;
Bayona et al., 2007; Caballero et al., 2010; Mora et al., 2010; Nie and
Horton, 2012; Saylor et al., 2012; Campos and Mann, 2015; Reyes-
Harker et al., 2015) (Fig. 19).
A general eastward widening of the foredeep of the Llanos foreland
basin takes place as the Eastern Cordillera adds tectonic load and
flexure (Campos and Mann, 2015), where we propose that the proto-
Meta River developed as the main, axial fluvial system (Fig. 18). Other
factors that influenced the migration of the foreland basin system in-
clude inversion and reactivation of extensional faults, shifts in the
source of sediments from craton to orogen, and changes in the advance
direction of the orogen front (Parra et al., 2009, 2010; Bande et al.,
2012) (Fig. 3).
These regional changes had significant control over the flow di-
rection and alignment of fluvial channel belts of the Carbonera mem-
bers 7 and 5, as illustrated in Fig. 8 on interpreted stratal slices. An
initial SW-NE channel orientation parallel to the NE-trending foreland
axis at the time (Figs. 8 and 18) was recorded during the Late Eoce-
ne–Early Oligocene time by paleochannels of the Carbonera Member 7
to the Carbonera Member 5 along the axis of the Llanos foreland basin
(Figs. 8B and 18). In the Rubiales Field, Lugo and Isea (2013) reported
incised valleys in the Carbonera Member 7 (also known as “Basal
Sand”), filled by a series of stacking fluvial deposits, predominantly
oriented in a northwest-southeast direction that results from its location

22
L. Torrado, et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607

Fig. 19. Schematic block diagram showing

the evolution of the Carbonera Formation
depositional systems in relationship to fold-
thrust deformation in the frontal zone of the
Eastern Cordillera, Colombia. (A) Initial
Eastern Cordillera uplift and onset of fluvial
deposition, mainly incised valleys in the
basin's flanks to amalgamated, sinuous flu-
vial channel belts in the study area (Late
Eocene: Carbonera Member 7); (B)
Eastward advance of the deformation front
and continued fluvial deposition of isolated,
sinuous channel belts with localized la-
goonal deposits (Oligocene: Carbonera
members 6 to 3); and (C) Major uplift pulse
of the Eastern Cordillera with a shift from
fluvial to lacustrine-lagoonal deposition
(Early Miocene: Carbonera Member 1 to
Leon Formation).

along the edges of the basin in the basement inversion area (Campos isolated channels belts in the Carbonera Member 5 is caused by base
and Mann, 2015) (Fig. 1B). level rise marking the initiation of the transgressive system tract
A change from amalgamated channels in the Carbonera Member 7 (Fig. 18) (Blum and Törnqvist, 2000). The orientation of these channel
of a lowstand system tract (SF1 in Fig. 12A) to moderately sinuous, belts is the same as the numerous, flexure-related normal faults

23
L. Torrado, et al.
trending parallel to the ENE axis of the Llanos foreland basin (Osorio
et al., 2008), but not in an EW direction as has been described in the
literature for the central area of the Llanos foreland basin by Ecopetrol
(1995), Hoorn et al. (1995), Diaz de Gamero (1996), and Villamil
(1999) (Fig. 18).
A shift of the main paleoflow direction started in the Late Oligocene
during the deposition of the Carbonera Member 3 in flexurally-en-
hanced accommodation in a late underfilled foreland setting (Figs. 8B
and 18). This shift included an eastward migration of the main axial
fluvial system (i.e., the proto-Meta River) as transverse to orthogonal,
southeast flowing tributaries from the western flank of the basin de-
veloped and lengthened (Carbonera Member 3 in Fig. 8B and Fig. 19).
Reyes-Harker et al. (2015) refer to the location of a north northeast-
trending reentrant of shaly facies that marks the geographic location of
the basin axis along the “maximum tectonic flexure” domain from
Campos and Mann (2015) which also corresponds to where the study
area is located. This would also represent the topographically lowest
area, i.e. the axis that separates regions of Eastern Cordillera-derived
sediments from craton-derived sediments (Reyes-Harker et al., 2015).
A channel rotation takes place during the Early Miocene, recorded
by the channel belts and incised valleys of the Carbonera Member 1 as a
result of further eastward migration of the forebulge and the axial
fluvial system that once prevailed during the Early Oligocene (Campos
and Mann, 2015) (Reyes-Harker et al., 2015) (Figs. 8B, 18 and 19).
Mapped faults within the Carbonera members 3 and 1 (Fig. 8B) may be
propagated at this time from the last orogenic event of the Eastern
Cordillera during the Miocene (Mora et al., 2019) which would explain
the different orientations of the channels vs. faults within these mem-
bers (Fig. 8B).
Based on the overall observations on paleoflow channel direction in
seismic, along with previous provenance studies in the Eastern
Cordillera, we agree that an earlier Late Eocene uplift of the Eastern
Cordillera had a strong influence on fluvial dynamics as studied in the
last decade (Bayona et al., 2007, 2008a, 2008b; Osorio et al., 2008;
Caballero et al., 2010; Hoorn et al., 2010; Ayala et al., 2012; Nie and
Horton, 2012; Ochoa et al., 2012; Mora et al., 2010; Saylor et al., 2012;
Moreno et al., 2011; Delgado et al., 2012; Bande et al., 2012; Santos
et al., 2008; Campos and Mann, 2015; Reyes-Harker et al., 2015; Mora
et al., 2019) rather than a Late Oligocene (Gomez et al., 2005; Parra
et al., 2005; Martinez, 2006; Santos et al., 2008), or Miocene initial
Eastern Cordillera uplift (Cooper et al., 1995; Ecopetrol, 1995; Hoorn
et al., 1995; Diaz de Gamero, 1996; Casero et al., 1997; Villamil, 1999).
In terms of providing a sequence stratigraphic framework, a similar
approach was conducted by Caycedo Garcia and Catuneanu (2018)
within the members 5 to 1 of the Carbonera Formation in the western
flank of the Llanos basin where the producing interval (i.e. “basal
sands”) actually correspond to the Carbonera Member 5. The authors
conducted a higher resolution study based on seismic and well data that
included core data. They propose nine regressive-transgressive cycles
and were able to identify incised and unincised valleys, with similar
characteristics to the valleys observed in this study (CD1 and CD4 in
Fig. 14). We also identified major flooding surfaces (like the Datum
MFS) like those observed by Caycedo Garcia and Catuneanu, 2018 in
their dataset. The authors also mention, and we agree, that the absence
of some deposits (in their specific case, the lowstand deposits) and the
lateral variability of the Carbonera Formation may be related to the
position of the study area. The importance of conducting a sequence
stratigraphic approach like Caycedo Garcia and Catuneanu (2018) and
this study is that it provides a better understanding of the reservoir
variability of the Carbonera Formation through the basin.
7. Conclusions
There are potential stratigraphic traps in the Llanos foreland basin
within the Carbonera Formation that have yet to be explored. The best
stratigraphic traps are associated with amalgamated channels with
24
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 104 (2020) 102607
good lateral point bar accretion of the Carbonera Member 7, and in-
cised valleys and amalgamated channels of the Carbonera Member 1.
The seconds best stratigraphic traps are: 1) isolated, moderately sinuous
channels point bars with good lateral accretion; 2) isolated, low si-
nuosity, sand-prone, erosive channels, observed within the Carbonera
members 5 and 3; 3) interconnected, vertically stacked channels deposit
during the shift from sand-prone members to mud-prone members; and
4) possible basal lag where the thickest basal lag may be preserved in
bigger channelized features like the proto-Meta River. Lastly, smaller
stratigraphic traps may be related to laterally confined crevasse splay;
however, finer-grained intervals may have reduced permeability.
The best sealing intervals are associated with shale deposition
during transgressive events, aggradating floodplain intervals, mud-
plugs from channel abandonment, and paleosols. However, cross-cut-
ting from mud-plugs may also cause reservoir compartmentalization.
The risks for hydrocarbon accumulation include migration patterns
(leaky faults and vertically connected channels), and effective thick seal
intervals that separate producing sandstone of the Carbonera Member 7
from the potential reservoir intervals within the overlying members of
the Carbonera Formation.
Stratigraphic traps are closely linked to changes in base level and
accommodation that consequently affects channel sinuosity, migration,
and avulsion frequency. Overall, the Carbonera Formation records a
variety of low to moderate sinuous channelized features that include: 1)
amalgamated, pseudo-sheet, sand-prone channels (Carbonera Member
7) deposited during lowstand stage with a forced regression; 2) isolated,
mud-prone channels with high avulsion frequency deposited during a
transgressive system tract with flexurally-enhanced accommodation
(Carbonera members 5 and 3); 3) a main axial unincised valley referred
in this study as the proto-Meta River at the top of the Carbonera
Member 5 with the highest W/D ratio; and 4) a combination of sand-
prone, laterally accreted, channels and incised valleys (Carbonera
Member 1) formed during an overfilled foreland setting where the
lowest W/D ratio corresponds to abandoned channels within incised
valleys.
Changes in paleoflow direction observed in 3D seismic data allowed
to better understand the controls on the deposition of the Carbonera
Formation that include: 1) the Early Eocene to Middle Miocene uplift of
the Eastern Cordillera as proposed by several authors in the most recent
decade; 2) changes in provenance from the Guyana shield and the
Eastern Cordillera; and 3) variations of accommodation and sediment
supply caused by exhumation and loading of the Eastern Cordillera.
The classic definition of the Carbonera Formation as a succession of
“sandy, odd members and muddy-even members” by several authors
(Ecopetrol, 1995; Cooper et al., 1995; Villamil, 1999; Barrero et al.,
2007) does not apply to this unit in the maximum flexure zone of the
central area of the Llanos foreland basin, as seen in seismic and well
data. We propose that this “cyclic” behavior of the unit may be present
in the flanks of the basin and the Llanos foothills, where the unit was
first defined.
We propose seismic criteria for identifying the fluvial channels with
the greatest potential to form productive, stratigraphic traps within the
Carbonera Formation. We identified seven different types of channel
deposits and illustrated that interpretations of sand-filled channels
embedded in shaly interfluves previously done in the Llanos foreland
basin have been erroneous.
The workflow and processes conducted in this work can be easily
replicated in other areas of the Llanos basin and analog foreland basins
for exploration of stratigraphic traps in fluvial systems, as along the
interpreter 1) understands the limitations of the techniques used, 2)
integrates observations with a sequence stratigraphic framework, and
3) takes into account the geologic evolution of the basin and the con-
trolling factors for vertical and lateral tectonostratigraphic variations.
L. Torrado, et al.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Lucia Torrado: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation,
Visualization, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Luis
Carlos Carvajal-Arenas: Validation, Methodology, Investigation,
Visualization, Software, Writing - review & editing. Paul Mann:
Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing, Validation, Funding
acquisition, Supervision, Resources. Janok Bhattacharya:
Conceptualization, Validation, Writing - original draft, Supervision.
Declaration of competing interests
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
We thank Jesus Aboud, formerly with Pacific Rubiales Energy
Colombia for providing data and permission to publish. We also thank
the sponsoring companies of the Conjugate Basins, Tectonics and
Hydrocarbons (CBTH) consortium at the University of Houston for their
continued financial support and for providing access to the software
used during this research. We thank AGI Exploration for partialy
funding the open access to this paper. Special thanks to Luis Carlos
Carvajal Calderon, John Londono, and the two anonymous reviewers
for their valuable comments.
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