Design of Surface Irrigation Systems

Surface irrigation
In the surface methods of irrigation, water is applied directly to the soil surface from a
channel located at the upper reach of the field. Water may be distributed to the crops in
border strips, check basins or furrows. Two general requirements of prime importance to
obtain high efficiency in surface methods of irrigation are: distribution systems to provide
adequate control of water to the fields and proper land preparation to permit uniform
distribution of water over the field. They are also designed to minimize labor and capital
requirements. Effective management practices are dependent on the type of irrigation, and the
climate and topography of the region.
Design of Border & Basin Irrigation
Distribution of water applied along a surface irrigation field to refill the root zone

Application uniformity is concerned with the distribution of water over the entire field. A
number of technical sources suggest the Christiansen coefficient as a measure of uniformity
of application. Others propose distribution uniformity as the average infiltrated depth in the
low quarter of the field divided by the average infiltrated depth over the whole field. The
same authors also suggest an absolute distribution uniformity which is minimum depth
divided by the average depth. Thus, the evaluator can choose one that fits his perceptions, but
it should be clear as to which one is being used. The following definition of distribution
efficiency may, however, be used to describe the application uniformity of a surface
irrigation system.

Where,
Ed = distribution efficiency
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 d' = average infiltrated depth along the field
y' = average numerical deviation of the measured depths from d'
Application Efficiency
Application efficiency (Ea) is defined as the volume of water added to the root zone divided

by the volume of water applied to the field, i.e.

Surface Irrigation system design

Design can be viewed as the process of making decisions concerning the values of flow rate
(Qo), length of channel (L), and time of cutoff (tco), prior to the onset of every irrigation
season and during the project development phase. The available stream size, and the length
and grade of the land units must be combined to achieve acceptable results without excessive
labour, waste of water, erosion and inconvenience to other farming operations. Table 1
presents a summary of primary surface irrigation systems

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The performance of a surface irrigation system is dependent on three sets of variables;
design, management, and field variables (system parameters), which are shown in the
following functional relationship

Where P = performance of surface irrigation

I = symbolizes the infiltration parameters
So = channel bed slope
n = hydraulic resistance
G = symbolizes geometry parameters
Zr = required amount of application
qo = unit flow rate at the head end of the channel
tco = time of cut off
L = furrow length
Generally there are two types of design data inputs in surface irrigation: field parameters
[measured or assumed properties of the given situation] and field decision variables [flow
rate, the field dimensions and cut-off time]. The designer can manipulate decision variables.

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On the other hand, however, the designer cannot influence Field parameters which primarily
consist of the soil infiltration characteristics, the flow resistance, the required net application
depth, and the field slopes (for borders and furrows).
System Parameters
1. Required amount of application (dn)
This parameter represents the amount of water that needs to be stored in the crop root zone
reservoir during every irrigations, in order to sustain normal crop growth. The crop type,
stage of growth, presence or absence of shallow water table, and limiting soil horizons (such
as hard pans), among other things, determine the effective crop root depth. Soil type is the
factor that determines how much water can be stored per unit depth of soil. These factors,
along with the climatic conditions of an area should be considered to determine the required
amount of application (dn). For basins and borders the characteristics width is unit width, i.e.
1m, whereas for furrows it is the furrow spacing.
Note: dn is the same as MAD - management allowable depletion or maximum allowable
deficiency. MAD is the soil moisture at which irrigations should be scheduled, and is
determined as:

Figure 1: Components of soil water

2. Maximum allowable flow velocity (Vmax)
This is used in estimating the non-erosive flow rate, Qmax, which can be turned on into a
furrow or a border or a basin without causing soil erosion. The value of Vmax is generally
depend on soil type, and may vary within the range of 8 m/min for erodible silt to 13 m/min
for more stable clay and sandy soils.
3. Manning’s roughness coefficient (n)
A parameter in Manning’s equation, known as the Manning’s “n”, is used as a measure of the
resistance effects that flow might encounter as it moves down the furrow, border or basin,
which is in fact a representation, in lumped form, of the effect of the roughness of the
physical boundaries of the flow and cultivation practices. Most of the time, the values for
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Manning’s “n” used for furrow, border and basin irrigation are based on the recommendation
of the SCS and are given in the following table.

4. Channel bed slope (So)

The bed slope of a furrow or a border or a basin needs to be known in order to estimate
maximum non-erosive flow rates as well as flow cross-sectional area or depth of flow at any
given channel section using, say, Manning’s equation. Bed slope is the average slope in the
direction of irrigation and is an easy parameter to measure. For borders and furrows bed slope
should not be too high to cause scouring and must not be too low as to result a very slow
advance with the end outcome being inefficient irrigation. Usually the values recommended
by USDA, which depend on soil (type and profile depth), crop combination (for borders) and
size of individual furrows, are used.
5. Infiltration parameter (I)
Knowledge of the infiltration characteristics of the soil is critically important for evaluation,
design or management of a surface irrigation system, without which it is very difficult to
accurately judge system performance, application efficiency and uniformity. Therefore,
infiltration parameter, k, a, and fo should be determined prior to the actual design stage.
Generally infiltration rate and cumulative infiltration into an initially dry soil from a ponded
water body can be represented as a sole function of time. Over the years several
mathematical models have been developed which may broadly classified as:
i) Models based on one- dimensional Porous media flow Equation- Numerical Equations of
Richard’s Equation.
ii) Physically based models – (Green & Ampt, 1911)
iii) Empirical relationships - (Kostiakov 1932; Lewis 1933; Horton 1940; USDA 1979)
Owing to their simplicity and minimal data requirement commonly utilized equations in
surface irrigation models are the Kostiakov- Lewis and modified Kostiakov- Lewis
Equations.
Kostiakov – Lewis Equation
This was independently developed by Kostiakov and Lewis and has a form in which the
infiltration rate is expressed as a single term monotonic decreasing power function of time.
The cumulative intake function (depth of infiltration) is given by:

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The Kostiakov – Lewis equation, as per Philip (1957), describes both actual and theoretical
infiltration very well on small to medium time scale. However, it has two major limitations.
• It cannot be adjusted for field conditions known to have profound effects on infiltration
such as Initial water content.
• After long periods of application it predicts an infiltration rate which approaches to zero,
which is not always true.
Modified form of Kostiakov – Lewis Equation:

The cumulative intake is given by , differentiating the preceding

equation the corresponding rate of infiltration will be:

The new term, fo, represents the final, near constant, infiltration rate that would occur after
long time of application. It is generally referred to as the basic infiltration (intake) rate.
Soil Conservation Service method
This is an empirical infiltration function of wide importance from irrigation perspective
developed by the United States Department of Agriculture Soil conservation Service (SCS,
1979).
The depth of infiltration (Z) is given by the following function.

The SCS has developed the concept of soil intake families, which classify soils in to broad
categories according to their infiltration properties. The SCS soil intake families are
identified by numerals ranging from 0.05 - 2.00 (sometimes 4).
The intake family denoted by 2 for example represents a soil which absorbs 2 inches or
25.4mm of water over a unit surface area per hour after sufficiently long period of
application.
6. Channel geometry
The geometry of a channel cross-section has a significant effect on the surface hydraulics as
well as infiltration. Generally, basins and borders can be considered as wide rectangular
channels, where the depth of flow is by far less than their width. Furrows, on the other hand,
can have parabolic, triangular or trapezoidal cross-sections. It is therefore important to take
account of channel geometry in modelling of furrow irrigation processes.

For reasons of simplicity and practical considerations, such as accounting for irregularities in
channel cross-sections, it is customary to assume that a power relationship holds between the
following important channel geometry elements of a furrow.

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Similarly, furrow spacing depends upon the type of crop, equipment availability and soil
type. Many crops are planted in single rows 75 to 105 cm apart.
Table 3: Area and hydraulic radius calculations for the three channel types

System Variables
1. Channel length (L)
The length of a basin or border or a furrow should be determined considering the soil type,
method of irrigation and from previous studies to estimate advance and recession over the
length of the channel, the resulting distribution of infiltrated water, volume of runoff and the
performance indices. There always exist a certain optimal channel length that would
minimize irrigation water losses yet results in acceptable levels of adequacy and uniformity.
If the above data is not available the following Tables can be used as guides.
Table 4: Typical border slopes, length and width for different soils

Table 5: Maximum furrows lengths for given slopes, depth of water application and
soils.

2. Unit inlet flow rate (Qo)

This is the discharge diverted into a furrow, or a unit width border or a basin. Inlet flow rate
is one of the key variables in influencing the outcome of an irrigation event; it affects, the rate

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of advance to a significant degree and also recession to a lesser but appreciable extent.
Thereby having a significant effect on uniformity, efficiency and adequacy of irrigation, it
should not be too high as to cause scouring and should not be too small as otherwise the
water will not advance to the downstream end.
3. Cutoff time (tco)
Cutoff time is the time at which the supply is turned off, measured from the onset of
irrigation. The ideal time of cutoff occurs when the infiltrated depth in the least-watered
portion of the field is equal to the irrigation requirement. The most important effect of cutoff
is reflected on the amount of losses, deep percolation and surface runoff, and hence efficiency
and adequacy of irrigation. In general for any given factor level of combination the selection
of an appropriate value of tco is made on the basis of the target application depth and
acceptable level of deficit.

Border Irrigation
The farm is divided into a number of strips (width 10-20 m and length 100-400 m) separated
by low levees or borders.
 Water is turned from the supply ditch into these strips along which a flow slowly
toward the lower end, wetting the soil as it advances. When the advancing water front
reaches the lower end, the stream turned off.
 The surface is essentially level between levees and lengthwise slope is somewhat
according to natural slope of the land (0.2- 0.4%)
 It is suitable to soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates and to
all closely growing crops.

Figure 1: Border flooding (Plan view)

Border method of irrigation is a method of surface flooding whereby the water is applied to
the field divided into strips separated by parallel ridges. The parallel ridges are meant to
guide a sheet of flowing water as it moves down the slope. The essential feature of border
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irrigation is to provide an even surface over which the water can flow down the slope with a
nearly uniform depth. The design of the border irrigation assists in deciding:
(1) Width of the border,
(2) Length of the border,
(3) Slope
(4) Duration of irrigation and
(5) Stream size.
All these factors are interrelated.
Width of border strip: The width of a border usually varies from 3 to 15 meters, depending
on the size of the irrigation stream available and the degree of land levelling practicable.
When the size of the irrigation stream available is small, the width is reduced. It is, however,
not economical to keep the width less than three metres; as otherwise, too many ridges will
have to be formed per unit area of the field surface.
Border length: The length of the border strip depends upon how quickly it can be wetted
uniformly over its entire length. This in turn depends on the infiltration rate of the soil, the
slope of the land, and the size of the irrigation stream available. For moderate slopes and
small to moderate irrigation streams, the following border lengths are normally suggested:
 Sandy and sandy loam soils: 60 to 120 metres
 Medium loam soils: 100 to 180 metres
 Clay loam and clay soils: 300 to 500 metres
Border slope: The borders should have a uniform longitudinal gradient. Excessive slopes
will make the water run to the lower end quickly, causing insufficient irrigation at the
upstream end and deep percolation losses and breach the field at the downstream. They also
cause soil erosion in borders. On the other hand, too flat slopes will result in the very slow
movement of the border stream, causing deep percolation losses at the upper reaches and
inadequate wetting downstream. Recommended safe limits of land slopes in borders are
given below:
 Sandy loam to sandy soils: 0.25% to 0.60%
 Medium loam soils: 0.20% to 0.40%
 Clay to clay loam soils: 0.05% to 0.20%
Shape and size of furrows
• Must be sufficiently high to take discharge without overtopping
• Depth typically 15 to 20 cm

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 • Top width typically 25 to 30 cm for most situations but wide, flat ridges needed for
some (clay) soils or crops
Duration of irrigation
Evaluation of required duration of irrigation, T is required to be calculated unless
tensiometers or neutron probes are used to indicate when sufficient water has been applied.
Phillips equation is not easy to solve for t. For this situation, the use Kostiakov’s equation is
suggested:
Furrow Irrigation Systems Design
Non erosive stream size
To maintain proper furrow shape and reduce sediment loss from the head of the field and
deposition at the tail of the field or adjacent water way, it is desirable to operate the furrow at
a velocity that is non erosive.
The empirical relation developed by USDA-SCS for the maximum non-erosive stream size is

- This relationship doesn’t account for soil type and therefore limited in accuracy
Table 6: Relation of maximum non-erosive flow rates to critical slopes of furrows (after
Booher, 1974).

Table 7: Intake family and advance coefficients for depth of infiltration in mm, time in
minutes and length in meters.

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Design of Border Irrigation
Border Specification and Stream Size
Width of border strip: The width of border usually varies from 3 to 15 meters, depending
on the size of the irrigation stream available and the degree of land levelling practicable.
Border length: The length of the border strip depends upon how quickly it can be wetted
uniformly over its entire length.
1. Sandy and sandy loam soils: 60 to 120 meters
2. Medium loam soils : 100 to 180 meters
3. Clay loam and clay soils : 150 to 300 meters

Border slope: The border should have a uniform longitudinal gradient.

1. Sandy loam to sandy soils : 0.25% to 0.60%
2. Medium loam soils : 0.20% to 0.40%
3. Clay to clay loam soils : 0.05% to 0.20%
Size of irrigation stream: The size of the irrigation stream needed depends on the
infiltration rate of the soil and the width of the border strip.
1. Sandy soil : 7 to 15 ( LPS)
2. Loamy sand : 5 to 10 ( ,, )
3. Sandy loam : 4 to 7 ( ,,)
4. Clay loam : 2 to 4 ( ,, )
Design
When border irrigation design as 2 types;
1. Design of open end border system
2. Design of blocked end border system
Determination of required time to irrigate in border
A relationship between the discharge through the supply ditch (Q), the average depth of
water flowing over the strip (y), the rate of infiltration of the soil (f), the area of the land
irrigated (A), and the approximate time required to cover the given area with water (t), is
given by the equation.

Where, Q = Discharge through the supply ditch

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 y = Depth of water flowing over the border strip
f = Rate of infiltration of soil
A = Area of land strip to be irrigated
t = Time required to cover the given area A
Derivation of Equation

Considering small area, dA of the border strip of area (A)

Depth of water, y over this area (A)
Assume that in time dt, water advances over this area (dA).
Now, the volume of water that flows to cover this area = y*dA …………………………..…
(1)
During the same time dt
The volume of water that percolates into the soil over the area (A) = f*A*dt
….…………..…(2)
The total quantity of water supplied to the strip during time (dt) = Q.dt …………………
(3)
From equation (1), (2) & (3)
Q * dt = y * dA + f * A * dt also represented as Q*dt - f * A * dt = dt(Q - f * A)dt = y * dA

For getting time required to irrigate the whole land, we have to integrate this equation and
considering y, f, and Q as constants

After integrating the equation, we get

…………………………….(4)
But at, t = 0, A = 0
From equation (4)

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This equation can be further written as

Worked Example
Determine the time required to irrigate a strip of land of 0.04 hectares in area from a tube-
well with a discharge of 0.02 cumec. The infiltration capacity of the soil may be taken as 5
cm/hr and the average depth of flow on the field as 10 cm. Also determine the maximum area
that can be irrigated from this tube well.
Solution:
Here, A = 0.04 hectares = 0.04 × 104 m2 = 400 m2
Q = 0.02 cumec = 0.02 m3/s = 0.02 × 60 × 60 m3/hr = 72 m3/hr
f = 5 cm/hr = 0.05 m/hr
y = 10 cm = 0.10 m

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