UNIVERSITY OF HOLGUÍN

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

COMPILATION OF TEXTS ON DIDACTICS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES 5thYEAR
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2018-2019
PROFESSOR: PhD María Elena Ayala Ruiz

THEME 1. Professional competences of

foreign language teachers in the context of the
Cuban Educational System nowadays

An important factor to consider in the education of foreign language teachers is to

highlight the qualities that should characterize them. Hence, what follows is the
analysis of the components of the professional competences of foreign language
teachers in the context of the Cuban Educational System nowadays.
Different terms have been traditionally used to study and name the foreign language
teachers’ professional performance in isolation. These may include teacher’s
knowledge, habits, abilities, capacities, qualities, and values that they need to develop.
The main reason which supports the use of the term competence is its comprehensive
character and because it meets the scientific and methodological expectations of the
professional model.
In the field of linguistic studies, the term competence came into use in the early fifties of
the Twentieth Century and was introduced by the North American linguist and
politician Noam Chomsky, in contrast with the term performance to refer to the process
of communication. In the field of education, the term was originated at the end of the
seventies of the last century in British Columbia and expanded to the rest of Canada. It
appeared as a result of the necessity to use a term in a curriculum to evaluate the
mastery and performance of the different professions as objectively as possible.
In general terms, the first definitions about this concept appeared in the 70s and
considered the competence as personal characteristics such as knowledge, habits, and
attitudes which may produce adaptive results in meaningful environments.
De Vollmer (1996) highlights that, it is common to identify the competences with the
qualities which should be developed or possessed, depending on the situation. They
refer to knowledge, abilities, capacities, habits, attitudes and values among others.
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In 2002, the Cuban psychologist González Maura provided a very outstanding
approach that considers competences as a psychological configuration of the different
factors already proposed by previous authors; that is, knowledge, capacities, habits,
skills, and values. And in 2003, Tunnermann defined academic competence as a wide
range of intellectual abilities indispensable to master any discipline of study.
In spite of the use of the term competence, both at the international and national levels,
the main term used in Cuba to denote what is socially expected from the future foreign
language teacher (FLT) is professional skills. This is particularly the case of the
Professional Model of the Cuban Foreign Language Teacher Education program.
In the same way, other words are used such as knowledge, habits, and values, and
others related to the education of the personality. However, in the syllabus of the
teaching-learning process of the foreign languages, the term competence is used, mainly
to refer to communicative competence. This is also the one used in all the levels of the
National System of Education when referring to the final aim of L1 and L2 learning.
Under these circumstances, it has been decided to use the terms professional
competence in general and communicative competence in particular to refer to the main
objectives of the education of the FLT. It is important to highlight the comprehensive
and contextualized essence of the term competence.
In this proposal of professional competences, a special emphasis is given to
communicative competence, because it is by means of communication, both in the
foreign language and in the mother tongue, that the university professors manage the
education of the future FLT, both from the didactic and the communicative
perspectives.
The term communicative competence was introduced by Hymes (1972) in order to
contrast the communicative point of view of language with that of Chomsky’s theory of
linguistic competence. However, Hymes reduced his conception when he considered
communicative competence as the ability to use language as a means of communication
in a given community. But since its origin, he stressed one of the essential elements of
this concept, that is, its comprehensive character, by assuming that communicative
competence is an integration of the grammatical, psycholinguistic, and socio-cultural
systems. Thus, the term has been widely used, and, whenever used, it has become a
controversial concept.

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Then during the 80s, there was a tendency to define communicative competence as the
functional efficiency in the use of language; the expression, interpretation, and
negotiation of meaning which involves interaction of one or more persons from the
same or different linguistic communities, or between a person and an oral or written
text.
Richards (2001) defines communicative competence as the capacity to use the language
appropriately for communication, depending on the spatial and temporal context, the
roles of the participants, and the nature of the transaction which is produced.
Medina (2006) defines it as a configuration of linguistic and paralinguistic capacities,
knowledge, habits, and skills which are manifested during the realization of a
communicative act in the foreign language through its appropriate use in order to
satisfy individual and group communicative needs. This author emphasizes that the
communicative act should be carried out, taking into consideration linguistic,
sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences and making evident, both in
content and form of the message, the universal and national moral values. This
definition includes the axiological dimension for the first time.
One of the most recent and useful definitions of communicative competence is that of
Font (2006), who considers it as the performance of the subject in his verbal and non-
verbal activity in real communicative situations, which involves the interaction between
one or more persons, or between a person and an oral or written text, according to a
given social context.
In one way or another, these definitions coincide in emphasizing its social and
contextualized nature. However, each of them offers new dimensions which contribute
to enrich its content and facilitate its understanding. The reasons provided up to here
made it possible to assume the term professional competence to integrate the
professional requirements of the FLT. It is important to recognize the theoretical and
epistemological importance of new studies which account for the use of the term
professional abilities for this purpose, but at this point in time, there is not any
established construct that may satisfy the expectations which the term competence
implies in the Cuban context.
Thus, in order to consider that teachers of English as a foreign language are competent
in the present Cuban Educational System, they should form and develop the following
professional competences:

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 Didactic competence
This professional competence has the higher hierarchy for foreign language teachers.
This implies that the rest of the competences are integrated to it. The philosophical,
pedagogical, psychological and sociological foundations which the English language
teachers should assume are applied in their professional performance through their
didactic competence. In the same way, this competence makes use of the
communicative competence from a professional perspective, and the same is true to
research competence which the teachers may use to solve the educative problems they
have to face in their professional lives. It is also by means of the didactic competence
that teachers make use of their general comprehensive culture.
English teachers must master the Didactics of Foreign Language Teaching, using its
content, not as recipes, but as a record of possibilities to apply according to the objective
and subjective conditions under which they manage the teaching-learning process. So,
they might master quantity of approaches, methods, techniques, and procedures from
which to select the most effective ones for their English lessons. Being competent from
the didactic viewpoint means to be able to make decisions for the management of the
teaching-learning process, as well as being able to methodologically argue such
decisions.
 Communicative competence
English teachers must use a model in the English language as appropriate as possible.
That is, as near as possible to a Standard English model. The future professionals must
learn an integrated system of knowledge, capacities, habits, abilities, and values. These
will be used during the special communicative act in real educational communicative
situations in which they will be involved with one or more persons, in particular, with
their learners and other foreign language teachers, both orally and in writing.
The English language is the main means used by the teachers for the management of
the teaching-learning process. And, they will do this according to the individual and
group possibilities and growing needs of the learners and according to their own
potentialities. The complexity lies in the fact that, the foreign language constitutes the
means but also the content of the subject they are teaching. And, in the case of the
students of pedagogical sciences, the model formed and developed during their
university studies, will be the one they will reproduce in their future professional life.
And, more importantly still, the kind of communication for the management of the
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teaching-learning process of the foreign language must be characterized by its psycho-
pedagogical affective essence.
Contents of Communicative Competence:
- Linguistic: accuracy in the articulation of sounds, stress, intonation, and rhythm;
range of vocabulary, grammar, script and spelling rules.
- Fluency: logical organization of the message, to deal with information gap of real
discourse, comprehend and use the language with a degree of ease without much
hesitations, and with an appropriate speed.
- Sociolinguistic: knowing about the cultural norms, styles, and linguistic registers,
comprehending and adapting the texts to the socio-cultural context of the
communicative act, making evident the prevalence of cooperation and interaction, and
distinguishing between the competences of comprehension and performance.
- Strategic: using verbal and nonverbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns in
communication, using the appropriate means to start, maintain, finish up a given
communicative act, and mastering the language that is needed to deploy different
strategies.
- Discourse: producing written and oral texts of different genres in which cohesion and
coherence are to be attained, and to be able to cope with authentic texts. This
component of communicative competence is improving its importance in the last years
for it is the one through which the rest can be manifested, used, and evaluated.
- Professional-pedagogical: mastery of the linguistic contents and use of the
appropriate technical terms to the specialty, gestures, verbal expressions, and any other
necessary means to foster comprehension and communication in the learners; and
mastery to use the language orally and in writing for other professional academic
purposes such as writing scientific papers, giving presentations, etc.
The specific purpose for which the foreign language is learned in the case of teacher
trainees is so relevant that, in a recent research, Rodríguez (2014) gave it the hierarchy
of a principle, in the following terms:
Principle of the professional pedagogical character of the communicative competence of
the English language teacher, as one of the theoretical foundations of the development
of communicative competence from a professional pedagogical perspective, which
dialectically orients the explanation and organization of its essential components. It
integrates and guides the communicative preparation of foreign language teachers.

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 Philosophical competence
The English teacher should master the Marxist-Leninist theory based on the conceptions
about the more general laws of the natural and social processes, its dialectical
categories, as well as the materialistic-dialectic theory about knowledge, and the idea
that contradictions are the source of development. All these factors are the
methodological support of the Cuban Educational System and its Educational
Philosophy. Such a support allows understanding the Cuban and universal pedagogical
traditions and thoughts, and makes possible to manage the teaching-learning process of
the foreign language with a scientific approach, thus contributing to the formation of a
scientific conception of the world in the learners.
 Psychological competence
The psychological support of our system of education is mainly based on the Historical-
Cultural Approach of Vigotsky, which is based on the dialectic-materialistic theory, and
its main contributions are centered in the Law of Double Formation, the Development
of the Human Psyche; the Zone of Proximal Development and its meaning in the
learning process of the foreign language. For example, imitating a linguistic model with
the help of teachers, classmates, or a given teaching aid, they will be able to do it on
their own, and thus become able to carry out communicative acts in the foreign
language. The relationship between cognitive and affective-motivational aspects, the
Theory of Verbal Activity, and between language and thought is also of paramount
importance.
 Pedagogical competence
English teachers must be models of citizens who think, feel, and behave in accordance
with the universal and Cuban values. Besides, they should assume the basic categories
of Pedagogy as a science and the necessary relationships between these categories and
the foreign language teaching-learning process, basically the dialectical relationship
between formation and development. They should also take into consideration the
pedagogical principles for the management of the process and the fundamental laws of
Cuban Pedagogy: the unity between education and instruction, between theory and
practice, and between school and life.
 Sociological competence
FLTs should base the management of the teaching-learning process on the fact that,
according to the society been constructed in our country, the educative aims are
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subordinated to the social interests and necessities; and the school, together with the
rest of the social factors, has the responsibility to educate the new generations of
citizens to defend the patriotic, humanistic, and socialist ideas, with a high degree of
responsibility, solidarity, and faithfulness. It is important to emphasize that learning a
foreign language contributes to the students’ general comprehensive culture, and at the
same time, enables them to competently communicate in the foreign language in any
national or international context.
 Linguistic competence
This competence refers to the necessary mastery of the linguistic foundation the FLTs
need in order to study, research, and develop linguistic analysis about the content of his
profession, that is, English as a foreign language. Linguistic is the science that studies
language. So, its object of study coincides with content of what the English teachers
teach. As a science it has also its principles, laws, main categories, and methods of study
which the FLTs should master and apply in the everyday work.
 Research competence
The FLTs should manage the teaching-learning process based on a scientific approach.
It means to constantly observe and evaluate the results of the process with a critical
perspective, looking at both, their performance and that of their learners. While doing
so, they should try to determine which factors might be hindering the expected results.
Then, they must try to find didactic-methodological solutions to the problems. If the
problems persist, they should have the ability to identify, determine, and formulate
research problems of different hierarchies, and apply scientific methods of pedagogical,
psychological, didactic, and linguistic nature to find scientific solutions. Then, they
should be able to present their scientific results orally and in writing according to the
requirements of the scientific prose and socialize them with the scientific community.
 Managerial competence
Every profession has a logical performance and the pedagogical profession is not an
exception. However, the humanistic character of our profession makes it more flexible
and adaptable to the existing conditions. Therefore, FLTs must manage the process
following these steps which are closely related:
a) Diagnosing: to observe the teaching-learning process of the foreign language, taking
into consideration the aims to be fulfilled, so as to characterize the learning process of
the students, assess individual and group situations and determine regularities. To do
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so, the FLTs should take into account the results of the general integral diagnosis
conducted by the head teacher and the rest of the staff. In addition to this, they have to
deepen in the different factors which are peculiar to foreign language learning which
may include: levels of formation and development of communicative competence in the
mother tongue and the foreign language, verbal aptitudes, perceptive modalities,
learning strategies, learning styles, multiple intelligences, comprehension processing
model, and levels of motivation with emphasis in the intrinsic ones, and any other
relevant information.
b) Planning: to formulate learning problems in the foreign language, in order to
determine specific objectives and adjust them to the didactic and methodological
existing principles. Then, teachers must select the language contents that might suit
these objectives, in terms of communicative functions and the corresponding linguistic
aspects of the language system. What must follow is the selection or elaboration of the
teaching and learning tasks, that is, appropriate techniques and procedures, the
selection, adaptation, or elaboration of the required teaching media, and possible
techniques for evaluation. It is important to consider the approximate time to be
allotted to each task, keeping in mind the motivational approach.
c) Organizing: to order the different teaching-learning exercises and tasks according to
their level of complexity, creating the conditions for their development, and
distinguishing the tasks which may emphasize evaluation of the results. This step is of
particular importance to conduct the learners throughout the different levels of
assimilation.
d) Executing: to provide orientations towards the objectives of the different activities
and their corresponding procedures. An emphasis must be given to the necessary
motivational approach, mainly towards the language contents and their cultural
communicative values. This step consists in the realization of the series or system of
tasks previously planned and organized, centered in the formation and development of
the required communicative competence in the foreign language.
e) Evaluating: to distribute the challenges according to the students’ possibilities
depending on their learning rhythm and styles. To score or grade the results of the
learning process, and stimulate self-evaluation, and peer-evaluation. It is important to
keep in mind the washback effect of evaluation. So, the English teachers should do their
best to obtain positive effects. In the same way, they should take into considerations the

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official regulations existing in the General System of Education, those which regulate
the level they are working with, and the specific ones of the foreign language syllabus.
f) Regulating: to study the results of the evaluation so as to determine new learning
problems and thus, formulate new hypothesis and determine which problems must be
solved in methodological terms and which require the application of scientific research
methods. This will help the teachers to determine his methodological or scientific
research problems to be solved to obtain different academic and scientific degrees.
 Technological competence
Since its origin, the teaching and learning of foreign languages have been aided by the
use of teaching aid. We are now living in an era of a new technological revolution,
which has been named with the term new information and communication technologies
(ICT). Such a process has brought about the introduction of computers and mainly
educative softwares in the teaching-learning process of foreign languages. So, the
English teachers should be technologically competent, which means to use new results
of the technological development to support the learning process and thus make it more
effective, but without substituting the important role played by the teacher.
 Artistic competence
It is generally said that FLTs are quite similar to artists. It is so because of the means
they have to use to be better understood in the foreign language classroom. Of course,
this is to be done according to the possibilities and potentialities of every individual.
These can be designated with the term ability and, among others, may comprise the
following: to draw pictures on the chalkboard or over other materials, to sing songs in
the classroom or outside the classroom, to act out dialogues which are to be dramatized,
to recite poems, handle puppets, and others. It is important to highlight the possibility
of these means to foster learners’ motivation. Also, the FLTs should adapt these to
learners’ characteristics. Their use may be varied and intensive in primary or
elementary education and should be gradually diminished in more advanced levels.
The content of this competence may be also related to the capacity of the foreign
language teacher to appreciate the different art genres and employ their manifestation,
that is, singing, dancing, theater, and painting to stimulate the learning process of the
foreign language. To do so, both, the native culture as well as the culture of the people
whose langue is being studied, should be taken into consideration.

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 THEME 2. The contemporary lesson of
English as a foreign Language

The lesson is a type of organized social event that occurs in virtually all cultures.
Lessons in different places may vary in topic, time, place, atmosphere, methodology
and materials, but they all, essentially, are concerned with learning as their main
objective, involve the participation of learner(s) and teacher(s), and are limited and pre-
scheduled as regards time, place and membership.
There are additional characteristics or perspectives to a lesson which may be less
obvious, but which are also significant. One way to become aware of these is to look at
metaphors that highlight one or another of them.
Lesson preparation
How should a lesson be prepared? Is there a best method to do so? One way of looking
for answers to these questions is to ask competent professionals, and then try to
discover some general principles that seem to be accepted by all, or most, of them.

Questions on lesson preparation:

 How long before a specific lesson do you prepare it?
 Do you write down lesson notes to guide you? Or do you rely on a lesson format
provided by another teacher, the coursebook, or a Teacher’s Book?
 If so, are these notes brief (a single page or less) or long (more than one page)?
 What do they consist of?
 Do you note down your objectives?
 Do you actually look at your notes during the lesson? If so, rarely? Occasionally?
Frequently?
 What do you do with your lesson notes after the lesson?
A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction or "learning
trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class
learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being
covered, and the needs of the students. There may be requirements established by the
school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a
particular lesson, and it includes the goal (what the students are supposed to learn),

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how the goal will be reached (the method, procedure) and a way of measuring how
well the goal was reached (test, worksheet, homework etc.).
A lesson plan sets forth the proposed syllabus, or instructional activities, for each day; it
is sometimes referred to as a daily plan. In general, the lesson plan should be planned
around the fixed periods (usually 45 to 50 minutes) of the typical school schedule. Good
timing or scheduling is an aid to good instruction and good classroom management.
Teachers should be flexible in adjusting time for activities since students sometimes
need more or less time to finish an activity. It is also important to plan supplementary
activities and materials, to maintain a good pace.
To avoid omissions, underemphasize, or overemphasis, the teacher needs to consider
his or her style of teaching and the students’ abilities and interests. The teacher should
review the progress of each day’s lesson and periodically take notes on important
student responses to different methods, media, and activities to reuse with another class
or at another time. Inexperienced teachers need to plan the lesson in details, follow the
plan, and refer to it frequently. As they grow in experience and confidence, they
become able to plan with less detail and relay more on their spontaneous responses to
what happens in the classroom as the teaching-learning process unfolds. (Ornstein,
1995:131)
A well-developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of students. It
incorporates best practices for the educational field. The lesson plan correlates with the
teacher's philosophy of education, which is what the teacher feels in the purpose of
educating the students.
A broad, thematic lesson plan is preferable, because it allows the teacher to create
various research, writing, speaking, and reading assignments. It helps an instructor
teach different themes and incorporate videotapes, films, and television programs and
other technologies.

Principles for guiding the teaching-learning

process of English as a foreign Language

Different approaches studied in class permit to state important principles, as rules or

postulates that help you make your didactic decisions:

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 Make real communication the focus of language learning. Make communicative
competence the goal of language teaching. What this looks like in the classroom
may depend on how the principles are interpreted and applied. Conceive
communication as its main goal and develop habits and skills within the process
of communication.
 Provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency.
 Effective communication is often just as important as accuracy. Many of
the activities focus on accuracy, while the fluency activities help students to gain
confidence and try out what they have learned.
 Be tolerant of learners’ errors as they indicate that the learner is building up
his/her communicative competence. You don’t have to correct every mistake
when students are doing freer speaking activity, particularly when the mistake is
not specifically in the language they have been asked to practice.
 The communicative approach requires the flexibility to treat different things as
mistakes at different stages in the learning process. The student learns through
making trial and error, through hitting and missing. He makes mistakes in his
attempt to get his message across. Many trivial mistakes of grammar or
pronunciation do not hamper communication. The student overcomes those
mistakes as he progresses in using the language. Correcting every mistake
constantly destroys the learner’s confidence in his ability to use the language. He
gets fear and stops doing.
 Offer learners extensive exposure to large amounts of language input that can
feed the learners’ implicit learning mechanisms.
 In order to make the most of this exposure, learners should be given some
explicit preparation in terms of pre-task activities (e.g. pre-
reading/listening/watching tasks or explanations of some salient aspects of the
materials) to prime them for maximum intake.
 The focus of every lesson, or part of a lesson, should be learning how to do
something; that is, an operation that the student might really want to perform in
the foreign language. This would be an answer to questions, which every student
should ask himself: why am I learning this? What am I learning to do? At the
beginning of every lesson, the student should know what he/she is going to
learn, why and how. At the end, he/she should be able to see clearly that he/she

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 can do something communicatively useful that could not be done at the
beginning.
 The components of communication cannot be analyzed separately without
destroying its nature. Besides, the ability to handle the language elements in
isolation does not mean the ability to communicate. The students often apply
grammatical rules correctly in forming sentences in past tense without being able
to use them through speaking to perform a simple function. What is needed is
the ability to deal with expressions and ideas to work in the context of the whole.
A communicative teacher is likely to make use of both synthetic and analytic
procedures.
 Emphasis should be made in the classroom to imitate the process of
communication so that practice of the forms of the target language should take
place within a communicative framework. There are three processes which
should be incorporated in teaching procedures: information gap, one of the two
people in communication knows something that is unknown to the other; choice,
the participants have choice of what to say and how to say it; and feedback, the
participant checks if he has successfully completed his task.
 Involve the student in doing things, in making choices, evaluating feedback,
bridging information gap. Such activities demand an environment where doing
things is possible. Learning is as important as teaching.
 Integrate listening, reading, speaking, and writing, as well as the associated skills
of syntax, vocabulary, and syntax.
 Teach language learning strategies and emphasize that a given strategy can often
enhance performance in multiple skills. With careful reflection and planning, any
teacher can integrate the language skills and strengthen the tapestry of language
teaching and learning.
 Develop communication as a conscious activity embodying knowledge, habits
and skills as a unit.
 Consider the stages of orientation, realization and control of the learning
activities.
 Students achieve skills in using a language when their attention is focused on
conveying and receiving authentic messages (that is, messages that contain

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 information of interest to speaker and listener in a situation of importance to
both.
 Through interaction, students can increase their language store as they listen to
or read authentic linguistic material, or even the output of their fellow students
in discussions, skits, joint problem-solving tasks, or dialogue journals.
 Language is primarily an interpersonal act and the principal mechanism used by
human beings to socialize and get things done.
 Language use consists of many skills.  The nature of the particular skills needed
is dependent on the roles of the participants, the situations, and the goal of the
interaction.   
 Second language learning, like first language learned, begins with the needs and
interests of the learner.   
 Teachers need to, he flexible, with a repertoire of techniques they can employ as
circumstances dictate, while keeping interaction central-interaction between
teacher and student, student and teacher, student and student, student and
authors of texts, and student and the community that speaks the language.   
 Real interaction in the classroom requires the teacher to step out of the limelight,
to cede a full role to the student in developing and carrying through activities, to
accept all kinds of opinions.
 Testing should be interactive and proficiency-oriented, rather than a sterile,
taxonomic process. Students should be put in situations where they hear and
react to real uses of language or where what they read is to be incorporated into
some further language using activity. Multiple-choice and fill-in-the -blank tests
are about language; they are not normal language -using activities. Tests should
replicate normal uses of language.

Components of a lesson plan

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There is no ideal format to follow for writing the lesson plan. Teachers should modify
the suggestions or methods made by experts and theorists, to coincide with their
personal teaching style and the suggestions of their school, administrators or
supervisors.
The answers to questions such as: What do I plan to teach? What do I want the students
to learn from this lesson that would be worthwhile? are the objectives. They form the
backbone of the lesson. Motivation, content, methods (techniques and procedures) and
materials are organized to achieve the objectives. They may be phrased as statements or
questions. Most people think they can be written as statements. The major objective of
the lesson may have secondary or ancillary objectives, which divide the lesson into
segments and highlight or supplement important ideas.
Motivation may be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation involves sustaining or
increasing the interest students already have in a topic or task. Extrinsic motivation
focuses on cognitive strategies. Activities that enhance success and reduce failure
increase motivation.
Relaying on the same methods (techniques and procedures) day after day would be
boring. Different procedures sustain motivation throughout the lesson. Depending on
the type of lesson, the students, the subject, and the grade and these methods should be
used in varying degrees. The way classroom activities will be organized also depends
on the methods and types of activities designed.
Media٫ sometimes referred to as resources, facilitate understanding and foster learning
by clarifying verbal abstractions and arousing interest in the lesson. The teacher’s
selection should depend on the objectives and contents of the lesson plan; the age٫ skills
and interest of the students; the teacher’s skills to use the resources; the availability of
the materials and equipments; and the classroom time available.

What teachers need to prepare a lesson

The lesson is considered as the fundamental form for organizing the teaching-learning
process. It propitiates the necessary links for instruction, education, formation and
development.

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To plan a good lesson, we should determine the objectives in accordance with the
students’ reality. We should master the contents and methods for guiding the teaching-
learning process to foster the students’ development. The lesson must be
communicative, developmental, reflexive and interdisciplinary
To plan a lesson, teachers need to know about:
 The objective and place of the subject in the level
 The objectives and place of the subject in the grade
 The language content (the system of the language)
 The foreign language teaching methodology recommended
 The approaches to be assumed.
 The students’ levels, needs, interests and motivations (based on the results of the
diagnoses of the students)
 The syllabus of the subject and its methodological guidelines
 The unit: objectives, contents, methods, procedures and techniques, system of
evaluation, etc.
 Material aids and resources available (video–lessons and software of the subject
(already observed)
 Mastery of the contents and methods for guiding the teaching-learning process.
 The students’ development and comprehensive education.
 Mastery of the precepts of the communicative, developmental, reflexive and
interdisciplinary.

Aspects to observe when planning a lesson

a) Timing: time your lesson activities, but be flexible in adjusting time since the
students sometimes need more time or finish sooner than we expected.
b) Plan supplementary activities: it is better to plan extra tasks just in case the need
arises when the students

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c) Plan your lesson in detail: if you have little experience in teaching, it is advisable to
write every detail of what you are going to do and what you expect the students to do.
Describe and illustrate the teacher’s procedures and the learners’ sample answers and
reactions when required.
d) Devote time to reflect on learning: think when it is appropriate to have a reflection
session during the lesson time or at the end of it. Reflecting about learning will give the
learners feedback on how to improve their learning and what they need to improve or
do to achieve more efficiency, as they take more responsibility in the process.
e) Review the progress of each lesson: take down notes on important aspects that can
be improved in your lesson or that did not work and should be modified. This will help
you improve teaching efficiency the next time you teach that lesson.

The lesson plan components

a) General data: Grade, subject, unit #, lesson #, topic, time allotted

b) Lesson objective: there is regularly a ruling objective, though there may be
subsidiary objectives; i.e., those enabling actions that sequentially lead to the
accomplishment of the ruling objective.
Different authors have defined this category: Antich, R. (1979) “What the learner should
be able to know (knowledge), do (skill) and feel (attitude) at the end of a period of
instruction”
Acosta, R. (1996) “a goal of a course of instruction”
Two different types of objectives may be distinguished: General objective or aims and
specific objectives.
General objectives are the underlying reasons for, or aims of a course of
instruction.
Specific objectives are descriptions of what is to be achieved in a course. They are more
detailed descriptions of exactly what a learner is expected to do at the end of a period of
instruction, a unit or a lesson.
The language teacher’s role is to formulate the lesson objectives, which he/she derives
from the syllabus and the unit of the grade. This formulation involves the consideration

17
of some requirements which include the ones analyzed in General Didactics and the
specifications of the language learning objectives.
They should always be formulated, fulfilled, and evaluated in learning terms.
The foreign language skill should be the nucleus (first word). Foreign language skills
should not be confused with actions, procedures and operations which are means to
form and develop verbal skills. So, they cannot stand as objectives by themselves. Such
words as repeat, answer, practice, cannot be used to introduce an objective, but other
words, like comprehend, analyze, assess, value, explain, express, identify, discuss, recognize,
etc., can be used.
The level of assimilation should be clearly stated in the text of the objective. However,
there are cases in which it is implied in the skill. For example, if the objective is “the
students should be able to express themselves orally, using the communicative function
apologizing…” and the level is not stated, it is assumed that the expectation is the
application-creation level.
The content of foreign language teaching should also be clearly stated in the objective;
particularly communicative functions, and for more specific objectives lexical,
grammatical, pronunciation items, and socio-cultural and discourse aspects.
The final and main goal of teaching a foreign language is to contribute to the students’
education, which in the Cuban System of Education, is stated in terms of values. So, this
should also be clearly stated in the objective.
To express each of this levels in the objectives the teacher may use the following verbs:
Afirmar ( assert) Analizar ( analyze) Aplicar ( apply)
Expresar ( express) Identificar (identify) Discriminar (discrimínate)
Argumentar ( argue) Comunicar ( communicate) Distinguir (distiguish)
Apreciar ( appraise) Caracterizar( characterize) Comprender(comprehend)
Comentar (comment) Comparar (to compare) Contrastar ( contrast)
Clasificar ( classify) Criticar ( criticize) Describir ( describe)
Debatir ( debate) Discutir (discuss) Diseñar ( design)
Definir (to define) Determinar lo esencial (to Demostrar ( demonstrate)
determine the essential)
Discrimar (to discrimínate) Distinguir (to distinguish) Deducir ( deduce)
Escribir ( write) Esbozar (to outline) Explicar ( explain)
Expresar ( express) Evaluar ( assess) Formular (formulate)
Generalizar ( generalize) Hipotetizar ( hypothesize) Identificar ( identify)
Interpretar ( interpret) Inferir ( infer) Ilustrar ( illustrate)
Juzgar ( judge) Listar ( list) Modelar ( model)
Nombrar ( name) Narrar ( narrate) Observar ( observe)
Organizar ( organize) Predecir ( predict) Planear ( plan)
Parafrasear ( paraphrase) Relacionar ( relate) Reportar ( report)
Reflexionar (reflect on) Razonar ( reason) Resumir ( summarize)
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 Justificar ( justify) Tomar notas ( take notes) Valorar ( value)

Lesson content: communicative function(s), grammar, vocabulary,

pronunciation, skills, values; possible learning problems.
Teaching content is defined as the scientific, technical and cultural knowledge taught in
the teaching-learning process in response to man’s needs. The teaching content is
determined by social, logical and psychological factors.
When selecting learning content, one must always remember that the goal is for the
students to be able to interact freely with others; to understand what others wish to
communicate and to be able to convey to others what they themselves wish to share. To
do this effectively, however, the students must understand how the English language
works and be able to make the interrelated changes for which, the system of language
provides mechanisms.
In FLT, content is structured to form in the learners the communicative competence. It
is a combination of knowledge, habits, skills, attitudes, feelings and values to carry out
communicative acts.
In the English syllabuses from primary, secondary and senior high education, content is
usually included as follows:
Pronunciation items Grammar Language Discourse Values
functions and cultural
elements
Sounds, General Tenses, word Giving info, Sentence Solidarity,
intonation, notions order, greeting, asking connectors patriotism,
stress, rhythm, (sports, foods, question for information, responsibility,
reduction, etc.) specific patterns, word suggesting, courtesy, etc.
blending words (words formation, etc. apologizing, etc.
and formulas)
To sum up, the content of language teaching involves three main components (See
Rogova 1983 :42)
 Psychological component; habits and skills which ensure the use of the target
language as a means of communication.
 Linguistic component; i.e., language material: sounds, words, structures..
 Methodological component. The learners should be taught how to learn a language.
Methodological conception: states the general conception, which is the
Communicative Approach and the specific techniques, tasks and procedures that will
be used.
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In general terms, the method implies the ways of teaching. At present, it is difficult to
be able to talk about a particular method in teaching languages. Language teaching and
learning evolved throughout history leaving behind a long trail of different methods:
Grammar translation, Direct, Reading method, Natural, Audio-lingual, Audio-visual,
Situational, and Suggestopedia, among others. With the emergence of the
Communicative Approach, the term method was gradually less frequently used.
Instead, specialists and teachers talk about an approach: Communicative Language
Teaching, which has incorporated all the existing positive experience, plus new ideas.
This is epoch is called the post-method era.
In today’s didactics no predetermined method is established, but the approaches that
provide teachers with the necessary tools for their own didactic decisions. A Post-
Method methodological conception is assumed, as the freedom of combining all and
any methods in their most effective combination for guiding the teaching-learning
process in a specific context. This allows teachers to think of their objectives and
productive procedures for specific situations, according to the environment where their
teaching-learning process is inscribed, so the following approaches should be
considered:
The Communicative Approach that takes into account the nature of social, cultural, and
pragmatic features of language, so pedagogical means for 'real-life' communication are
implemented in the classroom to foster motivation towards lifelong language learning
in an environment, where learners are seen as partners in a cooperative project.
The Developmental Approach that helps teachers conceive developmental teaching as
the systemic process of culture transmission, which is organized taking into
consideration the students’ real and potential levels of development that leads to a
continuous movement towards higher levels of development, in order to shape an
integral and self-determined personality, able of being transformed and transform
reality in a historical, concrete context.
A developmental didactics should take into account the relationship between
instruction and education; the importance of an integral diagnosis; the role of
communication; the activity and the establishment of interaction and interrelation in
which cognitive, affective and volitive aspects are implied.
The Skill-Integrated Approach, which considers that communication, involves more
than a single language skill. It allows teachers to have more variety in the lesson,

20
because the range of activities will be wider. What is needed is the ability to deal with
expressions and ideas to work in the context of the whole; emphasis should be made on
the classroom to imitate the process of communication; the teaching style must address
to the learning style of the learner; the learner must be motivated; and the setting must
provide resources and values that strongly support the language teaching, where the
four skills take place with teacher, learner, and setting.
The Task-Based Approach that guides the teacher to assume the task as an
organizational work in the classroom by means of adequate interactive processes that
involve the students in the comprehension, manipulation and production in the foreign
language, that is possible due to the mobilization of the students’ knowledge, skills and
values to express meaning as a communicative totalitarian act.
Teachers should ‘build’ their own methods or decide what principles they will use in
their actions, without ignoring the experience of others for ‘creating’ or using their
methods in their teaching. It is necessary to have a basis for building personal methods.
Technique
Any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or devices used in the language classroom
for accomplishing lesson objectives. (There is a currently quite an intermingling of such
terms as technique, task, procedure, activity, and exercise, to be discussed in class)
A technique is the lowest level on the hierarchy (approach and method). It is used to
implement a method and accomplish immediate objectives.
Procedure
Richards and Rogers (1986) used the term procedure to encompass “the practices, and
behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method or
technique”.
A procedure is a detail of the method, that is, a particular intellectual or practical
operation of the teacher and the learners’ activity which complements the form of
assimilation of a certain method.
A communicative procedure is that which invites the students to engage in self-
motivating activities that are stimulating, interesting, social, meaning-based,
purposeful, interactive and most of all enjoyable.
Teaching media: They are images or representations of objects and phenomena
especially elaborated for teaching; also auxiliary or instrumental devices that the
teacher uses for a particular purpose. They can be natural or industrial objects. They

21
support the teaching methods and techniques and improve learning effectiveness and
motivation. They facilitate a direct contact between objective reality or its reproduction
and the linguistic code, so they help achieve authentic communication. Marxist-Leninist
conception of the theory of learning states: “from lively perception to abstract thought
and from it to practice”. Learning is also favored by the combination of different
sensory analyzers: the auditory, the visual and the kinesthetic analyzers.
Teaching language needs good and interesting media. When they are used, the
teaching-learning activity will keep the learner focus on the teacher, thus the classroom
will be on teacher’s control. There are many kinds of media which can be used by the
teachers in the teaching-learning process, but the teacher should be selective when
choosing.
There is a wide variety of teaching aids available to the language teacher, who should
consider the range of visual aids that might help teaching: photos from magazines,
postcards, books, etc. It is recommendable to use traditional teaching media that give
support to retention of knowledge, motivate interest in the subject matter, and illustrate
the relevance of key concepts. Use them according to your real possibilities and
combine them with new information and communication technology whenever
achievable:
Pictures
Pictures have several functions in the teaching-learning process. First, pictures can
translate abstract ideas into more realistic forms. Second, pictures are easily obtained
from schoolbooks, newspapers magazines, etc. Third, pictures are usable in different
kinds of academic levels. Fourth, pictures can save the teacher's time and energy; they
are materials that offer guidance on vocabulary, sentence structure, and organization.
They are also very important in helping students retell experiences or understand
something since they can represent place, object, people, etc. They help the students
understand a more general context.
Teachers should be careful when deciding the type of picture according to his/her
objective. The following typology ought to be considered:

22
 Thematic Picture (to inform about the theme)

Semantic Picture (to convey meaning clearly)

Mnemonic Picture (to help students remember)

Sketched drawing

Sketched drawings are useful when there are no other means available and the teacher
has to improve visuals for incidental teaching.
Drawing

Drawings are very attractive to the students. They are pictures, images, etc., that are
made by making lines on a surface with a pencil, pen, marker or chalk, etc.
Flash Card

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Flashcards are small cards with a picture or symbol on them. In the classroom,
flashcards are commonly used to teach specific words or expressions. Various types of
flash cards are also useful for providing the students with communicative situations.
Flash cards generally have words, pictures, or a combination of the two. They can be
used for a wide variety of activities, from drills to matching activities, to different
communicative activities.
Greeting Card

Greeting cards are decorated cards with a message of good wishes that are sent or given
to someone on a special occasion.
Pocket Chart

The pocket chart is a piece of rectangular cardboard to which two or more narrow
pockets are stamped or glued. It is useful to practice word spelling and sentence
structure (word order at the sentence level). It is used as a bridge between oral and
written practice.
Chart

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A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material which
presents clear visual information. It is useful for summarizing or comparing or
contrasting or performing in explaining subject-matter.
Model

A model is a small copy or representation of something. It can be made from raw

materials by hand, using the teacher’s and the students’ imagination.
Picture Card

Picture cards are small cardboard pictures which are very useful to work individually,
in pairs or in small groups. By using this teaching material, there are wider
opportunities for interaction in class.
Flannel Board

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The flannel board is a wooden frame with a piece of flannel over which previously
prepared cut out figures can be placed. It is very effective since conversations and
situations may be presented gradually and progressively.
Realia

Realia refers to real objects that are designed for use in real-life situations, not for use as
instructional tool. Although not designed for instructional use, realia and other
authentic materials provide a wide range of printed and spoken messages that can be
used as primary or secondary material in a language classroom. This range will help
you address learning for communication in the real world.
Authentic Material

Authentic materials are very useful. What makes a piece of material “authentic” is the
fact that it is designed to be used by a native speaker, not by a language learner seeking
to learn a foreign language. Any document that is intended for a native speaker can be
used authentically in a language learning lesson. Some common items include
newspapers, job application forms, envelopes, medicine labels, etc. They also include
reading texts, videos, television programs, recordings.

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 Worksheet

A worksheet is a page (or two) of tasks, distributed to each student. A worksheet lists
questions or activities for students or trainees to work through. Pre-prepared
worksheets can be used successfully with groups with differing language skills because
each person can work at their own pace. They provide flexibility in the classroom, since
they can be used individually, in pairs, or in small groups to facilitate teamwork skills.
Evaluation
The role of evaluation is to value the effectiveness of the accomplishment of objectives
and the rest of the components, so, there is interdependence between teaching, learning
and evaluation. Evaluation is the systematic gathering of information for purposes of
decision-making. It uses quantitative methods (tests) and qualitative ones (observation).
So, evaluation serves the purpose of evaluating the students and the learning process.
Evaluation is a process and should not be confused with testing. There is a classification
of evaluation forms and techniques:
According to the participants: self-evaluation, co-evaluation and hetero-evaluation
(teacher’s evaluation); according to frequency: systematic, partial and final.
Some specialists, as Denise Lussier and Carolyn Turner (1995), use the terms formative
and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation is an ongoing type of testing that can
also be used for diagnostic, pedagogical and motivational purposes (Examples: during-
a-unit test and end-of-a-unit test). Summative evaluation is intended to evaluate final
learning outcomes. It is used to help teachers and school administrators know to what
degree the students have fulfilled the learning objectives of the syllabus.
Evaluation serves several purposes, such as diagnostic tests, aptitude tests, proficiency
tests and achievement tests.
The so called backwash effect of evaluation may have a positive or negative impact on
27
learning; depending on the psychological atmosphere created while testing and the
validity of the test. It may have an instructive function and an educative function. It
may increase or enhance motivation, or if negative effects are derived, then it may be
discouraging for the learners. Tension and anxiety raise the affective filter, and that
represents a barrier which blocks learning.
Evaluation should promote systematically. The amount of unpleasant stress associated
with a test should be avoided. Teachers should have under control how well the
learners are prepared and how confident they feel of success. Highlight how important
the results are perceived to be. Tell learners how well they are doing, instead of
focusing on giving marks.
Use formal and informal evaluation: tell the students in advance what they need to
know, what the criteria are for success, but also assess homework assignments when
the main aim is to find out whether the learners have learned some language point or
not; questions asked during the routine give-and-take of classroom interaction may
serve the same purpose.

Main parts of the lesson

 Introduction
A warmer: to captivate the students’ attention, to energize the class and try to keep
motivation (teachers usually use a short chant, poem, a tongue twister, a riddle, a
rhyme or a proverb
A lead in: It serves the purpose of reviewing and linking previously taught content to
the new one. Sometimes the warmer and the lead in can be integrated into one single
activity.
This activity should logically lead to guide the learners to understand the objective of
the lesson and to write the topic on the board.
The introduction provides interest and motivation to the students. It focuses students'
attention on the lesson and its purposes. It also convinces students that they will benefit
from the lesson. There are many ways to present an introduction. Here are a few:
 Asking questions to get the students thinking about the topic of the lesson.
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 Showing pictures that relate to the lesson topic.
 Telling a story to show the importance of the topic.
 Bringing in "realia" (real objects) related to the lesson.

 Development
This part is the main part and contains a coherent system of tasks. The tasks should be
connected so as to make a unified set that gradually leads to the final outcome or result
expressed in the ruling objective of the lesson.
A variety of tasks must be implemented to avoid boredom, routine and fatigue.
Teachers need to have a large inventory of exercises from which they can choose, adapt
and create. This wide range may comprise meaningful drills, question-and-answer
techniques, comprehension tasks such as the performance of physical actions, dialogue
practice, gap fills, grammar/vocabulary exercises, interview, descriptions, narrations,
language games, group discussion and many other that are available in course books
and the literature on Didactics of FLT.
 Conclusions
Depending on the type of lesson, the teacher can vary the nature of the conclusions,
though the intention is always around providing the students with a summary of
relevant ideas, general assessment of the accomplishment of the lesson objective and
reflecting on learning (socializing learning strategies, analysis of successes, failures and
what to do to obtain more efficiency in the learning process.

The roles of the teacher of English

What is the teacher’s role in the classroom? In the first place, his task is to create the best
conditions for learning; however, in order to implement this general function, he has
specific roles to play at different stages of the learning process: presentation, practice
and production.
At the presentation stage, the teacher’s main task is to serve as a kind of informant. He
selects the new material using the textbook and modifies it as required, and presents in
such a way that the meaning of the new language is as clear and memorable as possible.

29
The students listen and try to understand. Although they are probably saying very little
at this stage, they are by no means passive.
At the practice stage, it is the students’ turn to do most of the job, while the teacher’s
main task is to devise and to provide the maximum amount of practice, which must, at
the same time, be both meaningful and memorable. His role, then, is radically different
from that at the presentation stage. He does the minimum amount of talking himself
giving the learners a chance to participate and monitoring their performance to sec that
it is satisfactory.
At the production stage, the teacher takes on the role of a manager, guide and adviser.
These are not easy roles either to accept or fulfill. Many teachers feel that they have
done their job if they have presented new material well and have given their students
adequate, though usually controlled, practice in it. Not real learning should be assumed
to have taken place until the students are able to use language by them. At any level of
attainment, from elementary to advanced, the students need to be given regular and
frequent opportunities to use language freely, even if they sometimes make mistakes as
a result. It does not mean that mistakes are unimportant, but rather, that free expression
is more important. It is a great mistake to deprive students of this opportunity because
it is through these opportunities to use the language as they wish, to try to express their
own ideas that the students become aware that they have learned something useful for
them personally, and are encouraged to go on learning. This is perhaps the most vital
factor of all in helping to keep learning alive.

Criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness

It is important to stop and think after giving a lesson whether it was a good one or not,
and why. This is not in order to indulge in self-congratulation or vain regrets, but in
order to have a basis for your own learning from reflection on experience: this lesson
was unsatisfactory, what could I have done to improve it? Or: this lesson was good,
what was it exactly that made it so?
To value the effectiveness of a lesson, teachers should consider the following criteria:
 The learners were active all the time.
30
  The learners were attentive all the time.
 The learners enjoyed the lesson, were motivated.
 The class seemed to be learning the material well.
 The lesson went according to plan.
 The language was used communicatively throughout.
 The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout.
Notes on the criteria:

 The learners were active, attentive, enjoying themselves

If learners are active, attentive, enjoying themselves and motivated they are likely to be
learning better. On the other hand, it is very possible to activate learners effectively and
enjoyably and hold their attention for long periods of time in occupations that have
little learning or educational value.

 The class seemed to be learning the material well

The main goal of a lesson, when all is said and done, is to bring about learning; the
problem is how to judge whether learning is in fact taking place.

 The lesson went according to plan

On average, a lesson that went on the whole according to plan is more likely to have
been effective; but this does beg the question of whether the plan was a good one in the
first place. Also, a sensitive and flexible teacher may well deviate from an original plan
in response to changing circumstances or learner needs, with positive results.

 The language was used communicatively throughout

It is certainly important to do activities that involve communication; but non-
communicative activities (for example, grammar explanations) also have their place and
assist learning.

 The learners were engaging with the foreign language throughout

The engaging with the material to be learnt (in this case the language) is surely a
prerequisite for learning the material. Learning, however, will result from this process
only if the material and task are of appropriate level.

Observe if:
 There is flexibility in class.
 The pupils’ viewpoints are respected.
 Diversity is taken into consideration.
31
 There is a good atmosphere of collaboration and trust.
 A logical and pedagogical organization is followed.
 The contents are related to the learners’ personal experiences.
 The lesson topic orients the students on a theme or topic for communication
rather than on grammatical forms.
 The topic is of interest for the learners.
 The students know what they have to do in every activity or task; they know
what they will be able to do at the end.
 The lesson focuses on communicative functions.
 There are communicative situations to introduce each task.
 The dialogues or passages are contextualized.
 There are interaction techniques in the lesson. (pair work, group work)
 The learners are motivated to take part in the activities.
 There is often a purpose for listening, speaking, reading or writing.
(Communicative purpose)
 Drills are meaningful.
 There are activities that elicit opinions, feelings and beliefs from the learners.
 There is information gap; the students exchange information among them.
 The students have language choice to say what they want to express.
 There are tasks that integrate skills.
 The teacher is always available and ready to offer help.
 Learning tasks and exercises provide opportunities for students to negotiate
meaning, expand their language resources.
 Communication results from content that is relevant, purposeful, interesting and
engaging.
 Communication is seen as a holistic process that often calls upon the use of
several language skills or modalities.
 Language learning involves inductive or discovery learning of underlying rules
of language use and organization, as well as language analysis and reflection.
 Mistakes are carefully treated.
 Communicative strategies are taught.
 There is cognitive independence and students’ protagonism.
 Creativity is developed.

32
  There is unity between affective and cognitive elements.
 Self-evaluation and co-evaluation are used before giving marks.
 Thinking skills are promoted.
 Contents and activities foster the students’ comprehensive formation.
 Tasks are devised according to the students’ level.
 Authentic texts that deal with transverse themes are used.

Hints for lesson management

There are some hints that teachers may take into account when planning: (Ur and
Wright, 1992):
 Prepare more than you need: it is advisable to have an easily presented, light
reserve’ activity ready in case of extra time.
 Similarly, note in advance which component(s) of the lesson you will sacrifice if
you find yourself with too little time for everything!
 Keep a watch or clock easily visible, make sure you are aware throughout how
time is going relative to your programme. It is difficult to judge intuitively how
time is going when you are busy, and the smooth running of your lesson
depends to some extent on proper timing.
 Do not leave the giving of homework to the last minute! At the end of the lesson
learners’ attention is at a low ebb, and you may run out of time before you finish
explaining. Explain it earlier on, and then give a quick reminder at the end.
 If you have papers to distribute and a large class, do not try to give every paper
yourself to every student! Give a number of papers to people at different points
in the class, ask them to take one and pass the rest on.
 If you are doing group work, give instructions and make sure these are
understood before dividing into groups or even, if practicable, handing out
materials; if you do it the other way round, students will be looking at each other
and at the materials, and they are less likely to attend to what you have to say.
 Use polite language.
 Maintain eye contact.
 Keep phones in your pockets.
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  Don’t interrupt the students when they speak.
 Have your plan to hand at all times during the lesson.
 Tick the activities that worked well as you do them.
 Make any extra comments at the end of the lesson about what worked and what
didn't to help you plan your next lesson.
 Plan a series of lessons that are linked to the same theme to have coherence to
your lessons.
 Have extra activities ready just in case they finish early. This can be for both mid-
lesson for quick finishers or at the end of the lesson if your plan is shorter than
you imagined.

Exercises, tasks,
techniques and
procedures
A common error among teachers is to use interchangeably terms like approach,
method, and technique; in fact, it comes to be a didactic weakness when they are
indiscriminately used.
The literature consulted shows that when linguists and language specialists wanted to
improve the quality of language teaching in the late nineteenth century, they frequently
did so by referring to universal principles and theories concerning how languages are
learned, how knowledge of language is represented and ordered in memory, or how
language itself is structured. Applied linguists, such as Henry Sweet (1845-1912); Otto
Jespersen (1860-1943), and Harold Palmer (1877-1949), stated principles and
theoretically liable approaches to the design of language teaching programs, courses,
and materials.
Since then, the controversy among the terms approach, method and technique emerged.
Although dissimilar studies have been promoted on the topic, there is still a lot of
confusion on the way it has been assumed by several investigators. In an attempt to
34
clarify this difference, one of the most revised scheme was proposed by the American
applied linguist Edward Anthony (1963)1, who identified these three levels of
conceptualization and organization, termed approach, method, and technique, as follows:
.. . An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language
teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject
matter to be taught.
... A method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part
of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An
approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within one approach, there can be many
methods. ..
... A technique is implementational, that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a
particular stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective.
Techniques must be consistent with a method and therefore in harmony with an
approach as well.
It means that the term approach includes the whole orientation of teaching. It is the
broadest of the three, making technique the most specific, and the method found in
between approach and technique.
An approach is an enlightened viewpoint toward teaching. It provides philosophy to
the whole process of instruction; it provides direction, and sets expectations to the
entire spectrum of the teaching-learning process. Furthermore, it sets the general rule or
general principle to make this process possible; while the method and technique are just
its parts and parcels.
It is clearly understood, according to Anthony's model, that approach is the level at
which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified;
method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made
about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which
the content will be presented; technique is the level at which classroom procedures are
described; so a hierarchical arrangement is perceived, which allows to state that: the
organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach.

1
E.M. Anthony. Approach, method and technique. English Language Teaching. Vol 17.January 1963. pp
63-67

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The techniques for implementing a method are the activities that present, carry out,
evaluate and correct strategies within the teaching-learning process. These activities
comprise interactions between the teacher and the students.
From the conceptions expressed, it can be summed up in few words that approach is
more general than method, in the sense that it includes principles and orientations for
guiding the teaching-learning process, which are not reduced to specific operational
determinations; the approach determines the method, which is accomplished by
techniques and procedures.
A procedure is a detail of the method, that is, a particular intellectual or practical
operation of the teacher and the learners´ activity which complements the form of
assimilation of a certain method. The procedure does not cover the learning process as a
whole, just one of its phases. Out of the method the procedure is useless in the
acquisition of knowledge and the development of habits and skills.
Teaching procedures are determined by the objectives to attain, the contents to teach
and the methods to use, as well as other factors such as the time available, the size of
the class, the learners’ features and the conditions of learning. They should derive from
the methodological principles stated in Chapter 1 and should reflect the essence of the
principles and integrate harmonically the cognitive, communicative and educative
elements. They should, consequently, meet the following requisites:
A communicative procedure is that which invites the students to engage in self-
motivating activities that are stimulating, interesting, social, meaning-based,
purposeful, interactive and most of all enjoyable.
In the Didactics of Foreign Languages, the term exercise is used as a concrete
embodiment (realization) of the content and aims of teaching. They are structural units,
which organize not only language material but also the learners’ actions and operations.
Exercises, as a means of solving mental, methodological tasks, include the students'
mental processes and practical activities. Thus, they are units of cognitive and
communicative activity. (Acosta, R. 2005).
Exercises should be varied, systematic, well oriented and correctly graded, covering
different stages of development that move from the controlled practice to the free
practice stage. They should be devised taking into account the context, the students’
levels, potentialities and necessities, as well as the characteristics of the scientific

36
direction of the foreign language teaching-learning process, supported by its
communicative, developmental, interdisciplinary and reflexive character.
The term task has the hierarchy of a basic concept. In language teaching it refers to an
activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding
language. It makes language teaching more communicative, since it provides a purpose
for a classroom activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake.
According to Nunan (1991), it is a special kind of technique and, in fact, may actually
include more than one technique. This term is closely allied to communicative curricula.
The common thread running through half a dozen definitions of task is its focus on the
authentic use of language for communicative purpose beyond the language classroom.
His own definition is that a task is a piece of classroom work that involves learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while
their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to
express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to
manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand
alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle and an end.
Also of interest may be the considerations of Richards (1995) who states that a task is
something that:
 Learners do or carry out using their existing language resources, has an outcome
which is not simply linked to learning language, though language acquisition may
occur involves a focus on meaning, and Call upon the learners use of communication
strategies and interactional skills.
Traditionally, the terms used to designate the means of interaction between the learners
and the foreign language content where learning takes place are: exercises, activities,
techniques, and teaching activities. However, with the purpose to emphasize learning,
as contrasted to other terms which emphasize teaching, the term learning task might be
used. So, in general terms, learning tasks are the means of interaction subject-object,
that is, between the learners and the language content, under the guidance of the FLTs,
for learning to take place. That is, focused on the learners to fulfil the aims of a given
syllabus. It shares with the other terms mentioned before that they are structural units
which organize not only language material but also the learners’ actions and operations.
According to Nunan (1991), tasks should be thought of as a special kind of technique,
and in fact, may actually include more than one technique. While, Breen’s (1987)

37
definition of task seems to capture its essence: “(...) any structured language endeavor
which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure,
and a range of outcomes for those who undertake the task.”
Within the Cuban context, the ideas given by Silvestre and Zilberstein (2002) about the
requirements of tasks in a developmental learning process can contribute to a better
understanding of this important concept. According to these authors some
characteristics need to be taken into account:
 Tasks should be varied: Different cognitive demands must be present to promote
growth in students’ cognitive effort; students’ learning process is scaffolded so that they
feel stimulated and motivated.
 Tasks should be adequate: Practice to learn the new content and to develop skills is
favored; students are provided with appropriate assistance to help them accomplish the
tasks; formative assessment is also carried out.
 Tasks should be differentiated in such a way that they can be completed by every
student; they should take into account students’ Zone of Proximal development, that is,
the distance between the actual students’ development level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined
through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more able
peers.
However, the kind of teaching and learning tasks which will appear in this book are
intended mainly for the practicum and research formation of the future FLTs. Under
this condition, they should fulfill the following requirements:
 Although focused on the trainees they are both, teaching and learning tasks, because
in the book one can find instructions for both trainees and for teacher trainers and
mentors.
 The tasks have, mainly, a pedagogical professional character because they are aimed
at contributing to the formation and development of professional academic and
research competences.
 The tasks are varied and offer the possibilities to be adapted to the individual and
group peculiarities or differences of the trainees and to the objective and subjective
conditions of the context in which they will be developed.

38
 The adaptations to be made to the different tasks by the teacher trainers should
guarantee meeting the communicative possibilities and needs of the trainees in the
foreign language.
 The tasks should promote a communicative use of the foreign language, centered in
the specific purposes for which the trainees form and develop their communicative
competence, that is, for a pedagogical professional purpose.
 The elaboration and application of the tasks should guarantee that the trainees
become protagonists of their own learning, both from the pedagogical as well as from
the communicative standpoints.
As stated before, there is an intermingling in the use of terms to refer to what the
learners do in the foreign language classroom. So, most of the factors referred under the
concept of task might be true to exercise and activity. However, in the last years, the
term activity has been used almost as widely as the term task. So, a brief reference is
given to it.
According to Richards (1995) an activity may refer to virtually anything that learners
actually do in the classroom. It may also be described as a task that has been selected to
achieve a particular teaching-learning goal. It is central to an understanding of teaching.
It influences both, how teachers conceptualize teaching as well as the ways they
organize their lessons. For the planning an executions of foreign language lesson
activities are very important because this is where ends for learning become integrated
with means for learning. So, they are the basic structural units of planning and action in
the classroom.
Richards (1995) offers a very useful taxonomy of activities to manage the teaching-
learning process of the foreign language: presentation activities, practice activities,
memorization activities, comprehension activities, application activities, strategy
activities, affective activities, feedback activities, and assessment activities. He also
considers that an activity may have the following dimensions: purpose, procedures,
sequencing, complexity, resources, grouping, strategies, language timing, outcomes,
and assessment.
In the different tasks that build up each of the following chapters, you can find the
suggestions to assess the results of developing the tasks. However, in general terms, for
the purposes of assessing the integration of PRS tasks, during the five years of our

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Foreign Language Teacher Education Program, teacher trainers, tutors, and mentors
should take into account the following indicators:

Types of lessons

There are different types of lessons that may be found when teaching English as a
foreign language in intermediate level. This typology should be taken into account for
determining its objective and the other components to be incorporated when planning.
A) The presentation lesson
This is the first contact of the students with the new material. In the first lesson of the
unit, the teacher will introduce the new theme and its accompanying language
components. Students are being prepared gradually for the Creative Practice Step. They
are allowed time to assimilate the language, to listen (actively) and to try to understand
what the teacher is saying. The teacher uses simple, but natural language and enhances
comprehension through the use of different techniques. She/he can use conversations,
dialogs, micro-situations or prose passages as useful techniques to present new
contents.
When teaching English to people whose English skills are limited, it is essential to
ensure that students understand the presentation by keeping the language simple;
illustrating the presentation, and checking students' comprehension periodically.
It has the following characteristics:
 It is short and meaningful.
 The teacher is the responsible of teaching the new linguistic material.
 Presentation of new material can be done through dialogues or micro-situations.
There are some aspects to keep in mind for planning a presentation lesson:
a) Psychological aspects:
 It is teacher-centered therefore; it will be easier to understand if the learners are
trained to make conscious observations (set a purpose).
 The language content is more comprehensible if linked to learners’ personal
experiences (personal link/knowledge) involve cognitive and affective aspects
/motivational sphere).
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 It will be more effective if the learners are prepared in deducing word meanings
through inference, contextual clues and word formation - which are basic elements in
deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words.
 It should involve perception through the ears and eyes. (the more analyzers involved
in the process, the better)
b) Linguistic aspects:
 The number of items to be introduced should be small ( few new words to be
learned.)
 New language items should be presented in a communicative context.( Language is
communication).
 The same word should be presented in more than one situation to fix the meaning of
the word.
 Present just one meaning of a polysemantic word. (The meaning the word has in the
text under analysis).
c) Didactic aspects:
 Comprehension of contents moves from general to particular (levels of assimilation).
 Clear, precise and brief.
 New elements should be taught in combination with the old ones (from what is
known to what is not).
 Contents should be introduced in communicative situations. (Contextualization).
 Ensure that students understand the presentation by keeping the language simple,
illustrating the presentation, and checking students' comprehension periodically.
The presentation phase of the lesson is usually teacher-centered, as he/she does most of
the talking. Its objective is basically to obtain comprehension, so the objective can be
headed by such words as understand… recognize…, identify… comprehend.
This lesson is intended to present vocabulary, communicative functions and
grammatical aspects. There are different techniques to fulfill this purpose: micro
situations; texts (dialogues and monologues); conversations between the teacher and
the students supported by visuals (pictures, real objects). Teaching media are very
valuable as they favor a combination of ear and visual perception.
The regular procedures of a presentation lesson through a microsituation include the
following basic ones:
1st. An introduction or warm up. (Motivation)

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2nd. Presentation through listening. (Presentation)
3rd. Comprehension checking. (Verification)
4th. Grammatical or lexical analysis through different techniques. (Analysis)
5th. Repetition. (Imitation)
6th Summary (Synthesis)
7th Reproduction of the teacher’s model through question-and-answer techniques or any
other technique. (Repetitive reading)
8th Exercises, at a recognition or reproduction levels.
a)Presentation through dialogues
The following set of procedures outlines a workable approach to presenting dialogues
in average classroom conditions. It need not, of course, be followed rigidly, although
there are certain things that the teacher will always need to do such as invoking the
students in the situation, providing reasons or listening, checking understanding and,
and repeating parts of the dialogue.
1st Step . Establish the setting.
2nd Step. Establish personal link with the situation.
3rd Step. Pre-teach selected items (optional).
4th Step . Set a listening task.
5th Step. Ask the students to listen.
6th Step. Ask the students to read silently as they listen.
7th Step . Explain any difficulties.
8th Step. Ask the students to repeat the dialogue.
b)Presentation through prose passages
In prose passages, which contain not only a good deal of new language, but also a lot of
information, which will probably be new to the students, a reading-oriented approach
is suggested.
1st Step . Introduce the topic.
2nd Step. Introduce the text.
3rd Step. Provide relevant language practice. Step 4, set a reading task.
5th Step. Do a silent reading.
6th Step. Explain any difficulties.
7th Step. Do silent reading.
8th Step. Ask the class to talk about what they have learned.

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The presentation phase of the lesson is when the teacher introduces new information
(input). The teacher guides the presentation, but there may be student input or
interaction.
In the case of grammatical items, presentation may be...
a) Inductive: where examples are presented and the students draw conclusions based
on them.
b) Deductive: where the teacher states a rule or generalization and proceeds to explain
or illustrate it, or some combination or variation of inductive and/or deductive.
Whichever method is used during the presentation phase, the teacher relates the new
material to students' previous knowledge and experiences; checks students'
comprehension, and models examples of the tasks that will be expected of students
during the practice phase of the lesson.
Above all, when teaching English to people whose English skills are limited, it is
essential to ensure that students understand the presentation by...
 Keeping the language simple.
 Illustrating the presentation, and checking students' comprehension periodically.
Keep the language of your presentation understandable by:
 Using short, uncomplicated sentences (but don't resort to "Tarzan talk")
 Using simple, basic vocabulary.
 Speaking slowly and distinctly (without exaggerating, of course), and...
 Pausing briefly between sentences.
You will have to be sensitive to your particular students (watch their faces, ask them for
feedback, check their actual comprehension) in order to adjust all these factors to the
right level for them.
Illustrate your presentation with…
 Pictures (borrowed from a library, clipped from old magazines, drawn on paper
or the chalkboard, etc.)
 Realia (objects from the real world, e.g., real carrots and potatoes for a lesson on
the names of vegetables)
 Gestures (pantomime, make dramatic faces, etc. as you speak), and
 Anything else that helps make the meaning clear.
When checking students’ comprehension, it is not enough to ask, "Do you understand?"
They will usually nod their heads or say, "Yes," even when they are lost. Have them do

43
something to show that they understand: perform a physical action, select, match, right
or wrong, yes/no questions or even information questions.
B) The rehearsing lesson
It is the lesson where the students practice, reinforce and use the contents of the unit
that is, the grammar, the vocabulary and pronunciation contained in the
communicative functions. The rehearsing lesson moves throughout three clearly
defined phases or stages: the controlled practice stage, the semi controlled practice stage
and the creative or production practice stage. Teachers should know how to devise a
system of exercises and tasks.
A system of exercises is a set of well-organized activities for the students to develop
different habits and skills in the process of learning a foreign language. It always
reflects a definite methodological system as such with its aim, principles, and methods.
So the pedagogical process of teacher-student activities is programmed by means of
exercises. (Acosta, R. 2005)
Stage 1.Controlled practice (fixation) type of activity: pre-communicative.
Function: To practice and fix the language
Characterstics of the activities:
 There is often a language model and a situation.
 More attention over the formal aspects (accuracy work) by the teacher.
 Greater guidance by the teacher.
 The teacher can predict the students´ answers and there is an intensive
correction of mistakes.
 The students cannot use the language freely.
 The exercises stand between the recognition and reproductive levels of
assimilation.
Class management:
 Whole class practice is frequently used.
 Pair work is occasional.
 Correction is more dynamic.
Stage 2. Semi-controlled practice (transitional stage)
 This is the first step in free production practice activities where learners
get enough guidance but at the same time, they are given the chance to
talk to one another without constant correction.
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  There is often a model, part of the language is given, and there is partial
production.
 The step is pre-communicative or preparatory for the creative practice.
 The students’ participation increases moving towards transitional
exercises.
 It includes partial production exercises.
Stage 3. Creative practice (production)
Type of activity: Communicative
 The students use the language learned in realistic (real) communication.
 The teacher cannot predict the students’ responses.
 The teacher makes few corrections to encourage them to speak.
 The students select the language they are going to use (formal, neutral, informal)
according to the situation.
 The lesson is centered on meaning.
Function: To give the students the opportunities to use the language.
Characteristics of the activities:
 No language model is provided, just the situation and the context, which creates
the need or purpose for using the language. All the language items are produced
by the students.
 More attention over content ( fluency work)
 Control is reduced. The learners should work individually as much as possible.
 Production exercises and tasks are included.
 Pupils will make use of the contents already learned in new situations. They will
have to make choices concerning what language they use, how they use it and
when they use it.
 The guided practice lesson
Practice is an absolutely crucial part of almost any ESL lesson.
Our purpose in language teaching is almost always, to build students' skills. When they
are communicating in English, they will need to use English grammar, vocabulary, and
pronunciation accurately and fluently, but at this stage, they will have to focus on what
they are saying, and be conscious of how to say it.
Therefore, if they are to communicate successfully, their language skills must be
developed to the point where they can use them naturally and automatically, without
45
even thinking very much about them. That takes plenty of practice! so the objective of
this phase is to give the students the opportunity to move from a reproductive to a
partially productive use of the language.
Building skills is very different from teaching content. You do expect your EFL students
to go out of class and use English, just after explaining something. They need to practice
and communicate. If they are to do that, you must build their communication skills in
class, and that takes practice. Oral practice should be given priority; the rest of the
verbal skills will reinforce and consolidate oral expression through their integration.
To summarize, don't confuse skill teaching and content teaching and merely teach your
students about English. Give them plenty of opportunities (in and out of class) to
practice their English skills. This practice should take many forms. For one thing, it
needs to be varied just to keep students' interest high. Too much of the same kind of
practice can be boring and reduce their motivation and enthusiasm.
In the Guided Practice section of your written lesson plan, outline how your students
will demonstrate that they have grasped the skills, concepts, and modeling that you
presented to them in the direct Instruction portion of the lesson.
While you circulate the classroom and provide some assistance on a given activity
(worksheet, illustration, experiment, discussion, or other assignment) the students
should be able to perform the task and account for the lesson's information.
The Guided Practice activities can be defined as either individual or cooperative
learning (acting out dialogues, performing gapped dialogues, guided interview,
guessing games, etc). As a teacher, you should observe the students' level of mastery of
the material in order to inform your future teaching. Additionally, provide focused
support for individuals needing extra help to reach the learning goals. Correct any
mistakes that you observe.
 The free practice lesson
The application part of a lesson is "where the rubber meets the road." It is also essential
to effective language teaching. The objective of this type of lesson is usually related to
expressing or communicating at a productive level, or with little teacher’s guidance and
control.
After a new language skill has been introduced and presented by the teacher, and
practiced by the students, the lesson is far from over. The teacher must evaluate the
students to make sure that they are performing the new skill correctly and then provide

46
activities that require students to take what they have practiced in class and try to apply
it correctly in "real life" situations. The lesson language content may be connected to the
learners’ life experiences, to school or family life situations and the solution of
problems; so they will always contain an educative component.
These "real life" situations may be in class, out of class, or both.
C) The reading lesson
The objective of the reading lesson is to develop reading comprehension skills in order
to train the learners as effective readers. Reading is considered as an interactive process
between the reader and the text. For didactic purposes, the reading lesson comprises
three basic phases: before-reading (preparatory exercises), while-reading
comprehension, (exercises for guiding the students to comprehend) and after-reading
(skill- integration and text-evaluation exercises).
The types of exercises and tasks will depend on the characteristics of the text. The
teacher should avoid excessive exercises. Variety in typology of tasks is important. This
may include brainstorming, using pictures for anticipating information, sound
articulation and association with spelling, among others.
The teacher may determine what reading skills to evaluate in a lesson; among some
skills he could evaluate the following ones:
 Identifying the main idea of the text.
 Extracting specific information from the text.
 Inferring word meanings.
 Organizing the sequence of the text.
 Taking notes.
 Assessing the text.
 Understanding the communicative purpose of the text.
 Summarizing.
 Expressing orally or in writing about the content of the text.
 Expressing their opinions and the links of text content to their life
experiences.

 Pre-reading
The preparatory or before-reading exercises are intended to prepare the learners to
read. They activate previous knowledge about the topic and overcome linguistic

47
difficulties (phoneme-grapheme association, lexical, morphological and syntactic
complexities) which may interfere in the comprehension process.
Working with the students before they begin reading helps them get more involved,
provide appropriate background knowledge and activate necessary schemata. The text
should provoke the students’ interest and create or determine reading purpose if none
exists naturally.

 While-reading
While-reading activities aim at propitiating the students’ interaction with the text and
extracting essential information. The typology of comprehension exercises must be
varied, including: selection, matching, filling gaps, true or false, completion of charts,
crossword puzzles, question-and-answer techniques, jigsaw reading. It is important to
have a good variety of exercises for developing different skills; such as: identifying the
main idea of the text; extracting specific information from the text; inferring word
meanings, among others.
While- reading exercises help the students develop reading strategies, improve control
of the language and decode problematic text passages. Reading strategy practice and
linguistic development, with total comprehension of the text, form the core of the while-
reading stage.

 Post-reading
After-reading activities are intended to integrate skills and relate the text content to the
learners’ personal context. Among them, one can mention: completing a text,
dramatizing the situation in the text, evaluating the information in the text, comparing
the text, expressing orally or in writing about the content of the text; expressing their
opinions and the links of text content to their life experiences.
Integrating skills: reading should be integrated with the rest of the skills. What the
students do in reaction to reading must be realistic or arouse the students’ creativity.
The writing skill is regularly integrated with reading through summaries, tests endings,
and new versions, among others.
The speaking skill can also be integrated with reading. Discussions of text allow the
students to voice their reactions to analysis and opinions of the text, to preserve
students’ interest in the text and to confirm that the foreign language is a vehicle of
meaningful communication.

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Integrating reading with listening requires authentic materials. The receptive listening
comprehension skills require many of the strategies of reading comprehension.

Modeling and supporting lesson plans

Why should I write a plan? The best option is always to be prepared. Once you have
prepared your lesson you will feel much more confident walking into the classroom
and you will soon be able to relax.
Points to consider when writing the plan:
 What is the main topic of the lesson? If the activities in the lesson have a logical
link then the learners will be able to follow you and the lesson, more easily.
 How can I arouse their interest? Begin the lesson by involving the children
straight away. Show them a picture, photo or object to capture their attention
and indicate which topic the lesson is based on.
 How can I challenge them? Every learner, whatever their age or level needs to be
challenged. If there's no challenge then there's no learning. If there's no learning,
there's no motivation. Think about what they already know and make sure your
lesson isn't just teaching them the same thing.
 How much should I review what they've already done? Having said you should
challenge them, you can and should review previous words and work in general.
Incorporate previously taught language in new situations to give the learners
more practice.
 What are the objectives of the lesson? It's vital to always think about 'why' they
are doing an activity, game or song. Everything on your plan should be
educational. If you don't know what an activity is teaching the learners then take
it off your plan.
 What vocabulary do I want to teach them? If you prepare beforehand exactly
what words you are going to concentrate on and how you are going to present
them you will be better equipped to explain them clearly to the children.
 How can I explain the activities? You should prepare, at least mentally, how you
are going to explain each activity. Explanations should be short, clear and visual.
49
 Don't forget to demonstrate and check their understanding by getting one or two
of them to demonstrate for you. Also decide how you are going to write on the
board. You can draw a diagram on your plan to remind you so that it's clearer
for the learners.
 How much detail do I need on my plan? If you're working from a book then
don't forget page numbers. As a guideline, imagine that someone else has to
cover your class. They should be able to read your plan and teach your lesson.
 What order should I teach the activities in? As a very general rule you can start
with an introduction to the lesson, introduce the new language, give the students
some controlled practice and move onto freer practice. Finally review what
they've done and get feedback from the children themselves about what they
did.
 What problems might I have? If you're not sure if an activity will work; if you
think it's too hard or too long then take time before the lesson, at the planning
stage, to think about how to resolve any problems that could arise. Problems
could be activity related or time-table related, student related or even teacher-
related. Taking those extra minutes when planning to think about possible
solutions could avoid you having a disastrous lesson.

Requisites for presenting,

observing and assessing a lesson

Different theoretical conceptions have been analyzed, which should be taken into
consideration for presenting, observing and assessing a lesson. All the approaches
presented have profound implications in your didactic decisions, so this is the support
of the lessons that you will present in our workshops.
1st Introduce yourself.
2nd Characterize the unit you are dealing with: unit; importance; objectives; contents
(knowledge, skills and values); methodological conception; position of the unit; number
of lessons; teaching media; system of evaluation.
3rd Presentation of the lesson:

50
Topic; position in the unit; type of lesson; characteristics of this type of lesson; objective;
contents; teaching media; evaluation techniques.
4th Explain how you structured the lesson according to its typology.
5th Presentation of techniques and procedures (steps of the lesson)
 Explain the objective of each activity.
 Demonstrate how you will orient the students.
 Define the techniques that you propose.
 Illustrate how the precepts of the approaches studied are fulfilled in your lesson
plan. (communicative, developmental, interdisciplinary, reflexive).
 Demonstrate how you graded the activities.
 Demonstrate how skills are integrated in your lesson.
 Preview possible mistakes. Demonstrate how you will correct them. Use the
correct technique.
 Demonstrate how you shape values in your lesson.
 Present the activities for independent work. (Homework)
 Be ready to support all your didactic decisions.

The methodological analysis of the study unit

Unit plans follow much the same format as a lesson plan, but cover an entire unit of
work, which may cover several days or weeks. Unit Planning is the proper selection of
learning activities which presents a complete picture. Unit planning is a systematic
arrangement of subject matter. A unit plan is one which involves a series of learning
experiences that are linked to achieve the aims composed by methodology and
contents.
Criteria of a good Unit Plan
 Needs, capabilities, interest of the learner should be considered.
 Prepared on the sound psychological knowledge of the learner.
 Provide a new learning experience; systematic but flexible.
 Consider the social and physical environment of the learner.
 Focus on the development of learner's personality.

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The lesson should not be analyzed in isolation. It has to be seen within a system. That’s
why when planning we should develop the analysis of the study unit.
During this process of unit analysis, the teachers should keep in mind the results of the
diagnosis of their students considering its continuum character. The following
procedures may be followed by the language teachers in order to have an approach of
the unit and design a general outline of the system of lesson, which they will plan later
in detail.
 Determine the unit objectives
a. Analyze the general goals of the subject in the grade.
b. Study the syllabus and workbook.
c. Analyze preceding and following content.
d. Determine the contribution of the unit to instruction and education.
e. Derive the goals of the unit.
 Analyze the unit content
a. Study the unit content and consult the necessary sources in order to clarify linguistic
complexities and be better prepared (identify points of contact with other subjects from
the curriculum - interdisciplinary principle).
b. Identify what is new for the learners and what they already know or dealt with to be
related to the new ones.
c. Anticipate possible learning problems within the linguistic material.
 To distribute the unit content into different lessons
a. Consider the proposed distribution of lessons in the syllabus according to the
students’ needs and characteristics.
b. Set the objective for each lesson.
c. Distribute content into each lesson logically.
 To determine main techniques, procedures, material aids and other
teaching resources
a. Make decisions on possible and most appropriate techniques that you can select,
adapt or create for your lessons.
b. Decide what teaching aids or resources need to be used in order to implement
techniques and tasks: visuals (pictures, real objects, realia, cards, texts, etc.
 To make decisions about the system of evaluation

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a. Consider the system of extra-class work (or homework) and independent study.
b. Decide what objectives to evaluate, what techniques or tasks and what type of test
will be used.
c. Consider your students’ level of development and assess them according to what
and how you have taught them.
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