Feasibility study of an irrigation system

Introduction
Irrigation engineering deals with the analysis and design of irrigation systems which include
dams, weir, barrage, canals, drains etc. Good knowledge of hydraulics or fluid mechanics is
required for design of irrigation systems. Irrigation includes the development of:
 The water supply system,
 Conveyance system,
 Method of application (water application system), and
 The wastewater disposal system,
 along with the necessary management to achieve the intended purpose.
In dry areas, rainfall during the growing season falls short of most crop needs and thus
irrigation makes up for the shortage. Even in areas of high seasonal rainfall, crops often
suffer from lack of moisture for short periods during some part of the growing season.
There are two basic types of irrigation systems namely:
(i) Open canal systems (surface) i.e surface irrigation, sub-surface irrigation
(ii) Pressurized piped systems i.e drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation
Irrigation is thus implemented through surface and pressurized systems, characterized by
the mode of transport of the water to the point of application.
Further, there are four basic methods, of water application, namely:
(i) Subsurface irrigation, (ii) surface/gravity irrigation, (iii) trickle/drip irrigation and (iv)
Sprinkler irrigation.
Engineering design process
The engineering design process is a formulation of a plan or scheme to assist an engineer in
creating a product (irrigation system) by using data collected.
Data requirement and acquisition
Data requirements are normally acquired through a detailed baseline study conducted
during the feasibility studies. This involves “Evaluation of resources and selection of the type of
irrigation system under the feasibility study.”

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Feasibility studies of irrigation projects
The study provides guidance for planning and selecting a farm irrigation and drainage
system; before one commits himself to investment in the proposed development. Hence,
provides guides to planning.
Feasibility study is defined as: Expert advice based on concise presentation of all relevant
information that takes the form of pre-investment or feasibility study. This is undertaken by
a firm of consulting engineers in association with agricultural advisers.

The planning process requires an inventory of the resources available to the developer. The
evaluation of resources is necessary to identify the production potentials and the physical
and operational constraints which affect the selection or the need of viable irrigation
system. The analysis and comparison of the alternatives provides a basis for selection,
design and development of the irrigation project. The basic features of such a study include:
(a) A survey of resources of land and water.
(b) An investigation into the present state of agriculture.
(c) Proposals for a new pattern of irrigated agriculture.
(d) Outline designs for requisite engineering works with estimates of costs and a comparison
of alternative schemes
(e) An economic analysis predicting financial and broad economic effects of the
development.
After assessing the applicable irrigation and drainage methods, the findings and conclusions
are set out in a report ready to be used in the planning of the field work.
Inventory of resources: Land, water and climate
There are five basic features considered when evaluating land for suitability of irrigated
agriculture. Such factors include considering:
1. Irrigable terrain
2. Potentially fertile soils
3. A climate in which the crop can thrive
4. A reliable source of water of consistent quality and quantity
5. Soil properties affecting irrigation and drainage

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Water resources
A hydrological survey is undertaken to assess the water resources available to the proposed
project. Long-term records of river flows and water quality are required and obtained from
climatic data, stream flows (RGS) and historical information. The analysis of water supply
factors is required to answer questions such as:
 What is the cost of delivering the necessary flows from the water source to the
farm?
 Is the flow large enough for the type of irrigation proposed?
 Is the water available in the right quantity during the growing season to meet the
consumptive use of the crops?
 Will the salinity of the water affect the irrigation method?
Low flow investigations for the site are traditionally used (worst case scenario).
Hydrologically based flow indices and exceedance percentiles are used to recommend low
flow and in stream conditions for the various streams of interest (WRA-60% for borehole;
Environmental flows Q30).
Economic and financial feasibility
The feasibility should answer the following questions:
(i) Whether there will be funds to complete the project
(ii) Whether there will be funds to operate it effectively and efficiently
(iii) Whether the financial and social benefits will make it worthwhile.
The complexity of the economic and financial analyses required, increases with the size of
the area being developed, the type of cropping system and the amount of funds available.
The economic feasibility evaluation assesses the economic viability and assists in selecting
the farm irrigation system from among adoptable alternatives, whiles the financial feasibility
evaluation, assesses the financial conditions that will be encountered in developing and
operating the irrigation system.
The financial feasibility analyses assist the investor in determining the cash flow
characteristics under various types of financing. This evaluation should therefore evaluate
possible financing alternatives with respect to interest rates, repayment schedules and the
length of the loan periods.

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In other words, the economic feasibility establishes the justification for an irrigation
development while the financial feasibility studies evaluates the capability for the
development to repay the funding costs associated with the capital investment and the
continuing operational costs of the irrigation enterprise.

Environmental consideration (EIA)

An irrigation scheme requires an environmental assessment to identify change in the
environment that can be expected to occur as a result of the development.

The environmental inventory for irrigation development assesses the characteristics of the
environment which exists prior to development. A complete environmental inventory is:

1. Physical and chemical characteristics.

(i) Earth: soils. Land form, unique physical features.

(ii) Water: Surface, ground water, quality, temperatures and recharge.

(iii) Atmosphere: Climate (macro, micro), temperature and quality

(iv) Processes: Flooding, erosion (wind and water), air environment, soil stability,
deposition and salination

2. Biological conditions

(i) Flora: trees and shrubs, grasses, crops, micro-flora and endangered species

(ii) Fauna: Birds, land animals, fish and shellfish, insects, micro-fauna and
endangered species.

3. Cultural factors
(i) Land use: grazing, forestry, agriculture, wetlands
(ii) Aesthetics and human interests: Open space qualities, scenic views, unique
species or ecosystems, unique physical features, historical or archaeological sites
(iii) Cultural status: Cultural pattern, health and safety, employment and population
density
(iv) Man made facilities: Structures transportation network and utility networks

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Feasibility study components
The main components of a feasibility study should include and not limited to:
1) Study Introduction and Objective – Describe study objectives and purpose.
2) Project Sponsor - Describe project sponsor in terms of type of organization, history,
service area and customers, facilities and systems owned and operated, revenue sources
and rate/assessment schedule, and current financial condition (include 3 most recent audit
report or financial statements.)
3) Project Background and Need – Provide a description and analysis of:
(a) Study area description
(b) Previous studies completed
(c) Project lands
(d) Water demands – existing and future estimates
(e) hydrology/water rights - existing yield
(f) Comparison of water demand and availability
(g) Water quality issues
(h) Field investigations
4) Project Alternatives - Formulate and evaluate possible alternatives.
(a) Alternative descriptions and conceptual designs
(b) Summary and comparison of alternatives (advantages and disadvantages)
(c) Evaluation factors: project yields, cost estimates- capital, O & M, total annual
costs and costs/per unit
(d) Impacts - environmental and social economic benefits
(e) Institutional requirements – permits, court actions, contracts, special technical
requirements
5) Selected Alternative - For the recommended alternative provide:
(a) Description
(b) Hydrologic, hydraulic and structural design criteria
(c) Land and right-of-way requirements
(d) Cost estimate - design, construction and O & M (feasibility-level design)
(e) Economic analysis of benefits and costs
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 (f) Institutional factors - permitting requirements, court actions, agreements and
contracts
(g) Social and physical impacts.
(h) Implementation schedule
6) Financial Program. Establish financial feasibility of the project (ability of project sponsor
to repay the loan.)
(a) Amount of loan requested
(b) Summary of the sources of funding for the project
(c) A detailed projection of all revenues and all expenditures by year over the period
of debt.
(d) The repayment sources
(e) The financial impact of project on users, rates etc.
(f) The applicant may be required to furnish an opinion on the proposed loan’s
compliance with the State Constitution.
(g) Financial condition and need of borrower
7) Opinion of Feasibility – Provide an opinion as to the overall feasibility of the project.

Introduction to surface irrigation

Surface irrigation
Surface irrigation is a technique where water is applied and distributed over the soil surface
by gravity. It is by far the most common form of irrigation throughout the world and has
been practiced in many areas virtually unchanged for thousands of years.

Surface irrigation is one of the irrigation methods in which farmers have the controlling
influence; that is using a level of technology which they can operate and maintain
effectively. Surface irrigation is, therefore, farmer-managed. It involves stream diversion
under gravity supply (from a permanent stream diversion and canal supply).

As noted previously, there are two features that distinguish a surface irrigation system
namely:
(a) The flow has a free surface responding to the gravitational gradient
(b) The on-field means of conveyance and distribution is the field surface itself.

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Surface irrigation has evolved into an extensive array of configurations which can be broadly
classified as:
(1) Basin irrigation;
(2) Border irrigation;
(3) Furrow irrigation;
4) Uncontrolled flooding.

A furrow irrigation system consists of furrows and ridges. The water is applied by means of small
channels or furrows, which follow a uniform longitudinal slope. The method is best suited to
row crops such as maize, potatoes, onions, tomatoes,

Surface Irrigation- Furrow system

(4) Uncontrolled flooding
Surface irrigation is often referred to as flood irrigation, implying that the water distribution is
uncontrolled and is, inherently inefficient.

Surface irrigation comes in three major types: level basin, furrow and border strip.

Basin irrigation has historically been used in small areas having level surfaces that are
surrounded by earth banks. The water is applied rapidly to the entire basin and is allowed to
infiltrate. Basins may be linked sequentially (cascading) so that drainage from one basin is
diverted into the next once the desired soil water deficit is satisfied. A “closed” type basin is one

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where no water drains from the basin. Basin irrigation is favoured in soils with relatively low
infiltration rates.

Furrow irrigation is conducted by creating small parallel channels along the field length in the
direction of predominant slope. Water is applied to the top end of each furrow and flows down
the field under the influence of gravity. Water may be supplied using gated pipe, siphon and
head ditch or bankless systems.

The speed of water movement is determined by many factors such as slope, surface roughness
and furrow shape but most importantly by the inflow rate and soil infiltration rate.
The process of surface irrigation can be described using four phases. As water is applied to the
top end of the field it will flow or advance over the field length. The advance phase refers to
that length of time as water is applied to the top end of the field and flows or advances over the
field length.

After the water reaches the end of the field it will either run-off or start to pond. The period of
time between the end of the advance phase and the shut-off of the inflow is termed the
wetting, ponding or storage phase. As the inflow ceases the water will continue to runoff and
infiltrate until the entire field is drained. The depletion phase is that short period of time after
cut-off when the length of the field is still submerged. The recession phase describes the time
period while the water front is retreating towards the downstream end of the field. The depth
of water applied to any point in the field is a function of the opportunity time, the length of
time for which water is present on the soil surface.

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A surface irrigation event is composed of four phases as illustrated graphically below.

Definition sketch showing the surface irrigation phases (Source: Basset et al., 1980)

When water is applied to the field, it 'advances' across the surface until the water extends
over the entire area. It may or may not directly wet the entire surface, but all of the flow
paths have been completed. Then the irrigation water either runs off the field or begins to
pond on its surface. The interval between the end of the advance and when the inflow is cut
off is called the wetting or ponding phase. The volume of water on the surface begins to
decline after the water is no longer being applied. It either drains from the surface (runoff)
or infiltrates into the soil.
For purposes of describing the hydraulics of the surface flows, the drainage period is
segregated into the depletion phase (vertical recession) and the recession phase (horizontal
recession). Depletion is the interval between cut off and the appearance of the first bare soil
under the water. Recession begins at that point and continues until the surface is drained.

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Surface irrigation system may be divided into the following four component of the system:
(1) water supply; (2) water conveyance or delivery; (3) water use; and (4) drainage. For the

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complete system to work well, each must work conjunctively toward the common goal of
promoting maximum on-farm production.

Water supply

Drop structure

Division box

Field Distribution Systems

When the water arrives at the field, it must be transferred and spread across the field within
fairly precise limits. Usually, each field has a head ditch or pipeline running along the upper side
of the field. From there the flow is distributed on to the field by a multitude of methods.
Typical flow measuring devices for surface irrigation systems.

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Fundamentals of Surface irrigation: The quarter time rule
In order to choose an appropriate stream size, the following "rule of thumb" called quarter time rule
is used

Tf = Time to reach the opposite end of the field (hr)

T
Tf  a Ta = Application time (hr)
4

The quarter time rule says that the stream size should be large enough for the water to reach the
end of the field (furrow irrigation) or for the water to cover the entire field (basin irrigation) in a
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quarter of the time needed to fill the root zone with sufficient water (the contact time). The contact
time is the time needed to infiltrate the required amount of water. The contact time can be
determined from the infiltration curve

In order to choose an appropriate stream size, the following "rule of thumb" called quarter
time rule is used. The quarter time rule says that the stream size should be large enough for
the water to reach the end of the field (furrow irrigation) or for the water to cover the entire
field (basin irrigation) in a quarter of the time needed to fill the root zone with sufficient
water (the contact time). The contact time is the time needed to infiltrate the required amount
of water. The contact time can be determined from the infiltration curve, as explained in
Annex 2.

Example:

In this example, suppose it has been determined that 70 mm of water has to be supplied to a
basin. it can be observed that to Infiltrate 70 mm would take approximately 74 minutes. This
means that when applying the quarter time rule, the basin must be covered with water in 74/4
- 18 to 19 minutes. So the stream size must be chosen in such a way that indeed the field is
covered with water within some 18 or 19 minutes. If it takes longer, the distribution of water
in the root zone is poor. If it is for some reason not possible to Increase the stream size and it
takes longer than 18 or 19 minutes to cover the field, then it will be necessary to reduce the
size of the basin such that it is possible to cover the field within 18 or 19 minutes.

IRRIGATION TIME

The irrigation time (in minutes or hours) is the time needed to supply the required irrigation
depth (in mm). The irrigation time depends on: the stream size (l/sec), the required irrigation
depth (mm) and the size of the field to be Irrigated (ha). The following formula is used to
determine the irrigation time:

Example:

If for example the required irrigation depth is 50 mm, the available stream size is 20 l/sec and
the size of the field is 75 x 50 m, the irrigation time is calculated as follows:

Step 1: Determine the field size in hectares.

The size is 75 m x 50 m = 3 750 m2 = 3750/10 000 = 0.375 ha
Step 2: Determine the irrigation time

Irrigation time (hours) = 2.6 hours = 156 minutes

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Applying the quarter time rule it would mean that the water has to reach the end of the furrow
or cover the basin in 156/4 39 minutes. If it takes longer the stream size per furrow or basin
has to be increased or the furrow length or basin size reduced.

Drainage from end of furrow. Note the wetting

front along the dry soil of the furrow; low water
flow from furrow into drain; and the use of mulch
to minimize evaporative losses.

Water requirements and irrigable area

Crops require a large amount of water for irrigation, and it is important to calculate water
requirements accurately, both to design the supply canal and the intake/pump (if any), and
to check that enough water is available from the source.
The amount of water required by a crop depends on the local environment, the climate, the
crop and its stage of growth, and the degree to which the crop may be stressed. This
requirement may be expressed as a uniform depth of water over the area in millimeters per
day (mm/d). This daily requirement (mm/d) will be abstracted from a given/available
source. Since the flow for surface irrigation systems is by gravity, more time should be spent
by the design team in identifying and selecting an appropriate INTAKE SITE (INTAKE
WORKS).

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