Sma 103 Corrected Module-1

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
DIGITAL SCHOOL OF VIRTUAL AND OPEN LEARNING

IN COLLABORATION WITH
SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ACTUARIAL SCIENCE,
SMA 103: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
WRITTEN BY: Dr. Ambrose Wahome

VETTED BY: Mr. Augustine Ruto
1
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this module. The module deals with different geometries and their applications.
This is an interactive instructional module that uses both action and collaborative learning styles
that provide you with diverse online learning experiences and effective learning processes. The
key purpose of this module is to expose you albeit theoretically to the operations carried out on
various geometries. This should hopefully equip you with the necessary knowledge and skills
crucial in real life applications of geometry.
Analytical geometry is the study of geometry by application of algebraic methods through the
coordinate system. This involves changing a geometric problem into an algebraic problem so that
it obeys certain rules of algebra. This module offers elementary techniques for solving
geometrical problems analytically for undergraduates in mathematics and engineering.
In this module, we shall analyse different geometries and their applications.
We hope that you will find this module exciting, educative, and engaging.
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COURSE CONTENT
WEEK TOPIC
WEEK 1 STRAIGHT LINE
WEEK 2 CIRCLE
WEEK 3 POLAR COORDINATES
WEEK 4 PARABOLA
WEEK 5 PARABOLA
WEEK 6 ELLIPSE
WEEK 7 ELLIPSE
WEEK 8 HYPERBOLA
WEEK 9 HYPERBOLA
WEEK 10 TRIGONOMETRY
WEEK 13&14 EXAMINATION
3
OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE
Week 1: Straight Line
In this lesson, the Cartesian coordinate system is introduced. The distance between points and
points which divide a line segment internally and externally are covered. The general, point slope
and normal form of the equation of the straight line are covered. Also covered is the relationship
between lines.
Week 2: The Circle

In this lesson we study the circle and relationships between circles. A circle is the locus of a
point which moves such that its distance from a fixed point is constant. The fixed point is called
the center of the circle. The distance from the point is called the radius.
Week 3: Polar Coordinates

In this lesson, we study the relationship between Cartesian and polar coordinates.
Week 4: Parabola
In this lesson we study how to determine the line of symmetry, focus, vertex, directrix and length
of latus rectum of a parabola whose center is at the origin and whose center is not at the origin.
Week 5: Parabola
In this lesson we study how to determine the equations of tangent and normal lines to a parabola.
Week 6: Ellipse
In this lesson we study how to determine the foci, vertices, directrices, lengths of minor/major
axes and lengths of latus rectum of an ellipse whose center is at the origin.
Week 7: Ellipse – Tangent and Normal

In this lesson we study how to determine the equations of tangent and normal lines to an ellipse.
Week 8: Hyperbola
In this lesson we study how to determine the foci, vertices, directrices, equations of asymptotes,
lengths of transverse axes and lengths of latus rectum of a hyperbola whose center is at the
origin.
Week 9: Hyperbola – Tangent and Normal

In this lesson we study how to determine the equations of tangent and normal lines to a
hyperbola.
Week 10: Trigonometry

In this lesson we study radian measure, trigonometric ratios and trigonometric identities.

In this lesson we study double-angle and factor formulae.

In this lesson we study inverses of angles, t-formula and plotting of trigonometric graphs.
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Week 13 & 14: Examination
These two weeks bring together the work you have been doing to an end. This course unit will
be examined and will partially contribute to the award of the degree in the programme that you
are undertaking. The university examinations regulations will apply.
MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Determine the distance between two points, the mid-point, angle between two lines and the
equation of a line.
2. Determine the equation of a circle and the equation of a tangent from a point to the circle.
3. Convert Cartesian co-ordinates to polar co-ordinates and vice versa.
4. Determine the foci, vertices, latus rectum, directrices and equations of the parabola, ellipse
and hyperbola.
5. Solve trigonometric equations.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This is a core unit meant for all students who are taking Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of
Education and Bachelor of Economics degrees. The rationale of offering the course is to equip
students with knowledge and skills in Analytical Geometry and how they can apply these skills
in solving problems. You will therefore be required to set aside about 5 hours per lesson to
complete this course successfully.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
This is a blended learning course that will utilize the flex model. This means that learning
materials and instructions will be given online and the lessons will be self-guided with the
lecturer being available briefly for face to face sessions and online support. Your lecturer will be
meeting you face to face to introduce a lesson and put it into perspective and you will actively
participate in your search for knowledge by undertaking several online activities. This means that
some of the 39 instructional hours of the course will be delivered face to face while other lessons
will be taught online through various learner and lecturer activities. It is important for you to
note that one instructional hour is equivalent to two online hours. Three instructional hours will
be needed per week. Out of these, one will be used for face to face contact with your lecturer
(also referred as e-moderator in the online activities) while the other two instructional hours
(translating to four online hours) will be used for online activities otherwise referred to as e-
tivities in the lessons. This will add up to the 5 hours requirement per lesson earlier mentioned.
There are 27 online activities each taking at least two hours and totaling to 54 online hours. You
are advised to follow the topic flow-chart given so that you cover at least a lesson every week.
You will be required to participate and interact online with your peers and the e-moderator who
in this case is your lecturer. Guidelines for the online activities (which we shall keep referring to
as e-tivities) will be provided whenever there is an e-tivity. Please note that since the online e-
tivities are part of the learning process, they may be graded at the discretion of your e-moderator.
Such grading will however be communicated in the e-tivity guidelines and feedback given as
soon as possible after the e-tivity. The e-tivities will include but will not be limited to online
assessment quizzes, assignments and discussions. There are also assessment questions that you
can attempt at the end of every lesson to test your understanding of the lesson. The answers to all
the assessment questions are at the end of the module after lesson 11. All the resource that have
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been used in this module in form of books are available under the resources section after the
answers to the questions.
ASSESSMENT
It is important to note that the module has embedded certain learner formative assessment
feedback tools that will enable you gauge your own learning progress. The tools include online
collaborative discussions forums that focus on team learning and personal mastery and will
therefore provide you with peer feedback, lecturer assessment and self- reflection. You will also
be required to do one major assignment/project that is meant to assess the application of the
skills and knowledge gained during the course. The project score in combination with scores for
e-tivities (where graded) will account for 30% of your final examination score with the
remaining 70% coming from a face to face sit-in final written examination that will be guided by
your university examination policy and procedures.
We wish you the very best of experiences in this course.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………… 2
Overview of Course…………………………………………………………………………… 4
Module learning Outcomes……………………………………………………………….…… 5
Course Description……………………………………………………………………..……… 5
Course Requirements…………………………………………………………………..……… 5
Course Assessment………………………………………………………………….………… 6
Lesson 1: The Straight Line..……………………………………………………..……….… 9
1.2.1 Properties of The Straight Line …………………………………………. 9
1.2.1.1 The Distance between Two Points ……………………………. 10
1.2.1.2 The Mid-point of a Line ………………………………………. 10
1.2.1.3 Inclination and Slope of a Line ……………………………….. 10
1.2.1.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines ……………………………....11
1.2.1.5 The Angle between Two Lines …………………………….….12
1.2.1.6 The Equation of a Straight Line ……………………………….13
Lesson 2: The Circle.………………………………………………………………...……… 16
2.2.1 Equation of a Circle ……………………………………………….…….16
2.2.1.1 Standard Equation of a Circle ……………………………...…16
2.2.1.2 General Equation of a Circle ………………………………….16
2.2.1.3 Distance from a point to a Circle ……………………………...17
2.2.2 Equation of the Tangent and Normal ………………………………...…20
Lesson 3: Polar Coordinates.………………………………………………………..……… 24
3.2.1 Converting Cartesian Equations to Polar Equations …………………... 24
3.2.1.1 Relationship between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates……25
Lesson 4: The Parabola……………………………………………………….……….…… 29
4.2.1 Standard Equation of a Parabola ………………………………………..29
4.2.1.1 General Equation of a Parabola ……………………………….31
Lesson 5: The Parabola: Tangent and Normal.…………………………………………… 34
5.2.1 Tangent and Normal to a Parabola ……………………………………...34
5.2.1.1 Normal to a Parabola ………………………………………….36
Lesson 6: The Ellipse………………………………………………………………..……… 40
6.2.1 Equation of an Ellipse …………………………………………………..40
6.2.1.1 General Equation of an Ellipse……………………………...…42
6.2.1.2 Length of the Latus Rectum …………………………………..44
Lesson 7: The Ellipse: Tangent and Normal.……………………………………………… 47
7.2.1 Tangent and Normal to an Ellipse ………………………………………47
7.2.1.1 Normal to an Ellipse …………………………………………..48
Lesson 8: The Hyperbola...……………………………………………….………………… 51
8.2.1 Equation of a Hyperbola ………………………………………………...51
8.2.1.1 The Asymptotes of a Hyperbola ………………………………53
8.2.1.2 Hyperbola with Center not at the origin ………………………54
Lesson 9: The Hyperbola: Tangent and Normal..…………………………………….…… 56
9.2.1 Tangent and Normal to a Hyperbola ………………….…………………56
Lesson 10: Trigonometry: Identities...…………………………….…………………………60
10.2.1 Trigonometric Ratios …………………………………………………...60
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10.2.1.1 Trigonometric Identities ……………………………………...60
10.2.1.2 Ptolemy’s Identities …………………………………………..60
Lesson 11: Trigonometry: Factor Formulae……………………………...…………………64
11.2.1 Factor Formulae ………………………………………………………..64
11.2.1.1 Identities for Negative Angles ……………………………….64
11.2.1.2 Double-angle Formulae for Sine and Cosine ……………...…64
11.2.1.3 Factor Formulae ………………………………………………64
Solutions to Assessment Questions ……………………………………………………..……68
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LESSON 1
THE STRAIGHT LINE
1.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the Cartesian coordinate system is introduced. The distance between points, mid-
points, perpendicular/parallel lines and angles between two lines are covered. The general and
point slope form of the equation of the straight line are also covered.
1.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to;
1.2.1 Carry out operations on the Straight Line.
1.2.1 The Straight Line
In this work the geometrical problems considered are those that are presented on two
dimensional plane only and it is therefore important at this point to discuss the plane.
Consider any plane with a point denoted by O, which we call the point of reference or the origin.
Let line X be horizontal and pass through O and line Y be vertical and pass through O. The
horizontal line X is referred to as the x-axis and the vertical line Y is the y-axis. Distance
measured from the y-axis is referred to as an abscissa and it is positive if measured to the right
and negative if measured to the left. A vertical distance from the x-axis is called a y-ordinate and
it is positive if measured above the x-axis and negative if measured below the x-axis. Any point
on the plane can described by its abscissa and its ordinate as P(x, y), for any point P. The symbol
(x, y) represents the coordinates of the point, where x is the abscissa and y the ordinate and it is
also referred to as the Cartesian coordinates of P.
The two axis partitions the plane into four quadrants as shown below. In the first quadrant both
x and y are positive. In the second quadrant x is negative while y is positive. In the third quadrant
both x and y are negative. In the fourth quadrant x is positive and y negative. The coordinates of
the origin are (0, 0).
Quad II Y Quad I
x P(x,y)
(-,+)
(+,+)
y
O X
(-,-)
Quad III Quad IV (+,-)

Figure 1.1
9
1.2.1.1 The Distance Between Two Points
The distance between two points and on a straight line is given by;
Example 1.1
Find the distance between the points and .
Solution
Figure 1.2
The distance between the points is;
1.2.1.2 The Mid-point of a Line
The co-ordinates of the mid-point of a line between two end points and is;
. In figure 1, the mid-point of the straight line joining and is

given by;
1.2.1.3 Inclination and Slope of the Line
In figure 1.3, the inclination of the line L is the angle measured positively from the positive axis
to the line L.
L 10
Figure 1.3
The slope of the line L is the tangent of the angle of inclination. If m is the slope of L, then
Suppose that and are points on the line L in figure 1.4;
Figure 1.4
Considering the right angle triangle, then we have;
Example 1.2
Find the slope and the angle of inclination of the line passing through points
and .
Solution
1.2.1.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
If two lines and are parallel, then their slopes are equal;
11
Figure 1.5
Next, suppose that and are perpendicular
Figure 1.6
Given that the slope of is and the slope of is , then the product of their slopes is -1;
1.2.1.5 The Angle between Two Lines
Let that and meet at angle . Further, let the slope of be and the slope of be
Figure 1.7
Let be the angle of inclination of and be the angle of inclination of . Then
12
Hence but
Example 1.3
The angle between two lines is . If the slope of is , determine the slope of .
Solution
1.2.1.6 The Equation of a Straight Line
Suppose that and are points on a line.
Figure 1.8
Then the slope of the line is;
Taking the general point , we get the equation of the line to be;
Where is the y-intercept
Example 1.4
Find the equation of a line whose and intercepts are 5 and 3 respectively.
Solution
13
The points are and . Therefore the slope is
Taking a general point we have the equation of the line as;
E-tivity 1.2.1 The Straight Line

Numbering, pacing and sequencing Lesson 1.2.1
14
Title The Straight Line
Purpose To introduce you to operations on the straight line.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the videos on the straight line
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EoI6uig5Lps
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DrsCIoLtiBI and
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BoUuEmYy8_k
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos on the straight line.

 Carry out the various operations on the straight
line.
Interaction begins  Post your answers on the discussion forum 1.2.1
 Read what your colleagues have posted.
 In a sentence or two, comment on what two of
your colleagues have posted keeping etiquette in
mind.
E-moderator interventions  Focused group discussion
 Providing feedback/ teaching points
 Summarising key points
 Closing the discussion
Schedule and time This discussion should be done during the 1 st week of
the semester.
Next The Circle
1.3 Assessment
a) Find the distance between the points A(7,9) and B (4,5) .
b) Determine whether the points (  7,65) and (5,23) lie on the line through point (3, 5)
whose slope is 9.
c) Find the equation of the line with intercept on -axis and intercept on -axis.
1.4 References
15
L. Bostock, S. Chandler, and C. Rourke. Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley Thornes
(Publishers) Ltd, 1982.
R.E Larson and R.P. Hostetler. Precalculus. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997.
P.K. Jain and Khalil Ahmad. Analytical Geometry of Two Dimensions. Wiley Eastern Limited,
1983.
https://byjus.com/jee/straight-lines/
http://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/mc-ty-strtlines-2009-1.pdf
LESSON 2
THE CIRCLE
2.1 Introduction
16
In this chapter we study the circle and relationships between circles. A circle is the locus of a
point which moves such that its distance from a fixed point is constant. The fixed point is called
the center of the circle and the distance from the point is called the radius.

By the of this lesson, you should be able to;
2.2.1 Determine the standard and the general equation of a circle given its:-
(i) Radius and the center.
(ii) Any three points the circle passes through.
2.2.2 Find the tangents and the normal to a circle.
2.2.1 Equation of a Circle

2.2.1.1 Standard Equation of Circle
Consider a circle with center C (h, k ) and radius r (Fig 2.1)
P ( x, y )
Figure 2.1
From the definition of the circle
___
CP  r  ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2 .
Hence tha equation of the circle is
( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2 .
If the center of the circle is at the origin the equation is
x2  y2  r 2 .
2.2.1.2 General Equation of a circle

Expanding the equation ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2 we get
x 2  y 2  2hx  2ky  h 2  k 2  r 2  0 .
This can be written as
x 2  y 2  Dx  Ey  C  0
where D  2h, E  2k and C  h 2  k 2  r 2 . Equation () is called the general equation of the
circle.
17
If the equation of a circle is given in general form the center and the radius can be obtained by
completing the squares as
D 2 E D 2  E 2  4C
(x  )  ( y  )2  .
2 2 4
D E
This is the equation of a circle with center C ( , ) and radius
2 2
r1 D 2  E 2  4C .
2
Note the following
(a) If D 2  E 2  C  0 , then the equation represents a point which coincides with the center
D E
C( , ).
2 2
(b) If D 2  E 2  C  0 , then the radius is imaginary. The circle is referred to as a virtual circle.
(c) If D 2  E 2  C  0 , then the circle is real.
Example 2.1
Find the center and radius of the circle x 2  y 2  4 x  10 y  2  0 .
Solution
Center
Radius
2.2.1.3 Distance from a point to a circle

Consider point P1 (a1 , b1 ) outside the circle ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2 . Let B1 be a point on the
circle such that it lies on the line segment P1C , C being the center of the circle.
y P1 (a1 , b1 )
B2 B1
P2
C x
Figure 3.2
____
The distance from P1 (a1 , b1 ) to the circle is P1 B1 which is obtained as
____ ____ ____
P1 B1  P1C  B1C
= (a1  h) 2  (b1  k ) 2  r
18
Now consider point another P2 (a 2 , b2 ) inside the circle lying on the line segment CB 2 . The
distance from P2 ( a 2 , b2 ) to the circle is
____
P2 B2  r  (a 2  h) 2  (b2  k ) 2 .
In general, the distance d from point P (a, b) to circle ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2 is

d  (a  h) 2  (b  k ) 2  r
with d positive if the point is outside the circle and negative if inside the circle.
Example 2.2
Find the distance from the point P (5,8) to the circle x 2  y 2  2 x  6 y  3  0 .
Solution
The center of the circle is C ( 1,3) . The radius of the circle is
r1 D 2  E 2  4C
2
1
 16  36  12
2
 7
Distance
E-tivity 2.2.1 – Equation of a Circle

19
Title Equation of a Circle
Purpose To determine the standard and general equation of a circle.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the circle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I7MBrjPEyps
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x4E1qOTy9zw
Spark ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2
Individual contribution  Determine how to obtain the equation of a circle.

 In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your
colleagues have posted keeping etiquette in mind
Schedule and time This discussion should be done during the 2 nd week of the
semester.
Next Equations of tangent and normal
2.2.2 Equations of the tangent and normal
D1 ( m1 , n1 )
20
P1 ( x1 , y1 )
C(h,k
)
D2 (m 2 , n 2 )
Remark
The chord through D1 and D2 is called the chord of contact of tangents from the point
P1 ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the given circle.
Example 2.3
Find the tangent points of the circle x 2  y 2  5 from the point (8, 3)
Solution
Let ( m, n) be the points on the circle and on the tangent
Then
mx  ny  5  8m  3n  5 and m2  n2  5
5  8m (5  8m) 2
put n then m2  5
3 9
or
9m 2  64m 2  80m  25  45
or
73m 2  80m  20  0
80  80 2  80  73
m  1.33 or –0.21
146
5  8  1.33
If m  1.33, n   1.88
3
5  8  0.21
If m  0.21, n   2.23
3
Hence the two points on the circle are
D1 (1.33,1.88) and D2 ( 0.21,2.23)
21
E-tivity 2.2.2 – Equation of Tangent and Normal
22
Title Equation of Tangent and Normal
Purpose To determine the equations of tangent and normal to a
circle
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the circle
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6l5Bg8rYTq4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xCXCp1WzCYE
Spark ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2
Individual contribution  How do you determine the length of a tangent

from an external point?

mind
Schedule and time This discussion should be done during the 2nd week of
the semester.
Next Polar Coordinates
2.3 Assessment
a) Find the equation of the circle whose centre and radius are as given.
(i) Center (0, 0), radius r  8
(ii) Center (-3, 4), radius r  2
b) Find the center and the radius of the circle given by the equation x 2  y 2  12 x  6 y  7  0
c) Find the equation of the circle through the given points.
(1,2) (3,7) (2,-3)
d) Find the equation of the tangents to the given circle from the given external point.
x 2  y 2  10  0 (10, 2)
2.4 References
23
1983.
24
LESSON 3
POLAR COORDINATES
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter we introduce the polar coordinate system. In the system, a fixed point is described
by its distance from a fixed point and its direction from a fixed line through the point. The fixed
point is called the pole and the fixed line is called the polar axis.

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to;
3.2.1 Convert Cartesian to polar coordinates and vice versa.
3.2.1 Converting a Cartesian equation to polar equation and vice versa.
Let the fixed point be O (Fig 3.1). Suppose point P is at a distance r from O. Let angle XOP be
 . Then the polar coordinates of P are given as an ordered pair (r , )
P ( r , )

X
O
Figure 3.1
The angle is measured in an anticlockwise direction from the fixed line OX. A negative value of
 implies the angle is measured clockwise from the fixed line. The distance r is always positive
as long as it is measured from O to P.
P1 ( r , )


P2 (  r , ) P3 ( r , )
Figure 3.2
25
Points P1 ( r , ) , P2 ( r , ) and P3 ( r , ) give the various positions when r and  take
negative values.
3.2.1.1 Relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates
P ( x, y )

x
O
Figure 3.3
Consider a point P ( x, y ) whose polar coordinates are P ( r , ) . From the diagram it is clear that
y
x  rCos , and y  rSin  tan  .
x
r 2  x2  y2
The above relationships can be used to transform the Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates
and vice versa.
Example 3.1
Consider point (3, 4) on the x y plane. From the above relationships, we get
4
r 32  4 2  5 and   tan 1
 53.13
5
Hence the polar coordinates for P (3,4) are P (5,53.13)
Example 3.2
Consider point (7, 60) on the plane. From the above relationships, we get r  7 ,
x  r cos   7 cos 60  7 / 2
y  r sin   7 sin 60  7 3 / 2
Hence the Cartesian coordinates for (7, 60) are (7/2,73/2).
Example 3.3
Write in Cartesian form the equation r  9Cos .
26
Solution
x x
Put r 2  x2  y2 and Cos  r  2
x  y2
Hence
x
x2  y2 =9  x 2  y 2  9x .
x  y22
Or
( x  4.5) 2  y 2  4.5 2
which is the equation of the circle with center ( 4.5,0) and radius 4.5 .
Example 3.4
3
Write in Cartesian form the equation r  .
2  2 cos 
Solution
We get
x
( x 2  y 2 ) (2  2 )3
(x  y 2 )
2

.
2 (x 2  y 2 )  2x  3

4( x 2  y 2 )  4 x 2  12 x  9
This reduces to
y 2  3( x  3 / 4) .
E-tivity 3.2.1 - Polar Coordinates
27
Title Polar coordinates

Purpose To introduce you to the method of converting Cartesian
to polar coordinates and vice versa.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on polar coordinates https:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RZ9cow954_s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fHfxw12BTOg
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos on polar coordinates.

 Discuss on how one can convert from one
system to the other.
mind
Schedule and time This discussion should be done during the 3rd week of
the semester.
Next Parabola
3.3 Assessment
Convert the Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates
(1, 1)
3.4 References
1983.
28
LESSON 4
29
PARABOLA
4.1 Introduction
In the next three lessons we study the conic sections; the parabola, the ellipse and the hyperbola.
A conic section is the locus of a point described such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed
point to that from a fixed line is a constant. This ratio is called the eccentricity, denoted by e .
The fixed line is called the directrix and the fixed point the focus.
Definition: A parabola is the locus of a point which moves such that the ratio of its distance from
a fixed point to the distance from a fixed line is one.

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:-
4.2.1 Find the standard and general equation of a parabola given its focus and directrix.
4.2.1 Standard equation of a parabola

Let the focus be denoted by F and the directrix be the line DM. The line passing through the
focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the parabola (Fig 4.1). The point V
where the parabola intersects with the axis is called its vertex.
y
M P(x, y)
x
D V F (a, 0)
Figure 4.1
To get the equation of the parabola, suppose the axis coincides with the x-axis and let the vertex
V be at the origin. Let the distance from the vertex to the focus be a . The focus is F ( a , 0).
From the definition of the parabola,
PF
1 ,
MP
where P( x, y ) is any other point on the parabola. The distances PF and PM are
PF  ( x  a ) 2  y 2 and PM  x  a
Thus
( x  a) 2  y 2  x  a
which gives
30
( x  a) 2  y 2  ( x  a) 2
or
x 2  2ax  a 2  y 2  x 2  2ax  a 2
or
y 2  4ax .
This is the standard equation of a parabola whose axis is horizontal and the vertex is at the
origin. A chord (a line segment whose end points are points on the parabola) passing through the
focus F is referred to as the focal chord. The focal chord perpendicular to the axis is called the
latus rectum.
The distance of any point P(x,y) on the curve to the focus is referred to as its focal distance. The
length of the latus rectum is equal to 4a.
Example 4.1
Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is F (2,0) and the directrix is x = -2.
Solution
Since the focus is F (2,0) and the directrix is x = -2, then the vertex is at the origin and its axis is
the x-axis. Hence a=2. The equation is
y 2  4ax  8 x
Example 4.2
Find the focus, the equation of the directrix and the length of latus rectum for the parabola
5 y 2  24 x.
Solution
Write the equation in standard form to get
24
y2  x.
5
This implies
24 6
4a  a .
5 5
Hence the focus is F (6/5,0).
The equation of the directrix is
6
x  a   .
5
The length of the latus rectum is
24
l  4a 
5
4.2.1.1 General equation of a parabola
Let the focus of the parabola be F (h,k) and the equation of the directrix be Ax' By 'C  0
(Fig 4.2)
31
y-axis P(x,y) axis
M F(h,k)
V
D
x-axis
O
Figure 4.2
FP  ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2 .
( Ax  By  C )
The distance from point (x, y) to line Ax+By+C=0 is MP 
A2  B 2
The general equation of the parabola is therefore given by

( Ax  By  C ) 2
( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2 
A2  B 2
Or
for axis parallel to the x-axis in the positive orientation
for axis parallel to the x-axis in the negative orientation
for axis parallel to the y-axis in the positive orientation
for axis parallel to the y-axis in the negative orientation
4.2.1 E-tivity – Standard and General Equation of a Parabola
32
Title Equation of a Parabola
Purpose To introduce you to the parabola conic section.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the parabola

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5V-sytPAig
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNouPJaNf5Y
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos on the parabola.

 Discuss the equation of a parabola whose vertex
is not at the origin.
mind
Schedule and time This discussion should be done during the 4th week of
the semester.
Next Parabola: Tangent and Normal
4.3 Assessment
Find the vertex, the focus, the equation of the directrix and the length of the latus rectum for the
parabola.
x 2  8 x  2 y  10  0
4.4 References
1983.
33
http://www.yiminmathcentre.com/Homework/Year12/Year12_4Unit_Homework_Conics_Part3.
pdf
https://doubtnut.com/question-answer/equation-of-normal-of-ellipse-1339792
LESSON 5
PARABOLA: TANGENT AND NORMAL
5.1 Introduction
34
The parabola is defined as the conic section whose eccentricity is one.
5.2 Lesson Learning Outcome
At the end of the chapter, you should be able to

5.2.1 Determine the tangent and normal equations to a parabola.
5.2.1 Tangent and Normal to a parabola

We consider the case when the axis is horizontal and when it is vertical.
For the horizontal case, let the equation of the parabola be ( y  c 2 ) 2  4a ( x  c1 ) . To get the
equation of the tangent to the parabola at point P ( x1 , y1 ) , consider another point Q ( x 2 , y 2 )
(Fig 5.2)
y
P
x
O
Figure 5.2
The slope of PQ is
y  y1
m PQ  2 .
x 2  x1
As Q approaches P, x 2 approaches x1 and y 2 approaches y1 . The limit of the slope of PQ is
therefore
y  y1 0
Lim(m PQ )  Lim( 2 )
Q P QP x  x 0
2 1
which is undefined. To get the limit, consider the equations

( y 2  c 2 ) 2  4a ( x 2  c 2 ) -----------------------------------------(5.1)
( y1  c 2 ) 2  4a ( x1  c1 ) ------------------------------------------(5.2)
Subtracting (5.2) from (5.1) gives
( y 2  c 2 ) 2  ( y1  c 2 ) 2  4a( x 2  x1 )
or
35
[( y 2  c 2 )  ( y1  c 2 )][( y 2  c 2 )  ( y1  c 2 )]  4a( x 2  x1 )

y 2  y1 4a

x 2  x1 y1  y 2  2c 2
Hence as Q approaches P the limit of the slope is
 y  y1  2a
mt  Lim 2  .
Q P x  x  y1  c 2
 2 1 
Let R(x, y) be any other point on the tangent. Then the equation of the tangent is
y  y1 2a

x  x1 y1  c 2
or
( y  y1 )( y1  c 2 )  2a( x  x 1 ) .
This can be restructured as below.
[( y  c 2 )  ( y1  c 2 )]( y1  c 2 )  2a[( x  c 1 )  ( x 1  c1 )]

( y  c 2 )( y1  c 2 )  ( y1  c 2 ) 2  2a( x  c1 )  2a( x1  c1 )

( y  c 2 )( y1  c 2 )  4a( x1  c1 )  2a( x  c1 )  2a( x1  c1 )

( y  c 2 )( y1  c 2 )  2a ( x  x1  2c1 ) .
When the vertex is at the origin, the equation of the tangent at point P ( x1 , y1 ) is
yy1  2a( x  x1 ) .
Example 5.1
Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2  2 y  12 x  23  0 at point P (-7/4, 10).
Solution
Write the equation in standard form as
y 2  2 y  1  12 x  24
( y  1) 2  ( x  2)
Hence c  2, c 2  1 and a  3 . The equation of the tangent at point P (-7/4, 10)
1
is therefore
( y  1)(10  1)  2  3( x  7 / 4  4)
or
6 x  6 y  17  0 .
Example 5.2
Find the equations of the tangents at the end points of the latus rectum of the parabola
y 2  6 y  20 x  49  0 .
Solution
36
Write the equation in standard form to get
( y  3) 2  20( x  2) .
This implies 4a  20,  a  5 . The axis of symmetry is y=-3. The vertex is V(2,-3), the focus is
F(7,-3) and the endpoints of the latus rectum are P1 (7,7) and P2 (7,13) .
The equation of the tangent at P1 (7,7) is
( y  3)(7  3)  10( x  7  14)
or
x  y  10  0
The equation of the tangent at P2 (7,13) is
( y  3)(13  3)  10( x  7  14)
5.2.1.1 Normal to a parabola

The normal to a parabola at a given point on the parabola is the line perpendicular to the tangent
at the point. The slope of the normal is therefore the negative reciprocal of the slope of the
tangent. Suppose the equation of the parabola is ( y  c 2 ) 2  4a ( x  c1 ) . The slope of the tangent
at point P ( x1 , y1 ) on the parabola was found to be
2a
mt  .
y1  c 2
The slope of the normal is therefore
 ( y1  c 2 )
mn  .
2a
Let R(x,y) be any other point on the normal. The equation of the normal is then
 ( y1  c 2 )
y  y1  ( x  x1 ) .
2a
Example 5.3
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola
y 2  10 y  2 x  41  0
at the point (-10,3).
Solution
The standard form is
( y  5) 2  2( x  8) .
This implies 4a  2,  a  1 / 2 . The axis of symmetry is y=5. The vertex is V (-8, 5), the focus is
F (-5, -4.5). The slope of the tangent at (-10, 3) is
 2a
mt   1/ 2 .
y1  5
The equation of the tangent is therefore
( y  5)(3  5)  2  1 / 2( x  10  16)
or
x  2 y  16  0 .
The equation of the normal at (-10, 3) is
y  3  2( x  10)
37
or
2 x  y  23  0 .
5.2.1 E-tivity – Tangent and normal to a parabola

38
Title Tangent and normal to a parabola
Purpose To introduce you to tangent and normal to a parabola
Brief summary of overall task Watch the following videos;

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RWiDocMwta4
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the video and read on tangent and normal
to a parabola.
 Write the parametric equation of a parabola.
mind
the semester.
Next Ellipse
5.3 Assessment
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal to the following parabola at the given point.
y 2  4 y  4 x  8  0 , P (5/4, 1)
5.4 References
1983.
pdf
39
LESSON 6
ELLIPSE: EQUATION
6.1 Introduction
40
The ellipse is defined as the conic section whose eccentricity is less than one. This curve is also
the locus of a point that moves such that the sum of the distance from two fixed points is fixed.

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:-
6.2.1 Determine the standard and the general equation of an ellipse given its directrix and focus
or focus and eccentricity.
6.2.1 The equation of an ellipse

Let the focus of the ellipse be F and the directrix be DM. See figure below.
D D’
V F V’
Figure 6.1
From the definition PF= e PM

Between D and F, there is a point V such that
FV=e VD
Which lies on the ellipse.
Also further away from D along line DF there is another point V, which satisfies
FV=e VD
Let point C be the midpoint between V and V. Also let the distance CV= CV= a
Hence VV= 2a
Then
FV+ FV=e (VD+VD) =e DD where VD=VD also DD=2CD
Hence
a
VV=2e CD=2a or CD=
e
Also write
FV-FV=e (VD-VD)=e VV= 2ae
But
FV-FV=FV+FV-2FV
=2CV-2FV=2(CV-FV)
=2CF
Hence
41
CF= ae
Let C be placed at the origin on the XY plane, CD be along the x - axis and the vertical line
through C the y - axis.
Notice that there now can be another point F as the focus and directrix DM that would have
given the same results as above.
If C is the origin, the focus is F( ae, o ) and F ( ae, o ) and the equation of the directrix is x=
a a
or x=
e e
Now
a
FP= ( x  ae) 2  y 2 and PM= -x
e
From FP=e PM, we get
2
( x  ae ) 2 + y a 
2
=   x e2 This gives
e 
 a 2 2a 
x 2 - 2aex+a 2 e 2 +y 2 =e 2  2  x  x 2 
e e 
= a 2
- 2aex + e 2 x 2
2
x2 y
1
(1-e ) x +y =a - a e
2 2 2
or 2 2
+ 22
a 2 a (1  e 2 )
The curve has two axis. The longer one is the major axis which has length 2a.The shorter axis
obtained for the case above when x=0 as 2 a 2 (1  e 2 ) is the minor axis.
x2 y2
Let b 2 =a 2 (1 - e 2 ) Then the equation is 2  2  1 which is in standard form.
a b
Example 6.1
Find the directrix, eccentricity and focus of the ellipse given by 4x 2 +9y 2 =36.
Solution
x2 y2
Writing in standard form  1 a 2 =9 a=3, and b 2 = 4 implying b=2
9 4
To get the eccentricity, we have

b 2
=a 2
(1-e 2 )
5 5
9(1-e 2 )=4 or e= =
3 3
9 27
ae =9 5 =35 and
a
= 3=
3 e 5 5
27
Hence the focus is F (3 5, 0) and the directrix is x=
5
Example 6.2
2
Find the equation of and sketch the ellipse whose eccentricity is center at origin and directrix
3
x  6 and focus (1, 0)
42
Solution
y
P ( x, y )
D x
F(1,0)
Figure 6.2
a 2
Since =6, then a  6e  6   4.
e 3
 4  16  5 80
b 2  a 2 (1  e) 2  161    
 9 9 9
x2 y2
 1
Hence the equation is 16  80 
 
 9 
6.2.1.1 The general equation of an ellipse
Using the general equation we can obtain the equation of an ellipse whose axis is not necessarily
as in the illustration in section 6.2.
Consider the ellipse whose focus is F (h, k ) and the directrix is any line ax  by  c  0 . Let
P ( x, y ) be any point on the ellipse.
y
M
P ( x, y )
43
F
x
O
Figure 6.3
Now
ax  by  c
FP= ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2 and PM=
a2  b2
Hence the general equation is
(ax  by  c) 2
( x - h ) 2 +( y - k ) 2 = e 2
a2  b2
Example 6.3
2
Find the equation of the ellipse whose focus is and the directrix is y =9.
3
Solution
From the general equation we get
4 4 2
(x-o) 2  ( y-4) 2 = (y-9) 2 or x 2  y 2 -8y+16- y  8 y  36 or
9 9
5 x2 y2
x 2  y 2  20 which is  0
9 20 36
This is an ellipse whose major axis is along the y-axis and is of length 2b=2 36 =12 and minor
axis along the y-axis and length 2a=2 20 =4 5 .
x2 y2
We have seen that when the center of the ellipse is ( o, o ), then the equation is  1
a b
If the center is shifted to say C ( m, n ), the equation of the ellipse becomes
( x  m) ( y  n )
 1
a2 b2
Example 6.4
Find the focus, the center, the eccentricity and directrix of the ellipse whose equation is
x 2 4 y 2  4 x  24 y  24  0
Solution
Writing in the standard form gives
x 2 4 y 2  4 x  24 y  24 or (x+2) 2 4( y  3) 2  24  4  36  16
Hence
( x  2) 2 ( y  3) 2
  1 Where a 2  16  a=4 b 2  4  b=2
16 4
44
3
The center is C (-2, 3) eccentricity is given by b 2  a 2 (1  e) 2  4  16(1  e 2 ) or e 
2
3.4
Since the centre is C (-2, 3) the abscissa for the foci are  2  ae  2 
2
Here they are
F1 ( 2  2 3 , 3) and F2 ( 2  2 3 , 3)
The directrix is at
a 8
x  2   2  .
e 3
6.2.1.2 The length of the latus rectum.

Consider the origin-centered ellipse,
P M
D
O F
Figure 6.4
From the definition of an ellipse we have for the length l through the focus
l
e a
a  l  e(  ae) or l  a (1  e) 2
 ae e
e
2
Hence the length of the latus rectum of the ellipse is 2l  2a (1  e) 2 , thus l  2b
a
6.2.1 E-tivity – Equation of an Ellipse
45
Title The Equation of an Ellipse
Purpose To introduce you to the equation of an ellipse

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HO-XMY1g8Hc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IMA92FjipqI
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos and read on the ellipse.

 Write the equation of an ellipse whose center is
not at the origin.
mind
the semester.
Next Ellipse: Tangent and Normal
6.3 Assessment
Find the foci, the center, the eccentricity and directrix of the given ellipse.
x2 y2
 1
169 25
6.4 References

46
1983.
pdf
LESSON 7
ELLIPSE: TANGENT AND NORMAL
7.1 Introduction.
47
The ellipse is defined as the conic section whose eccentricity is less than one. This curve is also
the locus of a point that moves such that the sum of the distance from two fixed points is fixed.

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
7.2.1 Determine the tangent and normal equations to an ellipse.
7.2.1 Tangent and Normal to an ellipse

( x  m) 2 ( y  n) 2
Consider the ellipse whose equation is  1
a2 b2
We wish to get the equation of the tangent at point say P1 ( x1 y1 ) on the ellipse.
y P1 ( x1 y1 )
Q
y
O
Figure 7.1
Let Q ( x 2 , y 2 ) be any other point on the ellipse which approaches P1 . The gradient of P1Q1
y 2  y1
is m. . As Q approaches P1 we get the limit from: since Q and P 1 are on the
x 2  y1
ellipse, then we have
( x1  m) 2 ( y1  n) 2
 1 1
a2 b2
And
( x 2  m) 2 ( y  m) 2
 1 2
a2 b2
Subtracting 1 from 2 we get
( x 2  m) 2  ( x1  m 2 ) ( y 2  m) 2  ( y1  m)
+ =0
a2 b2
 a2
( x 2  x1 )( x 2  m  x1  m)  ( y 2  y1 )( y1  n  y 2  n)
b2
48
y 2  y1  b 2 ( x1  m  x 2  m
  2
x 2  x1 a ( y1  n  y 2  n)
With the limit
y 2  y1  b2 x  m
Lim ( ) 2 ( 1 )
x 2  x1 a y1  n
QP
Hence the equation of the tangent is for any point P ( x, y ) on the tangent
y  y1  b 2 ( x1  m)
 2
x  x1 a ( y1  n)
 b2
Or ( y  y1 )( y1  n)  2 ( x  x1 )( x1  m)
a
This can be written as
 y  n  ( y1  n)( y1  n)   b2  x  m  ( x1  m)( x1  m)
2
a
 b ( x  m)( x1  m)  a ( y  n)( y1  n)  b 2 ( x1  m) 2  a 2 ( y1  n) 2  a 2 b 2
2 2
Or
( x  m)( x1  m) ( y  n)( y1  n)
 1
a2 b2
This is the equation of the tangent.
Example 7.1
Find the equation of the tangent at point P (1,2) of the ellipse ( x  1) 2  4( y  1) 2  4 .
Solution
Write the equation in the standard form to get
( x  1) 2 ( y  1) 2
 4
4 1
The tangent passes through (-1, 2)  x1  1 and y1  2 . We get the equation of the tangent as
( x  1)(1  1) ( y  1)( 2  1)
  4  y =5
4 1
7.2.1.1 Normal to an Ellipse

x2 y2
Consider the ellipse whose equation is  1
a2 b2
We wish to get the equation of the tangent at point say P1 ( x1 y1 ) on the ellipse. The equation
for the normal line is given by;
a2 x b2 y
  a2  b2
x1 y1
7.2.1 E-tivity – Ellipse: Tangent and Normal
49
Title Tangent and normal to an ellipse

Purpose To introduce you to tangent and normal to an ellipse

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5NkdbxfQTn0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OQRX8Ijg7yY
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos and read on tangent and

normal to an ellipse.
 Write the parametric equation of an ellipse.
mind
the semester.
Next Hyperbola
7.3 Assessment
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal at the given point of the given ellipse.
4 x 2  9 y 2  144, (3,2 3)
7.4 References
50
1983.
pdf
LESSON 8
HYPERBOLA: EQUATION
8.1 Introduction
The hyperbola is the locus of a point that moves such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed
point to the distance from a fixed line is greater than one.
51
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:-
8.2.1 Determine the standard and the general equation of a hyperbola.
8.2.1 Equation of a hyperbola

The standard equation can be developed as follows:
Consider a fixed point F and a fixed line D as in the diagram below.
M P
D F
F’ V’ D’ V
Figure 8.1
PF
P ( x, y ) is on the hyperbola such that  e 1 or PF  eMP
MP
Let the axis of the hyperbola be the horizontal line perpendicular to the directrix through the
focus and vertex V be the point of intersection of the hyperbola and the axis,
Hence
FV  eVD.
There also exists another point V1 along the axis such that FV  = eV  D . Infact there is a
whole set of points and also the virtual focus F and directrix D .
Let the distance VV = 2a and let C be the midpoint of VV .
Then
FV   FV  e(V D  VD)  e( D D  e 2CD
But
FV   FV  V V  2a
a
 2eCD  2a  CD 
e
Also
FV   FV  e(V D  VD )eV V  2ae
But
52
FV   FV  F F  2CF  2CF  2ae  CF  ae
a
Let C be at the origin. Then the foci are F (ae,0) and F ' ( ae,0) . The directrix is x  .
e
a
From PF  ePM , PF  ( x  ae) 2  y 2 , PM  x  , we get
e
a
( x  ae) 2  y 2  e 2 ( x  ) 2 ,
e
or
x 2 (e 2  1)  y 2  a 2 (e 2  1) ,
or
x2 y2
  1,
a2 b2
where b 2  a 2 (e 2  1) . This is the standard equation of a hyperbola.
The curve has two lines of symmetry, the x-axis and the y-axis. VV ' is called the transverse
axis and BB ' the conjugate axis.
The difference between PF ' and PF is a constant equal to 2a as shown below.
a
PF  e( x  )  ex  a
e
aPF ' PF
This  2a . an alternative
provides
PF '  eM ' P  e( x  )  ex  a
edefinition of a hyperbola as the
locus of a point that moves such that the difference between the distances from two fixed points
a constant.
Example 8.1
Determine the equation of the hyperbola whose eccentricity is 3/2 and the foci are F ' (2,0)
and F (2,0) .
Solution
Since ae  2, and e = 3/2, then a = 4/3. This implies
16 9 20
b 2  a 2 (e 2  1)  (  1)  .
9 4 9
Hence the equation is
x2 y2
  1.
(16 / 9) ( 20 / 9)
The latus rectum is the chord perpendicular to the transverse axis and through the focus. The
length of the latus rectum is obtained as follows. Let the length be l  2l1 , where l1 is the
distance from the focus along the latus rectum to the curve. Then
l1
 e,  l1  a (e 2  1) .
ae  a / e
Hence the length of the latus rectum is
53
2b 2
l  2l1  2a (e 2  1)  .
a
Example 8.2
Find the coordinates of the foci, the eccentricity, the length of the latus rectum and the directrix
of the hyperbola
x2 y2
 1.
36 4
Solution
From the equation a=6 and b=2. The eccentricity is obtained from b 2  a 2 (e 2  1) as e  13 10 .
The foci are therefore F ' ( 3 10 ,0) and F (3 10 ,0) . The length of the latus rectum is
10
L  2a (e 2  1)  2  9(  1)  2
9
8.2.1.1 The Asymptotes of a hyperbola

Consider the hyperbola
x2 y2
  1 and let y  mx  C be any line. The line and hyperbola meet at
a2 b2
points where
x 2 y 2 x 2 (mx  C ) 2
   0
a2 b2 a2 b2
 (b 2  m 2 a 2 ) x 2  2a 2 mCx  a 2 (b 2  c 2 )  0
The points of intersection are at infinity if the coefficients of x 2 and x are zero.
This implies b 2  m 2 a 2  0
b
m and 2a 2 mc  0  c  0.
a
b
Hence the asymptotes of the hyperbola are y   x
a
8.2.1.2 Hyperbola with center not at the origin

x2 y2
Suppose the center of the hyperbola 2  2  1 is shifted to position C (h, k ) . The equation
a b
becomes
( x  h) 2 ( y  k 2
 1
a2 b2
If the transverse axis is along the y-axis, then the equation becomes
( y  k ) 2 ( x  h) 2
 1
a2 b2
54
Example 8.3
Analyze the hyperbola 9 x 2  16 y 2  18 x  64 y  199  0 .
Solution
Complete the squares and write the equation in standard form to get
9( x  1) 2  16( y  2) 2  144
or
( x  1) 2 ( y  2) 2
  1.
16 9
This is the equation of the hyperbola with center C (1,2) . Also a = 4 and b = 3. The
eccentricity is
b2 9 5
e 2
1   1   ae  5 .
a 16 4
The vertices are V ' ( 3 ,2) and V (5,2) , foci F ' ( 4,2) and F (6,2) , asymptotes
3
y2 ( x  1) .
4
8.2.1 E-tivity – Equation of Hyperbola
55
Title Equation of Hyperbola
Purpose To introduce you to the equation of a hyperbola

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F44WUGEfZQk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yb-dvQEp3Ec
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c_xEqSviccY
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos and read on the hyperbola.

 Write the equation of a hyperbola whose center is
not at the origin.
Schedule and time This discussion should be done during the 8th week of the
semester.
Next Hyperbola: Tangent and Normal
8.3 Assessment
Find the foci, the vertices, the eccentricity, and the equation of the directrix of the given
hyperbola.
25 y 2  4 x 2  100
8.4 References
http://www.cse.salford.ac.uk/physics/gsmcdonald/pp/PPLATOResources/h-flap/M2_3t.pdf
LESSON 9
HYPERBOLA: TANGENT AND NORMAL
9.1 Introduction
56
The hyperbola is the locus of a point that moves such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed
point to the distance from a fixed line is greater than one.

9.2.1 Determine the tangent and normal to the hyperbola.
9.2.1 Tangent and normal to a hyperbola

Consider the hyperbola
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
xx1 yy1
 2 1
The equation of the tangent to the hyperbola at point P ( x1 , y1 ) is
a2 b
Note that the normal at any point on the curve can be easily obtained since it is the line
perpendicular to the tangent at that point.
Example 9.1
Determine the eccentricity, the foci, the length of the latus rectum, the equation of the
12
asymptotes, the equation of the tangent and the normal at point P (3, ) of the hyperbola
5
x2 y2
  1
25 9
Solution
From the equation, a  5 , b  3 Hence from b 2  a 2 (e 2  1) we get the eccentricity as
9 34
e  1  , and ae  34 .
25 5
Hence the foci are F ' (  34 ,0) and F ( 34 ,0) .
The length of the latus rectum is
34 18
L  2a(e 2  1)  2  5(  1)  .
25 5
b 3 3
The asymptotes are y   x . Hence y  x and y   x .
a 5 5
12
The equation of the tangent at P (3, ) is
5
3 12 3 15
x y  1,  y  x .
25 45 10 4
 10
The normal has therefore slope m  . Since it passes through P, then the equation is
3
y  12 / 5  10 57 10
 , y   x.
x3 3 25 3
57
9.2.1 E-tivity – Hyperbola: Tangent and Normal
58
Title Tangent and normal to a hyperbola
Purpose To introduce you to tangent and normal to a hyperbola

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KmZOGPMdero
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RWiDocMwta4
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos and read on tangent and

normal to a hyperbola.
 Write the parametric equation of a hyperbola.
mind
the semester.
Next Trigonometry
9.3 Assessment
Find the equation of the tangent and the normal lines at the given point on the hyperbola.
25 y 2  x 2  25, (5, 2 )
9.4 References
59
1983.
https://www.masterjeeclasses.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/11.-HYPERBOLA-
THEORY.pdf
LESSON 10
TRIGONOMETRY: IDENTITIES
10.1 Introduction
60
In this lesson we study trigonometric ratios and identities.

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to;
10.2.1 Evaluate trigonometric ratios and their identities.
10.2.1 Trigonometric ratios

These are defining relations for tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant in terms of sine and
cosine.
10.2.1.1 Trigonometric identities
10.2.1.2 Ptolemy’s identities
Example 10.1
4 12
If sin A  and cos B  , evaluate cos A  B 
5 13
Solution
cos A  B   cos A cos B  sin A sin B
13
5
5
4 B
61
A
12
3
By Pythagorus theorem,
3 12 4 5 36  20 16
cos A  B       
5 13 5 13 65 65
Example 10.2
3
If tan x  , determine the value of sin 3 x
4
Solution
5
3
x
 
sin 3 x  sin  x  2 x   sin x cos 2 x  cos x sin 2 x  sin x cos2 x  sin 2 x  cos x 2 sin x cos x 
3  16 9  4  3 4  21 48  27
sin 3 x  sin x  2 x   sin x cos 2 x  cos x sin 2 x          
5  25 25  5  5 5  125 125 125
10.2.1 E-tivity – Trigonometry: Ratios and Identities
Numbering, pacing and Lesson 10.2.1

sequencing
62
Title Trigonometry: Ratios and Identities
Purpose To introduce you to ratios and identities
Brief summary of overall Watch the following videos; https://www.youtube.com/watch?

task v=21z6gkvhlbQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjvYKVmV2EQ
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos and read on trigonometry.

E-moderator  Focused group discussion
interventions  Providing feedback/ teaching points
Schedule and time This discussion should be done during the 10th week of the
semester.
Next Trigonometry: Factor formulae
10.3 Assessment
Show that sin 3  3 sin   4 sin 3 
10.4 References
Backhouse, J.K. & Houldsworth, S.P.T (2000). Pure Mathematics I & II. London: Longman
Group.
Algebra and Trogonometry with Analytic Geometry, 2 nd edition by Skowkowski E. (2010)
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
https://www.govst.edu/uploadedFiles/Academics/Colleges_and_Programs/CAS/Trigonometry_S
hort_Course_Tutorial_Lauren_Johnson.pdf
https://www.webassign.net/resources/bmcc/Ch11.pdf
63
LESSON 11
TRIGONOMETRY: FACTOR FORMULAE
11.1 Introduction
In this lesson we study the factor formulae as applied to trigonometry.
64
11.2.1 Apply the factor formulae to solve trigonometric problems.
11.2.1 Factor Formulae

11.2.1.1 Identities for negative angles.
Sine, tangent, cotangent, and cosecant are odd functions while cosine and secant are even
functions.
11.2.1.2 Double angle formulae for sine and cosine.

Note that there are three forms for the double angle formula for cosine. You only need to know
one, but be able to derive the other two from the Pythagorean formula.
11.2.1.3 Factor Formulae

This group of identities allows you to change a sum or difference of sines or cosines into a
product of sines and cosines. Look up the cosines of the sum α + β. and the difference α – β.
Average those two cosines. You get the product xy! Three table look-ups, and computing a sum,
a difference, and an average rather than one multiplication.
The factor formulae are given by;
65
A B A B
sin A  sin B  2 sin cos
2 2
A B A B
sin A  sin B  2 cos sin
2 2
A B A B
cos A  cos B  2 cos cos
2 2
A B A B
cos A  cos B  2 sin sin
2 2
Example 11.1
Show that
Cos 2 A  Cos 2 B
i)  Cot  A  B  Cot  A  B 
Cos 2 B  Cos 2 A
ii) Sin 2 A Sec 2 A  2TanA
Solution
2 cos
 2 A  2 B  cos  2 A  2B 
Cos 2 A  Cos 2 B 2 2 cos A  B  cos A  B 
i)  
Cos 2 B  Cos 2 A
 2 sin
 2 B  2 A cos  2 B  2 A  sin  B  A sin  B  A
2 2
From negative angles we have sin   x    sin x , therefore;
cos A  B  cos A  B  cos A  B  cos A  B  cos A  B  cos A  B 
  
 sin  A  B  sin[ A  B  ]  sin  A  B    sin  A  B  sin  A  B  sin  A  B 
 cot( A  B ) cot( A  B)
2 1 SinA
ii) Sin2 A Sec A  2 SinACosA  2
2
CosA
 2TanA
Cos A
11.2.1 E-tivity – Trigonometry: Factor Formulae
Numbering, pacing and Lesson 11.2.1

sequencing
66
Title Trigonometry: Factor formulae
Purpose To introduce you to factor formulae
Brief summary of overall task Watch the following videos; https://www.youtube.com/watch?

v=EcYtHfkEPnk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uUh2B9hnI_U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DKhN4j7WrJg
Spark
Individual contribution  Watch the videos and read on trigonometry.

Schedule and time This discussion should be done during the 11 th week of the
semester.
Next Solutions to Assessment Questions
11.3 Assessment
sin x 1  cos x
Prove the following identity 
1  cos x sin x
67
11.4 References
Backhouse, J.K. & Houldsworth, S.P.T (2000). Pure Mathematics I & II. London: Longman
Group.
Algebra and Trogonometry with Analytic Geometry, 2 nd edition by Skowkowski E. (2010)
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.
https://www.govst.edu/uploadedFiles/Academics/Colleges_and_Programs/CAS/Trigonometry_S
hort_Course_Tutorial_Lauren_Johnson.pdf
https://www.webassign.net/resources/bmcc/Ch11.pdf
SOLUTIONS TO ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Assessment 1.3
1.
68
2.
3.
Assessment 2.3
1. a)
b)
2. Center , radius =
3.
Assessment 2.4
Equation of tangent:
Equation of normal:
Assessment 3.4
Assessment 4.3
Equation of directrix;
Length of latus rectum = 2
Assessment 5.3
Equation of normal:
Assessment 6.3
Equations of directrices:
Assessment 7.3
69
Assessment 8.3
,
Equation of directrix;
Assessment 9.3
Equation of normal:
Assessment 10.3
Assessment 11.3
70
71

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

DIGITAL SCHOOL OF VIRTUAL AND OPEN LEARNING

SMA 103: ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

WRITTEN BY: Dr. Ambrose Wahome

In this module, we shall analyse different geometries and their applications.

Week 2: The Circle

Week 3: Polar Coordinates

Week 7: Ellipse – Tangent and Normal

Week 9: Hyperbola – Tangent and Normal

Week 10: Trigonometry

Week 11: Trigonometry

Week 12: Trigonometry

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

We wish you the very best of experiences in this course.

1.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

1.2.1 The Straight Line

Quad III Quad IV (+,-)

1.2.1.2 The Mid-point of a Line

. In figure 1, the mid-point of the straight line joining and is

1.2.1.3 Inclination and Slope of the Line

Suppose that and are points on the line L in figure 1.4;

Considering the right angle triangle, then we have;

1.2.1.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Next, suppose that and are perpendicular

1.2.1.5 The Angle between Two Lines

Let be the angle of inclination of and be the angle of inclination of . Then

1.2.1.6 The Equation of a Straight Line

Suppose that and are points on a line.

Where is the y-intercept

E-tivity 1.2.1 The Straight Line

Individual contribution  Watch the videos on the straight line.

2.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

2.2.1 Equation of a Circle

Consider a circle with center C (h, k ) and radius r (Fig 2.1)

2.2.1.2 General Equation of a circle

2.2.1.3 Distance from a point to a circle

In general, the distance d from point P (a, b) to circle ( x  h) 2  ( y  k ) 2  r 2 is

E-tivity 2.2.1 – Equation of a Circle

Purpose To determine the standard and general equation of a circle.

Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the circle

Individual contribution  Determine how to obtain the equation of a circle.

Interaction begins  Post your answers on the discussion forum 2.2.1

2.2.2 Equations of the tangent and normal

Numbering, pacing and sequencing Lesson 2.2.2

Individual contribution  How do you determine the length of a tangent

Interaction begins  Post your answers on the discussion forum 2.2.2

3.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

E-tivity 3.2.1 - Polar Coordinates

Title Polar coordinates

Individual contribution  Watch the videos on polar coordinates.

4.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes

4.2.1 Standard equation of a parabola

4.2.1.1 General equation of a parabola

The general equation of the parabola is therefore given by

4.2.1 E-tivity – Standard and General Equation of a Parabola

Numbering, pacing and sequencing Lesson 4.2.1

Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the parabola

Individual contribution  Watch the videos on the parabola.

5.2 Lesson Learning Outcome

At the end of the chapter, you should be able to

5.2.1 Tangent and Normal to a parabola

which is undefined. To get the limit, consider the equations