J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022

Review
REVIEW

Recent progress of 3D printed continuous fiber

reinforced polymer composites based on fused
deposition modeling: a review
Haiguang Zhang1,2,* , Tinglong Huang1, Qixiang Jiang3, Lanlan He2,*, Alexander Bismarck3,4, and
Qingxi Hu1,2

1
Rapid Manufacturing Engineering Center, School of Mechatronical Engineering and Automation, Shanghai University, Shangda
Road 99, Shanghai 200444, China
2
National Demonstration Center for Experimental Engineering Training Education, Shanghai University, Shangda Road 99,
Shanghai 200444, China
3
Institute of Materials Chemistry and Research, Polymer & Composite Engineering (PaCE) Group, Faculty of Chemistry, University of
Vienna, Währinger Strasse 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria
4
Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK

Received: 27 December 2020 ABSTRACT

Accepted: 19 April 2021 3D Printing, utilizing a layer-by-layer deposition of materials, is advantageous
Published online: to manufacture parts as it involves fewer process steps, provides great flexibility
29 April 2021 for prototyping, especially of complex parts, and has low material waste. Yet,
the mechanical properties of 3D printed parts have always been a concern due
Ó The Author(s), under to the weak inter-layer bonding and rough surface. 3D printed continuous fiber
exclusive licence to Springer reinforced polymer composites (CFRPCs) use continuous fiber reinforcements
Science+Business Media, LLC, for the polymer matrix, which significantly improve the mechanical properties
part of Springer Nature 2021 of printed parts. CFRPCs are widely used in aerospace, automobile, medical
industry and other fields due to their excellent specific mechanical properties.
Compared with other 3D printing technologies, fused deposition modeling
(FDM) has the advantages of low cost and simple operation to fabricate CFRPCs.
In this review article, the choices of various continuous fibers and matrix
polymers and their effect on the performance of CFRPCs have been discussed.
Furthermore, the latest equipment and methods to fabricate CFRPCs will be
summarized, and the key parameters affecting the properties of CFRPCs ana-
lyzed. At the end, based on the related research, we critically highlight the
challenges and opportunities associated with FDM of CFRPCs to point out the
direction of future work.

Handling Editor: Jaime Grunlan

Address correspondence to E-mail: haiguang_zhang@i.shu.edu.cn; helanlanlinda@163.com

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-021-06111-w
13000
Introduction
3D printing (3DP), also called additive manufactur-
ing (AM), is a method to fabricate complex structures
by layer-by-layer accumulation of materials, such as
metals, polymers and ceramics. Additive manufac-
turing is advantageous at short design cycles, suit-
able for manufacturing complex structures and high
material utilization as compared to traditional sub-
tractive manufacturing. Therefore, additive manu-
facturing has been widely used in manufacturing
parts and devices for aerospace [1], aviation [2–4],
automobiles [5, 6], medical device [3, 7–9], construc-
tion [10, 11], clothing [12] and so on. With its devel-
opment, 3D printing has been further developed
from a group of basic modes, such as fused deposi-
tion modeling (FDM), selective laser sintering (SLS),
stereo lithography (SL) and laminated object manu-
facturing (LOM) [13], to printing processes designed
for specific applications. For example, digital light
processing (DLP) and material jetting (MJ) have been
used to produce prosthetic implants for dentistry [8].
FDM is the most widely used 3D printing process
because of its low cost and simplicity of operation
[14], which allows to print a range of materials,
multiple materials and in multiple directions as well
as large objects [15]. Polymers, such as poly(acry-
lonitrile butadiene styrene) (ABS), polylactic acid
(PLA) and polypropylene (PP), are melted and then
extruded through a nozzle and deposited layer-by-
layer to build parts. Since the polymer materials used
are typically fed as filaments, FDM is, therefore, also
known as fused filament fabrication (FFF). Besides
the polymers mentioned above, FDM is versatile for
printing various polymer materials, including
hydrogels [16], bio-based polymers [17, 18], ther-
mosetting polymers, such as epoxy resin [19, 20], and
high performance polymers, such as polyether ether
ketone (PEEK) [21]. Nevertheless, FDM polymer
parts do have poor mechanical properties due to
weak inter-layer bonding forming during printing as
a result of molten layer being deposited onto a solid
layer [22]. Because of their low mechanical stiffness,
toughness [23] and functional attributes [24], 3D
printed polymer products are typically used as con-
ceptual prototypes and for research purposes and
have yet not found practical applications that require
reliable mechanical properties.
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
Printing fiber reinforced polymers to produce
composite materials is a possible route to improve the
mechanical properties of printed objects. Tradition-
ally, fiber reinforced polymer composites (FRPCs) are
fabricated by molding [25] or lamination techniques
[26]. However, long design time, poor manufacturing
flexibility and high costs have been obstacles limiting
their applications [27, 28]. Therefore, fabricating
FRPCs by FDM have increasingly attracted the
attention of researchers [29]. The process can be
divided into 3D printing of short or continuous fiber
reinforced polymers. However, short fiber reinforced
polymer composites (SFRPCs) have inferior
mechanical properties compared with continuous
fiber reinforced polymer composites (CFRPCs). In
SFRPCs, the polymer matrix is the continuous phase
and still dominating the mechanical properties,
although the short fibers result in increased Young’s
moduli [14, 30]. The reinforcing effect is influenced
by the fiber types. For some short natural fibers, their
incorporation into the matrix reduces typically the
tensile and flexural strengths of the composites
[31–34]. For example, the tensile and flexural
strengths of flax short fiber reinforced PLA composite
material were lower than that of pure PLA, because
the fiber addition increased the void content in the
composites thus reducing their strengths [33]. How-
ever, short natural fibers still have positive effects on
the performance of composite materials in some
functional aspects, such as ultraviolet (UV) stabi-
lization and flame retardancy [31]. However, it is also
possible to print continuous fiber reinforced poly-
mers using FDM processes. As compared to SFRPCs,
the tensile and flexural strengths of CFRPCs are 7
times and 5 times higher [35–38]. A FDM-based
printing process to fabricate continuous fiber rein-
forced composites has been first proposed by Mat-
suzaki et al. [37]. Since then, research has focused on
exploring various polymer and fiber materials to
improve the mechanical properties of 3D printed
composites, and to optimize process parameters
[14, 39–46].
A few review articles already cover the area of 3D
printed continuous fiber reinforced polymer com-
posites, focusing on the effect of process parameters
and structure of CFRPCs on their mechanical prop-
erties [14, 36, 47, 48]. However, this review surveys
the latest research on exploring fiber and polymer
materials for FDM of continuous fiber reinforced
polymer composites as well as. the apparatus
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
adapted for FDM of composite materials and will
identify challenges and opportunities for future
work.
Materials for continuous fiber reinforced
polymer composites
Continuous fiber reinforcement
Continuous fibers are primarily used as mechanical
reinforcement in FDM polymer parts, which should
serve as structural materials, and the physical and
mechanical properties of filament with various con-
tinuous fiber reinforcements are shown in Table 1.
Continuous carbon fibers (CCF) have excellent tensile
and flexural strengths [49–51] and are used as rein-
forcement for polymers produced using conventional
composite manufacturing processes. Heidari-Rarani
et al. [52] printed continuous carbon fiber reinforced
PLA composites using a FDM process; the tensile and
flexural strengths of the composite specimens with
the fiber volume fraction of 28.2% and fiber orienta-
tion of 0° (Fig. 11e) reached 61 MPa and 152 MPa and
increased by 37% and 109%, respectively, as com-
pared to pure PLA parts. Yang et al. [53] produced
continuous carbon fiber reinforced ABS composites
with the fiber mass fraction of 10 wt % and fiber
orientation of 0°, which possessed flexural strength of
127MPa and tensile strength up to 147 MPa, which
were about 1.5 times and 3 times higher than those of
pure ABS parts, respectively.
While printing of thermoplastic materials is quite
common, there are also reported examples showing
the printing of carbon fiber reinforced thermosetting
resins. For instance, Hao et al. [20] printed continu-
ous carbon fiber reinforced epoxy resin parts with a
0° fiber orientation which after curing had tensile and
flexural strengths of 793 MPa and 202 MPa, respec-
tively. Overall, the composites printed with continu-
ous carbon fiber reinforcements have great potential
have great potential to produce parts with much
Table 1 Physical (density q,
composite filament diameter Continuous fibers q/g/cm3
Dc) and mechanical properties
(tensile moduli E and flexural
Cabon 1.4
moduli Ef) of filament with
Glass 1.5
various continuous fiber
Kevlar 1.2
reinforcements [37, 39, 57, 62]
Jute 1.5
13001
higher tensile and flexural strengths as compared to
pure polymer parts.
Continuous Kevlar and glass fibers have also been
used to manufacture polymer composites using
FDM. Mohammadizadeh et al. [39] printed continu-
ous Kevlar fiber and continuous glass fiber reinforced
polyamide (PA) composites; the tensile strength of
Kevlar composites with a fiber volume fraction of
43% (0° fiber orientation) and glass composites with a
fiber volume fraction of 28% (0° fiber orientation)
reached 309 MPa and the 372 MPa, respectively; also,
the maximum cycle number of continuous glass fiber
reinforced PA composites reached was 620 as com-
pared to 200 reached for Kevlar reinforced PA com-
posites under a cyclic load of 3.33–0.33 kN. Ming
et al. [43] printed continuous glass fiber impregnated
with two epoxy resin systems, which were subse-
quently UV and thermally cured, resulting in glass
fiber reinforced epoxy resin composites. The 3D
printed glass reinforced epoxy composites (0° fiber
orientation) had a fiber mass fraction of 43 ± 3 wt %
and tensile strengths and moduli of 273 MPa and 8
GPa, respectively, and flexural strengths and moduli
of 300 MPa and 8 GPa, respectively, and interlaminar
shear strengths of 34 MPa.
Degradable composite materials are of great
importance to their applications for environmental
protection [54]. Because of its degradability PLA is
widely used as polymer matrix for such composites
[55, 56]. Accordingly, degradable continuous fibers
are the only useful reinforcement for such polymers
to guarantee the full degradability of the 3D printed
composites. Natural fibers, extracted from a wide
range of sources, can be processed into continuous
fiber forms and still have competitive prices (the
price of continuous flax and jute fibers are
US$2.1–4.2/kg and US$ 0.35–1.5/kg, respectively
[57]) as well as Young’s moduli approaching that of
glass fibers and excellent biodegradability [58]. Such
fibers were used as reinforcement to FDM manufac-
ture polymer composites. Matsuzaki et al. [37]
Dc/lm E/GPa Ef/GPa References
(Number, fiber diameters/lm)
400 (1000, 10) 60 51 [39, 62]
300 (1000, 12) 21 22 [39, 62]
300 (1000, 10) 27 26 [39, 62]
20–200 39 / [37]
13002
coextruded continuous jute fiber and PLA to print
composites with the fiber volume fraction of 6.1%
and fiber orientation of 0°, which had tensile moduli
and strengths of 5 GPa and 57 MPa, which corre-
sponds to an increase of 157% and 134% as compared
to pure PLA FDM printed parts, respectively. Mat-
suzaki et al. [37] found that the twists in the jute fiber
yarn was uneven if no pretension was applied to the
yarn during printing of jute fiber reinforced PLA
composites, leading to defects in the composite fila-
ment. Le Duigou et al. [40] printed continuous flax
yarn reinforced PLA composites with raster angles of
0 and 90 degrees. When the flax fiber volume fraction
reached 30.4%, the composites (0° fiber orientation)
possessed increased tensile moduli and strength as
compared to those of pure PLA but also 10 times
higher tensile moduli and strengths than the 3D
printed short flax fiber reinforced PLA composites.
This finding indicated that continuous natural fiber
yarns were more effective to enhance the mechanical
properties of composites than short natural fibers.
Zhang et al. [59] printed continuous flax yarn rein-
forced PLA composites by a five-axis printer based
on FDM. The flexural strength of the printed com-
posite parts (0° fiber orientation) with a fiber mass
Figure 1 Predicted effective thermal conductivities using
continuous fiber additives in the parallel (0° fiber orientation)
direction (adapted with permission from reference [61]. Copyright
[2020], [Advanced Manufacturing-Polymer & Composites
Science]). The figure shows the predicted effective thermal
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
fraction of 20.4% reached 132 MPa, 111% higher than
pure PLA. Furthermore, the maximum flexural load
of a curved printed flax fiber yarn reinforced PLA
structure, manufactured using this five-axis printer,
was 215N, 39% higher than the same structure pro-
duced using pure PLA.
Besides the acting as mechanical reinforcement,
fibers can also serve as functional components in
some composites. Pinpathomrat et al. [60] have
printed continuous carbon fiber reinforced PA6.
Carbon fibers absorb UV light and, therefore, hinder
the photo-oxidative degradation of the PA6 com-
posite. The incorporation of carbon fibers improves
the thermal conductivity of PLA composites [61].
Figure 1 shows the predicted effective thermal con-
ductivities of continuous fiber reinforced composites
in the parallel (0° fiber orientation) direction; the
effective thermal conductivities of 3D printed sam-
ples are 1.24 W/mK (sample 5),1.76 W/mK (sample
6) and 2.97 W/mK (sample 7), respectively, showing
a potential value in improving thermal conductivi-
ties, and also, fiber placement and orientations can be
enhanced and controlled by 3D printing process to
suit specific heat exchange applications [61].
conductivity of different continuous fiber reinforcements (0°)
with different fiber volume fraction (0–60%), compared with basic
metals such as copper and an aluminum alloy (sample 5: 12%
carbon fibers; sample 6: 21% carbon fibers; sample 6: 34% carbon
fibers) [61]..
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022 13003

polyetheretherketone (PEEK), etc. Table 2 has listed

Figure 2 Applications of CFRPCs on small size UAV frame
(adapted with permission from reference [63]. Copyright [2019],
[Composites Part B: Engineering]).
3D printed CFRPC devices, parts and components,
have already been utilized for practical applications.
For example, Azarov et al. [63] produced continuous
carbon fiber reinforced PLA composites by FDM for
use as a small sized frame for drone (Figure 2).
Moreover, Yeh et al. [64] printed continuous carbon
fiber reinforced PLA composites to fabricate pro-
pellers and fuselages of unmanned aerial vehicle
(UAV). Flight testing indicated that the multi-rotor
UAV had no unbalanced situation and enough pro-
duced lift, showing a good dual-blade dynamic bal-
ance capability, sufficient lift, light weight and good
dynamic performance; the weight reduction of the
UAV decreased its power consumption and thus
resulted in an increased range.
Materials of the polymer matrix in CFRPCs
Thermoplastic polymers
FDM thermoplastic polymers are widely used as
matrix in the printing thermoplastic polymers-based
CFRPCs [24, 65]. The thermoplastic polymer materi-
als commonly used for continuous fiber reinforced
3D printing include PLA, ABS, PA6,
kinds of polymer matix materials used in CFRPCs
and their characteristics. The related properties of
these pure polymers have been studied in many
kinds of literature [66–69], while this article will
discuss different types of matrix materials used in the
printing of CFRPCs.
Tian et al. [70] improved the strength of the CCF
reinforced PLA composites by adjusting the printing
parameters. Their experiment analyzed the influence
of printing temperature, printing speed, hatch spac-
ing and layer thickness on the flexural strength of the
composites. The maximum flexural strength and
flexural moduli were 335 MPa and 30 GPa, respec-
tively, with a fiber volume fraction of 27%. Improving
properties of the printed composites by optimizing
printing parameters is one of the hotspots in printing
continuous fiber reinforced PLA composite. Besides,
printing CNF reinforced PLA [45, 58], recycling and
remanufacturing of materials [71] are also a focused
area in the study of PLA matrix materials. ABS is
stable thermoplastic polymer that did not release
toxic chemicals or induce any behavioral abnormali-
ties [72]. However, compared with PLA, ABS melt
has a higher viscosity and poor fluidity [68]. Mosleh
et al. [73] determined a process window for creating a
stable stream of CCF reinforced ABS during printing
by tailoring the nozzle diameter, printing speed and
printing layer thickness. High-quality parts were
printed with an extruder diameter of 1.5 mm and a
layer thickness of 0.8 mm and a printing speed of 60
mm min-1. When the extruder diameter increased to
1.7 mm with a layer thickness of 0.8 mm or 1.0 mm
and a printing speed of 60mm or 120mm min-1, high-
quality composites and a stable printing process can
still be obtained. Prusinowski et al. [74] used a three-
way wire-fed printing head to print CCF reinforced
ABS composites. The authors investigated the influ-
ence of the average print layer thickness (ranging
from 300 to 500 lm) on the strengths of printed

Table 2 Characteristics of the polymer matrix materials in CFRPCs [21, 39, 62, 92, 93]

Polymer matrix Density/g/cm3 Diameters/lm Tensile moduli/GPa Flexural moduli/GPa Material shape References

Thermoplastic PLA 1.44 1750 2.1 2.3 Filament [92]

ABS 1.01 1750 1 1.8 Filament [62]
PA 1.1 1750 1.7 1.4 Filament [39, 62]
PEEK 1.3 1750 4 3.9 Filament [21]
Thermoset Epoxy 1.76 1750 2–3 / Filament [93]
13004
composites; the maximum tensile strength of the
composite was 210.15 MPa with the layer thickness of
400 lm. Therefore, optimizing parameters to further
improve the strength and printing quality of com-
posites is a research hotspot about continuous fiber
reinforced ABS composite materials.
PEEK is a semi-crystalline high performance ther-
moplastic polymer, which has recently been sub-
jected to 3D printing to produce complex parts. CCF
reinforced PEEK can be an ideal material for use as
spacecraft materials due to their low outgassing
properties, good resistance to space sourced radiation
and good toughness [75]. However, it is still chal-
lenging to extrude PEEK in a 3D printing process due
to its high melting point and melt viscosity [76].
Zanjanijam et al. [21] found that the residual stress
generated by the accumulation of 3D printing layers
seriously affected the printing accuracy and
mechanical properties. However, the residual stress
can be reduced by reducing the thermal gradient of
the material or reducing the temperature difference
between the nozzle and the hot bed. To improve the
layer bonding strength of CCF reinforced PEEK
composites, Luo et al. [76] used an assisted in-situ
laser to preheat location on a printed layer prior to
the deposition of a following layer during printing
CCF reinforced PEEK composites. The preheated
surface (with a temperature above the glass transition
temperature (Tg) of PEEK) allowed for a good inter-
layer bonding. As a result, the shear and flexural
strengths of the printed specimens reached 35 MPa
and 480 MPa, respectively. Abdullah et al. [77] prin-
ted CCF reinforced PEEK composites using a printer
equipped with an in-situ laser and a pressing roller.
They carried out recession tests of thermal cycling
and UV radiation on the printed CCF reinforced
PEEK composites. The tensile strengths of the com-
posites decreased by 3.2% after 5600 thermal cycles,
while their Young’s moduli did not change signifi-
cantly. Upon the initial UV radiation, the crystallinity
of the CCF reinforced PEEK composites increased,
resulting in a close packing of polymer chains and
strong intermolecular binding force [78], resulting in
increased tensile strengths of the composites.
In CFRPCs, low viscosity of the molten polymer
promotes the impregnation of the fibers by the
polymer melts. As compared to PEEK or ABS, PA is a
hydrophilic polymer and has high fluidity, allowing
the molten polymer to penetrate the fiber gap to
achieve a good fiber impregnation [44, 79]. Liu et al.
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
[44] used PA845H containing surfactants, emulsifiers
and other auxiliary components to pre-impregnate
CCF into prepreg. PA845H had good fluidity and
could fully penetrate the carbon fiber bundle. The
prepreg was then printed into composites, which had
the flexural strengths and moduli increased by 82%
and 246% compared to the short fiber reinforced
composites. Chabaud et al. [79] tested the water
absorption of CCF reinforced PA and continuous
glass fiber reinforced PA composites. Under a relative
humidity of 9–98% both of the composites reached a
water uptake of 5–6%. However, the water swelling
rate of the CCF composites was lower than that of
glass composites; this was due to the high void con-
tent of CCF reinforced PA composites. Due to the
moisture sensitivity, the CCF composites had
stable tensile moduli yet 25% decreased strengths
when being tested within a range of humidity.
The recycling of sustainable thermoplastic materi-
als greatly reduces the environmental pollution of
waste plastic landfill [80]. Farina et al. [81] doped
ABS in regenerated recycled PA6 (recovered through
the collection, purification, depolymerization and re-
polymerization) to improve its printability; mixed
printing filament was obtained by pelletizing and
extruding. Thermal and strength test of the filament
indicated that AQ27000-B (5% ABS, 95% regenerated
recycled PA6 with viscosity number 2.7 mL/g)
showed good thermal stability, pretty printability
and tensile yield strength of 76.20 MPa which was
higher than that of non-regenerated recycled pure
PA6 of 9.03 MPa. Hong et al. [82] studied the
mechanical properties of PLA printed specimens in
three-time recycling (represented by R1, R2 and R3).
They found that as the number of recycling reuses
increased, the tensile strength of recycled PLA
decreased (the maintained tensile strength of R1, R2
and R3 corresponding to about 63.1%, 60.9% and 31%
of virgin PLA specimens, respectively); meanwhile,
the thermal analysis results indicated that the
strength loss of recycled PLA was caused by a
reduced degree of crystallinity. Similar conclusions
were also drawn in the study by Lanzotti et al. [83].
Tian et al. [71] recycled CCF reinforced PLA com-
posites by conducing a reverse process of FDM pro-
cess assisted with a hot air gun; PLA was heated to a
molten state by the hot air gun; CCF was pulled out
and separated from the PLA melts. The recovery rate
of CCF was 100%, while the recovery rate of PLA was
73%. It was expected, also as shown in some articles,
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
that the strength of recycled PLA matrix was reduced
[82, 83]. Nevertheless, the flexural strength of recy-
cled and remanufacturing CCF reinforced PLA
composites increased by 25% compared to the origi-
nal composites. This was explained by the recycling
and melting process that allowed PLA to further
impregnate fibers, improving the bonding interface
strength between CCF and PLA. Yao et al. [84]
studied the recycling of continuous polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) fibers reinforced PLA compos-
ites; the fiber recovery rate reached 100%, while the
recovery rate of PLA reached 83%; the tensile and
flexural properties of the remanufactured samples
increased by 17% and 6%, respectively.
Thermosetting polymers
Fiber reinforced thermosetting polymers have drawn
extreme interest from both research and industry.
The thermosetting polymers have a cross-linked
polymer network, resulting in their great thermal and
chemical stability and wear resistance, which pro-
vides the composites high performance especially in
harsh conditions. However, the conventional manu-
facturing of thermosetting composites does cause a
significant amount of waste materials, increasing the
cost of the manufacturing process [20]. Hao et al. [20]
reported a low-cost FDM equipment (Fig. 3a) for
fabricating continuous carbon fiber reinforced epoxy
resin (E-54(616)) composites (Fig. 3b). The tensile
strength of the thermosetting composites was 793
MPa, and the tensile moduli was 161 GPa. Besides,
the flexural strength reached 202 MPa and the flex-
ural moduli reached 144 GPa, both of which were
higher than the strengths of similar printed continu-
ous carbon fiber reinforced PLA composites and
short carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composites in
previous studies [50, 85]. Ming et al. [19] impregnated
continuous carbon fiber with EP-20 (Fig. 3d, e) and
DICY as the curing agent. The impregnated carbon
fibers were 3D printed via FDM followed by curing
the epoxy resin. During curing at an elevated tem-
perature, the mixture of low-viscosity epoxy resin
and DICY penetrated and filled the gaps between
continuous carbon fibers (Fig. 3f). The resulting
composites with a curing and crosslinking degree of
99% showed a tensile strength and tensile moduli of
1476 MPa and 100 GPa, respectively. Previous work
on continuous carbon fiber reinforced epoxy com-
posites via FDM process have achieved a highest
13005
tensile strength of 1476 MPa and flexural strength of
953 MPa [19, 20, 86], which showed that epoxy resin
indeed had great potential in increasing the
mechanical properties of CFRPCs.
Fillers or secondary (particulate) reinforcing
materials have also been added in resins prior to their
impregnation with continuous fibers; typically, the
additives were used to regulate the rheology of the
resin inks or to reduce the anisotropic properties of
the resulting continuous fiber reinforced composites.
Several studies have found that using CNTs to
modify epoxy resin improved further the strength of
composites produced by traditional methods such as
molding [87–89]. Although the further enhancement
of the strength of reinforced epoxy resin composites
has potential research value, there are still few
studies on 3D printing continuous fiber reinforced
epoxy-CNTs matrix materials. Printing continuous
fiber reinforced epoxy-CNTs composites requires
printing equipment that provides high extrusion
pressure to avoid the blocking of the nozzle caused
by the high-viscosity of thermosetting prepolymers
[43]. High-viscosity is mainly because of that the
premature gelation of the thermosetting prepolymer
occured in the melt extrusion process of FDM, caus-
ing eventually the nozzle to block. At the same time,
the doping of CNTs inevitably increases the viscosity
of the epoxy resin [87].
The recycling of continuous fiber reinforced ther-
mosetting composites is conducive to environmental
protection [90]. Rahimizadeh et al. [90] recycled
reinforced fillers by grinding and screening waste
continuous glass fiber reinforced epoxy wind blades
(including recycled glass fiber and residual epoxy
matrix). The fillers were used to reinforce PLA and
remanufacture recycled samples. The elastic moduli
and ultimate strength of the recycled samples
increased by 16% and 10%, respectively, compared
with the commercial non-recycled pure short glass
fiber reinforced PLA composites. Romani et al. [91]
also recycled waste continuous glass fiber reinforced
epoxy wind blades into reinforced fillers through
mechanical pulverization. The recycled reinforced
filler and epoxy resin were mixed and used as inks in
an ultraviolet assisted liquid deposition modeling
(UV-LDM) to remanufacture composites; the tensile
strength of the composite reached 35 MPa, which was
higher than that of commercial unrecycled pure short
glass fiber reinforced PLA composites of 25 MPa.
13006
Figure 3 Continuous fiber reinforced thermosetting polymer 3D
printing device, composites and their strength: a continuous carbon
fiber reinforced thermosetting polymer printing equipment
b comparison of continuous carbon fiber reinforced epoxy resin
(E-54 (616)) specimens (top) and continuous carbon fiber
reinforced PLA specimens (bottom) c strength comparison of 3D
printed composites (materials: The red dots represent 3D printed
continuous carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic polymer
composites, the green dots represent 3D printed short carbon
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
fiber reinforced thermoplastic polymer composites; the blue dots
represent 3D printed continuous carbon fiber reinforced
thermosetting polymer composites) (adapted with permission
from reference [20]. Copyright [2018], [Polymer Testing]);
another printing device to print carbon fiber reinforced
thermosetting composites on d printing process e printing
equipment and f Curing process (adapted with permission from
reference [19]. Copyright [2019], [Materials (Basel)])..
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
Equipment and morphological properties
Printing equipment for CFRPCs
Equipment based on FFF
A single-step method to print continuous fiber rein-
forced polymer composites was firstly proposed by
Matsuzaki et al. [37]. A continuous fiber and a fila-
mentous thermoplastic material were fed in the 3D
Figure 4 a Schematic of the 3D printer head used to produce
CFRPCs using in-nozzle impregnation based on FDM and
b photograph of the 3D printing of CFRTPCs (adapted with
permission from reference [37]. Copyright [2016], [Sci Rep]). c–
13007
printer simultaneously, where the polymer melt
impregnate the fiber (Fig. 4a); the composite filament
was extruded from the nozzle and printed (Fig. 4b)
[37]. The beauty of the single-step method is that only
one equipment is required, which did function to
print CFRP composites with greatly improved
mechanical properties. However, the drawback of the
one-step method was the short impregnation time,
leading to uneven polymer/fiber distribution as well
e The SEM of inter-layer pores and f. g intra-layer voids
represented by the black area (adapted with permission from
reference [79]. Copyright [2019], [Additive Manufacturing])..
13008
as voids in the impregnated fiber filaments (Fig. 4c, d,
e). Furthermore, the unevenly impregnated fibers
had a rough surface, leading after printing to voids at
the inter-layers (Fig. 4f, g).
To remove inter-layer voids during printing, Meng
et al. [76] adapted an FDM printer equipped with an
in-situ laser heating to print continuous carbon fiber
reinforced PEEK composites (Fig. 5a). The device
improved the thermal field of PEEK by using laser
heating at the nozzle, allowing the molecular chains
of adjacent layers to penetrate slightly (Fig. 5b) and
increasing the inter-layer bonding reducing the pores
in the layers. Furthermore, the thermal field
improved the fiber impregnation effect by increasing
the fluidity of the polymer matrix. The deposition
pressure can be adjusted by controlling the process
parameters, such as changing the hatch spacing and
the layer thickness [44]. The small forming space
Figure 5 a Schematic of the printing process combined with laser
in-situ and local preheating (adapted with permission from
reference [76]. Copyright [2019], [Composites Part A-Applied
Science and Manufacturing]). b Effect of preheating on inter-layer
molecular chain bonding (adapted with permission from reference
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
caused by low nozzle height, and small spacing leads
to high deposition pressure. However, the printed
surface might become rough when printing using a
too small forming space and brittle fracture is likely
to occur, causing the flexural strength of the resulting
composites to decrease [44]. In addition to controlling
the printing parameters, the deposition pressure
between layers can also be increased by configuring
an external pressing roller. Zhang et al. [94] devel-
oped a printing device (Fig. 5c) equipped with a
pressure roller to fabricate CCF reinforced PLA
composites. The immediate squeezing of the as-
printed layer enhanced the bonding to the layer
below; the presence of inter-layer voids was therefore
reduced. The maximum flexural and tensile strength
of the composites reached 644.8 MPa and 401.24 MPa,
when they were produced with a roller, much higher
than the strengths of 109.9 MPa and 163.13 MPa,
[76]. Copyright [2019], [Composites Part A-Applied Science and
Manufacturing]). c Printing process with a pressure roller (adapted
with permission from reference [94]. Copyright [2020], [Materials
(Basel)])..
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
Figure 6 Two-step method to fabricate CFRPCs: a schematic of
pre-impregnating continuous fibers (adapted with permission from
reference [95]. Copyright [2018], [Journal of Materials Science]).
b Schematic of printing continuous carbon fiber with sizing
reinforced PA6 composites (adapted with permission from
respectively, of the printed composites without
pressing. However, it was worth mentioning that
when the external pressing force was too high, it
13009
reference [44]. Copyright [2018], [Composites Part A-Applied
Science and Manufacturing]). c Schematic of pre-impregnating
with ultrasonic generator (adapted with permission from reference
[46]. Copyright [2019], [Additive Manufacturing])..
seriously affected the printing accuracy and even
caused printing failure.
Removing intra-layer voids and improving the
impregnation of continuous fibers with polymer
13010
Figure 7 a Five-axis 3D printer with single extruder (adapted
with permission from reference [59]. Copyright [2020], [Materials
(Basel)]). b Multi-axis FDM device with double extruder for
melts are typically realized by a two-step method.
Continuous fibers are firstly pre-impregnated with
polymer melt to produce prepregs (Fig 6a); the fila-
mentous prepregs are subjected to FDM printers and
printed into composites [59, 95, 96]. In the pre-im-
pregnation step, the polymers can be kept a desired
period of time at their melting state to impregnate the
fibers; the impregnation was therefore optimized.
Furthermore, it allows a flexible, interruptible print-
ing process as well as production and transportation
of polymer impregnated fibers as products. On the
other hand, researchers also optimized the fiber
impregnation process through chemical or physical
interference. Liu et al. [44] removed the epoxy sizing
of commercial carbon fibers with acetone followed by
impregnating the fibers with polyamide dispersion
adhesive (PA845H) (Fig. 6b). The printed composites
with desized carbon fibers had low void contents as
compared to those containing sized carbon fibers.
Qiao et al. [46] used an ultrasonic generator (Fig. 6c)
in a pre-impregnation process of PLA-impregnated
carbon fiber and found that ultrasonic waves could
increase the surface roughness of the carbon fiber,
which increased the contact area between the carbon
fiber and the PLA matrix. Compared with the
untreated material, the tensile strength and flexural
strength of the final printed CCF reinforced PLA
composite material increased by 34% and 29%
respectively, with the ultrasonic amplitude of 40 lm,
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
CFRPCs (adapted with permission from reference [97]. Copyright
[2019], [Procedia CIRP])..
the mass fraction of PLA solution of 10 wt % and the
dipping drawing speed of 15 mm s-1.
In addition to reducing void defects, Zhang et al.
[59] used a five-axis printer (Fig. 7a) to print contin-
uous flax yarn reinforced PLA composite leaf springs
and shoe caps, which showed better curved top
quality compared to the traditional three-axis printed
composites. Zhang et al. [97] developed a multi-axis
dual-nozzle printing device (Fig. 7b) for CFRPCs
(fibers and matrix filaments were extruded from two
separate nozzles), two rectangular parts with differ-
ent CCF winding paths were printed, which cannot
be printed by a three-axis printer. The multi-axis
printing process makes it possible for more complex
design and printing methods of CFRPCs [97]. How-
ever, there was little work about multi-axis printing
for CFRPCs. Moreover, multi-axis printing can also
be carried out by robotic arms but with a complicated
printing process [98]. Multiple robotic arms can
achieve a rapid and complex structure manufactur-
ing for printing [99], which is a challenging task in
the future works about CFRPCs.
Pellet printing for CFRPCs
Printing devices based on FFF require filamentous
polymer materials as inks, which do have high
manufacturing cost [100]. Therefore, printing poly-
mer pellets using a printer with screw extrusion
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
Figure 8 a Screw-based powder extrusion device (adapted with
permission from reference [105]. Copyright [2019], [Additive
Manufacturing]). b The printing device and c the schematic of
(Fig. 8a) has gradually appeared in recent years
[101–105]. The extrusion force provided by the screw
enables the printing of high-viscosity polymers,
which expands the types of printable polymers
especially for the composites that are difficult to
prepare into filaments, such as polymers with pow-
der fillers [105–107]. When printing CFRPCs with
13011
printing CFRPCs based on micro screw (adapted with permission
from reference [108]. Copyright [2020], [Composites Part
A-Applied Science and Manufacturing])..
filamentous polymers, the extrusion of the polymers
mainly relies on the drag effect of the continuous
fiber when extruding from the nozzle, so the obtained
fiber content is up to 40–50 wt % [37], which limits
the further enhancement of composite performance.
Liu et al. [108] used a combination of in-situ micro-
screws and dipping rollers to print continuous
13012 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
b Figure 9 The surface of the filaments extruded by a 0.6 mm and
b 1.0 mm diameter nozzles (adapted with permission from
reference [19]. Copyright [2019], [Materials (Basel)]). c Effect of
fiber content on tensile and flexural strength (adapted with
permission from reference [79]. Copyright [2019], [Additive
Manufacturing]). d Effect of fiber content on porosity (adapted
with permission from reference [110]. Copyright [2020],
[Composites Part B-Engineering]). e CT scan images of 20 vol
% and f 50 vol % fiber content (adapted with permission from
reference[110]. Copyright [2020], [Composites Part
B-Engineering])..
carbon fiber reinforced PA12 composites (Fig. 8b, c).
The use of micro-screws for transverse extrusion
provided the impregnation pressure, allowing the
PA12 to penetrate the fibers. Besides, when the fiber
content of the composite was increased to 50.02%, the
polymer could still be extruded smoothly with the
screw extrusion force (whereas many researchers
reported 3D printed composites with a fiber content
lower than 40%). Nevertheless, as the feeding mate-
rials are pellet or powder, air might be drawn along
with the feeding polymers into the printer, leading to
an aggravation of defects in the parts [105].
Morphological properties of CFRPCs
Fiber content and void content
Fiber content (fiber volume fraction or fiber mass
fraction) is an important factor that influences the
mechanical properties of the fiber reinforced com-
posites. Low fiber content leads to a low degree of
load transfer from the polymer phase to the fibers,
while a too high fiber content significantly increases
the chance of dry fibers and voids in the composites.
Depending on resin formulations and types of fibers,
an optimized fiber volume fraction could be from 60
to 70 % in conventional composite manufacturing
processes [109]. Ming et al. compared the CCF rein-
forced epoxy composite filaments with different fiber
content realized by the extruding epoxy impregnated
CCF through nozzles with diameters of 0.6mm and
1mm, respectively. The composite filaments corre-
sponding to 0.6mm had a 71 wt % fiber content which
was much higher than the 48 wt % fiber content of
those extruded through a 1mm nozzle. As compared
with the surface of filaments from 1 mm noz-
zle(Fig. 9b), the fracture surface of filaments from
0.6mm nozzle was scratched by the nozzle during
13013
extrusion (Fig. 9a), leading to a brittle fracture of the
composites [19]. Chabaud et al. [79] tested the
transverse and longitudinal (fiber arrangement
direction) tensile properties of CCF reinforced PA
composites with different fiber content (Fig. 9c). The
longitudinal tensile strengths of the composites
increased from 300 to 534 MPa with the FVF
increasing from 13 to 35 wt %, while the transverse
tensile strength mainly depended on the polymer
matrix to bear the load; the increase of FVF led to
more voids, which decreased the transverse tensile
strengths from 20 to 10 MPa with the increase of FVF
from 0 to 35 wt %. Hou et al. [110] further discussed
the relationship between fiber content and void con-
tent (Fig. 9d). Through computed tomography (CT)
scanning of CFRCs (Fig. 9e, f), the authors found that
the void content increased with the increase of fiber
volume fraction; when the fiber volume fraction
reached 50%, the porosity was up to 6.8%. The voids
were typically distributed along the fiber direction
(longitudinal), and the distribution is concentrated,
which may be the reason why CFRPCs are prone to
transverse fractures. Therefore, the effect of fiber
content on strength is extremely complex and is
related to many factors such as void content, fiber
orientation, printing parameters, printing process
and materials [36].
The main factors causing the formation of voids are
fiber distribution and the fluidity of polymers, which
as aforementioned are attributed to the material
properties and printing parameters, including ther-
mal field and deposition pressure. Besides, fiber
content and fiber orientation can also affect the void
content in CFRPCs [110]. In addition to these direct
factors, the mechanical performance of CFRPCs is
indirectly affected by the type and preparation
method of continuous fibers. CCF contains thousands
of fibers; polymer melts or resin, if with high-vis-
cosity, can hardly impregnate the fibers effectively
and fill small gaps between fibers [111]. In the
printing process of heating natural fibers such as
hemp, jute, flax, etc., when the temperature exceeded
200°C, the fiber underwent thermal degradation
leading to an increase of the composite void content,
which seriously affected the mechanical properties of
the composites [29]. Le Duigou et al. [40] used con-
tinuous flax yarns with a twisting degree of 320
Turn/m and a linear density of 68 Tex as reinforce-
ment material in PLA. The tensile strengths of the
composite with a fiber content of 34.5% were tested;
13014
the longitudinal tensile strengths of the composite
reinforced by twisted continuous flax yarns were 4.5
times and 10 times higher than those of pure PLA
and short flax reinforced PLA composites, respec-
tively. However, the transverse tensile strengths of
the tested composites were lower than those of pure
PLA due to inadequate polymer impregnation
caused by fiber twist.
Fiber impregnation
A good impregnation effect results in a contact
between the fibers and matrix, and an efficient load
transfer between the fiber and matrix material, which
finally improves the fiber reinforced effect [79]. Pre-
impregnation of fibers with polymers prior to their
use in FDM allowed for sufficient time for the matrix
material to penetrate the fibers; During the process,
the fibers were typically pre-loaded to ease the con-
tact and penetration of the polymers [43, 46, 108]. As
shown in Fig. 8c, Liu et al. [108] designed the fiber
impregnating setup equipped with a rolling pin.
When the fibers were impregnated under a tension of
1–1.5 N, the resulting composites had a poor
fiber/matrix contact and broke with fiber pull-out
(Fig. 10a), while when the impregnation was carried
out under a fiber tension of 5.6 N, the fiber impreg-
nation effect was significantly enhanced and the
composite material fractured with a nearly smooth
section (Fig. 10b). PA melt can easily penetrate and
impregnate continuous fibers because of its good
fluidity [44]. For highly viscouse polymer melts such
as ABS and PEEK, printing parameters were opti-
mized [73, 74], and the printing process was
improved [76, 77] to improve the fiber impregnation
effect. In addition, Qiao et al. [46] used ultrasound to
improve the pre-impregnation effect of CCF in PLA
solution; the SEM results showed the tensile fracture
of printed composites after pre-impregnation with
the ultrasonic amplitude of 0, 40, and 60 lm (Fig. 10d,
e, f). When the ultrasonic amplitude increased, the
fiber impregnation effect increased correspondingly
with a good contact area between the CCF and PLA
matrix. Liu et al. [44] used PA845H to pre-impregnate
CCF, and then printed the CCF reinforced PA6
composite material. PA845H increased the wettability
and interfacial adhesion between carbon fiber and
PA6 matrix, therefore promoting the fiber impreg-
nation; PA845H was also a kind of polyamide
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
polymer which had similar chemical structures with
the PA6 (Fig. 10g).
Fiber orientation
CFRPCs have the characteristic anisotropy due to
their fiber orientations. The flexural and tension of
the composites in the longitudinal direction (0°,
Fig. 11e) are dominated by the fibers, while those in
the transverse directions (0°, Fig. 11f) are determined
by the polymer matrix. The fracture moduli of con-
tinuous fiber reinforced composites are affected by
fiber orientation and interfacial binding energy.
When the interfacial bonding energy is low, the loads
on longitudinal and transverse mainly rely on the
bearing of the matrix, which is manifested as the
fracture of the matrix material with the fiber pull-out
(Fig. 11a, b) [40, 112, 113]. However, when the inter-
face bonding energy is high, the longitudinal tensile
fracture cross-section is uniform, indicating a
promising load transfer, which led to the fiber failure
(rather than pull-out) (Fig. 11c, d), but the transverse
tensile was still the fracture of the matrix material
[44, 71, 112]. Hou et al. [110] analyzed the effect of
fiber orientation of 0°, 90° and 45°/-45° on the
mechanical properties of CFRPCs (Fig. 11e, f, g). The
tensile strength test results showed that the tensile
strengths of 45°/-45° specimens were only 3–21 MPa
(Fig. 11e, f, g) when the fiber content was 0–50 wt %,
which was much lower than that of 90° specimens.
This was explained by an in-plane shear load of the
45°/-45° during stretching; the fracture surface also
showed a mainly shear failure.
Conclusions and perspectives
This article reviews the latest research progress on
continuous fiber reinforced polymers produced by
3D printing based on FDM with the focus on
researches on materials, process, equipment and
morphological properties of CFRPCs. Because of their
high strength and light weight, CFRPCs are widely
used in fields that need high performance, such as
aerospace, automobile, etc. Compared with short
fiber and filler reinforced polymer composites, con-
tinuous fiber reinforcement has a significant effect on
improving the mechanical properties of composites.
Printing CFRPCs based on the FDM process has
advantages of lower cost, simple operation, short
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
Figure 10 Fracture patterns for 1 K CCF pre-extruded filaments
with (1 K–1.5 N, a) 1.5N, (1 K–2.8 N, b) 2.8N, (1 K–5.6 N, c) 5.6
N (adapted with permission from reference [108]. Copyright
[2020], [Composites Part a-Applied Science and Manufacturing])
and fracture morphology of CCF reinforced PLA composites pre-
impregnated with ultrasonic amplitude of d 0, e 40, f 60lm and
production cycle and complex modeling compared
with traditional manufacturing methods such as
molding. However, the strengths of the printed parts
13015
g evolution of interfacial performance (adapted with permission
from reference [46]. Copyright [2019], [Additive Manufacturing])
and fracture patterns in 3D printing of CCF reinforced PA
specimens (adapted with permission from reference [44].
Copyright [2018], [Composites Part A-Applied Science and
Manufacturing])..
are always lower than those of the traditional molded
and injected composites due to the low fiber content,
poor interface bonding force and inevitable printing
13016
Figure 11 SEM of (a) tensile fracture of 90 and b 0 angles
(adapted with permission from reference [40]. Copyright [2019],
[Materials & Design]). SEM of the cross-section with c low and
d high interface bonding force (adapted with permission from
reference [44]. Copyright [2018], [Composites Part A-Applied
defects. To further improve the performance of
printed CFRPCs, related researches should focus on
the following aspects:
Materials: The type of continuous fibers and
polymer matrix materials significantly affects the
performance of composite materials; more effort is
required to be invested particularly for recycling and
remanufacturing of degradable green materials and
composite materials. Furthermore, the use of chemi-
cal or physical methods on modifying fibers or
polymers can improve the bonding performance of
the interface, but the high technical difficulty and the
complicated operation limited its further
development.
Equipment: Recently, there have been many studies
to improving the equipment and process of printing
CFRPCs based on FDM; researchers have proposed
many innovative processes and equipment to
improve the composite strength in terms of
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
Science and Manufacturing]). Effect of the continuous fiber
orientation fiber on the tensile strength with angles of e 0, f 90
and g 45°/-45°, respectively (adapted with permission from
reference [110]. Copyright [2020], [Composites Part
B-Engineering])..
increasing the interface bonding energy and
decreasing the printing defects. However, the
strengths are affected by many factors such as
humidity, temperature, printing parameters, fiber
content, fiber orientation, anisotropy and so on,
which takes a great challenge for the printing process
and equipment.
Properties:Based on the complexity of the factors
affecting the composite strength, it is necessary to
further study the effect of each factor especially for
the fiber distribution of CFRPCs which has not been
discussed in the past work. The influence principle of
multi-factor coupling such as establishing the
strength prediction model to predict the mechanical
performance of CFRPCs and optimize printing
parameters should also be explored.
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:12999–13022
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge funding support from the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant
51775324) and the China Scholarship Council (No.
201806895016). The research work was supported by
the fund of Austrian-Chinese Cooperative R&D Pro-
jects (FFG No.860384). We gratefully acknowledge
funding from EU H2020 (through project: 760601) for
QJ.
Declarations
Conflict of interest We declare that we have no
financial and personal relationships with other peo-
ple or organizations that can inappropriately influ-
ence our work, there is no professional or other
personal interest of any nature or kind in any pro-
duct, service or company that could be construed as
influencing the position presented in, or the review of
the manuscript entitled.
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