Project Writing: Methodology

Presented by-
Dr. Md. Zakir Hossain
Professor
Department of Statistics
Shahjalal University of Science & Technology

July 2018
 Objectives of this presentation:-
◼ At the end of the session the participant
will able to-

◼ Tell the steps of writing Methodology of a

research project
 Methodology
This section describes your basic research plan. It usually begins with a few
introductory paragraph that restate the purpose and research questions.

This section should aim at addressing four broad questions:

(a) Where we want to collect the data, how we will select our sample, and
how many subjects will be included in the study? (This refers to the
coverage, target population, sample design)

(b) What information do we need to collect to answer the research questions

implied in our research objectives? (This refers to the variables we are
interested in)

(c) What approach we will follow to collect this information? (This refers to
the research design we want to employ)

(d) What techniques and tools we will use to collect it. (This refers to the data
collection techniques and tools, such as questionnaire, observation check-
list)
 Methodology

Step 1: Types of Data to be Used with Logic

❑ Operational Definition of the Variables (Optional)
Step 2: Research Design
Step 3: Sample Design
Step 4: Methods of Data collection including Fieldwork
Step 5: Analytical Techniques to achieve the project
Objective
 Types of Data to be Used with Logic

◼ Primary Data (Why need primary data?

Which variables are absent in secondary
data?)
◼ Secondary Data
◼ Mixed Data (Both secondary and
primary data)
 Definition of Unfamiliar Terms
(Operational definition)

This is the definition of terms or words used

outside of their universal meaning or application.

In many cases it is necessary to re-define the

events (terms) for practical purposes, and the
researcher should define the terms before
starting to research design and sample design.
Research Design

◼ Non-Experimental Studies
1) Exploratory Studies
2) Descriptive Study
3) Causal Study
◼ Experimental Studies
1) True Experimental Studies
2) Quasi Experimental Studies
 Research Design Cont…

◼ Exploratory Studies
1) Secondary data analysis

2) Experience survey

3) Case Study

4) Pilot study

5) Focus group discussion

Research Design Cont…

◼ Descriptive Study
1) Cross-sectional study

2) Longitudinal study

3) Trend study

4) Panel study

5) Baseline study

6) Impact Assessment study

7) Feasibility study
Research Design Cont…

◼ Causal Study
1) Comparative study

2) Case-control study

3) Cohort study
 Research Design Cont…

◼ True Experimental Design

1) Pretest-Posttest control group design
2) Posttest-only control group design
◼ Quasi-Experimental Design
1) Non-equivalent group design
2) Time-series design
3) Separate sample pretest-posttest design
4) Ex-post facto design
 Sample Design

◼ Population
◼ Units of analysis
◼ Sample
◼ Sampling Technique
◼ Sample Size
 Target Population and Sampled Population

➢ A Population is the aggregate of all elements or items

of interest in a particular study about which we wish to
make an inference. It should always be defined in
terms of it content, units, coverage and time of
reference. Population includes not only individuals, but
also firms, households etc.
◼ A target population is the entire group about which
information is desired and conclusion to be made.
◼ The population, which we actually sample, is the
sampled population. It is also called survey population.
The sampled population is more restricted than target
population.
 Sample and Sampling

◼ Sample is a portion of population, which possess the

characteristics of the population, selected for study
purpose through an established procedure and from
which the universe characteristics are inferred.
◼ Sampling is a scientific process of selecting a
representative part from a statistical population.
 Why Sample
❖ Lower Cost
Selecting a sample is less costly than selecting every item in
the population.
❖ Greater Accuracy of Results

– Possibility of better interviewing (testing), thorough

investigation of missing data etc.
– An analysis of a sample is less cumbersome and more
practical than an analysis of the entire population.
❖ Greater speed of data collection
–Selecting a sample is less time-consuming than selecting every
item in the population (census). Time between need for data
collection & availability of it.
 Sampling Plan/ Sample Design

Any good sampling plan passes through the

following steps:
Define the Define the Unit/ Sampling
Population Sampling Frame Technique

Data Choosing
Determine
Collection appropriate
Sample size
procedure
 Sampling Design

◼ A scientific and objective procedure for selecting the sample

of units to observe is called a sampling design.
◼ The main purpose of an effective sampling design is
➢ to provide a highly representative sample from the

population
➢ To enable highly efficient estimators to be made based on

this sample so that they represent the entire population

characteristics.
 Types of Sampling

◼ Probability Sampling
A probability sampling has the characteristic that each
element in the population has a known and non-zero
probability of being included in the sample. As a result,
selection biases are possible to be avoided and statistical
theory can be employed to derive the properties of the
estimators.
◼ Purposive (non-probability) Sampling

No elements in the population has a known probability of

being included in the study.
Major Types of Probability Sampling

o Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

o Stratified Random Sampling
o Systematic Sampling
o Cluster Sampling
o Multi-stage Sampling
Major Types of Non-Probability Sampling

◼ Convenience Sampling
◼ Quota Sampling
◼ Snowball Sampling
◼ Judgment Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling
❑ Simple random sampling is a method of selecting n
elements from a population of size N elements in
such a way that each combination of n elements has
the same chance or probability of being selected as
every other combination.
❑ The implication of this concept is that each unit in the
population has the same probability of selection
❑ In sampling if the already selected elements are not
placed in the pool again for possible further selection,
then the technique is called sampling without
replacement. On the other hand, if the selected
elements are placed in the selection pool again and
be reselected on subsequent draws, then the
technique is called sampling with replacement.
 SRC Cont…

◼ In common practical methods of carrying out SRS

➢ the units in the population are numbered from 1 to
N.
➢ A sequence of n random numbers between 1 and N
is drawn and the population unit corresponding to
each of the numbers is investigated.
 Selecting a Simple Random Sample Using
A Random Number Table
Portion Of A Random Number Table
Sampling Frame 49280 88924 35779 00283 81163 07275
11100 02340 12860 74697 96644 89439

For Population 09893 23997 20048 49420 88872 08401

With 850 Items

Item Name Item The First 5 Items in a simple
random sample
# Item
Item
#
#
492
808
Bev R. 001 Item # 892 -- does not exist so ignore
Ulan X. 002 Item # 435
Item # 779
. . Item # 002
Joann P. 849
Paul F. 850
 Stratified Random Sampling
◼ Stratified random sampling is a sampling plan in which
the population is divided into several non-overlapping
sub-population or strata and selects a random sample
from each stratum in such a way that units within the
strata are homogeneous but between strata they are
heterogeneous.
◼ Usually four methods of allocation of sample size to
different strata in a stratified sampling procedure.
These are:
a. Arbitrary allocation
b. Equal allocation
c. Proportional allocation
d. Optimum allocation
 Selection of Sample using
Stratified Random Sampling Method
◼ Divide population into two or more subgroups (called
strata) according to some common characteristic
◼ A simple random sample is selected from each subgroup,
with sample sizes proportional to strata sizes
◼ Samples from subgroups are combined into one
◼ This is a common technique when sampling population of
voters, stratifying across racial or socio-economic lines.

Population
Divided
into 4
strata

Chap 7-25
 Systematic Random Sampling
◼ A more convenient and versatile of probability
sampling design is Systematic sampling design. This
technique simplifies much of the work involved in
simple random sampling or stratified sampling.
◼ The basic technique of systematic sampling is as
follows: Suppose a sample of n units to be selected
from a population of N units. Let these units be
numbered from 1 to N in some order. Let N=nk,
where k is an integer, called sampling interval. To
select a sample of n units, choose a unit at random
from the first k units and every k-th unit thereafter.
Thus if a unit randomly selected happens to be
numbered r, and the predetermined sampling interval
is k, the sample will consist of units bearing numbers
r, r+K, r+2K, ……. r+(n-1)K.
Probability Sample: Systematic Sample
◼ Decide on sample size: n
◼ Divide frame of N individuals into groups
of k individuals: k=N/n
◼ Randomly select one individual from the
1st group
◼ Select every kth individual thereafter

N = 40 First
n=4 Group
k = 10
 Cluster Sampling
◼ Population is divided into several “clusters,” each
representative of the population
◼ A simple random sample of clusters is selected
◼ All items in the selected clusters can be used, or items can
be chosen from a cluster using another probability
sampling technique
◼ A common application of cluster sampling involves election
exit polls, where certain election districts are selected and
sampled.

Population
divided into 16
clusters.
Randomly
selected clusters
for sample
Basics of Sample Size Determination

◼ Need Idea about Sampling design

◼ Reason for sample size determination
◼ The logic and points of considerations
◼ Sample size for simple random sampling
➢ For estimating proportion

➢ For estimating mean

◼ Adjustment for other designs

◼ Consideration of more than one variable of interest
 Sample Size Estimation
◼ The sample size is usually determined by
proportion or mean of the indicators.
◼ In sample survey, we are frequently
encountered with the problem of estimating
population proportions such as proportion of
persons smoking, proportion of children
suffering from malnutrition, proportion of
voters favoring a particular candidate and the
like.
 Sample size and research
Statistical research depends mainly on the determination
of sample size since sample size relate to the following
basic issues:
◼ Budget

◼ Time

◼ Administration

◼ Validity
 Sample size depends on:
◼ Physical issues
➢ Likely response rate (which itself will depend on
sampling method selected)
➢ Time and money available
◼ Theoretical issues
➢ Methodology selected
➢ Degree of accuracy required for the study (how much
error can be tolerated)
➢ Extent to which there is variation in the population with
regard to key characteristics of the study
➢ What proportion of bad sample would be allowed
Logic of Determination of sample size (Cont…)
Determination of Sample Size for estimating Proportion
for SRS
Determination of Sample Size for estimating
Proportion for SRS
 Following formula is widely used in
estimating the sample size:

p (1 − p )  Z 2

n= 2
2
d
where,
n = sample size
Zα/2 = two-sided normal variate value at 95%
confidence level (1.96)
P = indicator percentage (0.5 for unknown cases)
d = precision (0.05; maximum 0.10)
Example:
Sample size for different values of confidence
coefficient and margin of error
Estimated Sample Size for different values
of P (d=0.05 fixed)
Sample Size for Proportion with SRS (relative error
margin)
Sample Size for proportion with SRC
(Correction for finite population)
Determination of sample size for estimating mean
for SRS
Sample size for different CV
Sample size for cluster sampling
Sample Size for two stage cluster sampling
Sample Size for two stage cluster sampling
Cont…
Sample Size for Case-control study (based
on proportion)
Sample Size for Case-control study (based on
mean)
 Design Effect

◼ Design effect is defined as the ratio of

the actual variance of the sample
estimate obtained from a particular
design to the variance of a simple
random sample estimate of the same
size:
V ( yc )
Deff =
V ( y)
Relative Precision
Adjusted sample size for more complicated
sampling designs
Design Effect depends on:
◼ For a particular sample design (other
than SRS), the sample size needs to be
determined considering the design
effect.
p(1 − p)  Z 2

n= 2
 deff
2
d
 Methods of Data Collection including
Fieldwork

◼ Units of Observations (Who will provide the

information?)
◼ Data Collection Methods (Qualitative or
quantitative Survey, Field Survey using Questionnaire
or Interview Schedule or Checklist)
◼ Fieldwork Strategy (number of persons engaged,
monitoring strategy etc.)
◼ Techniques for checking Reliability and Validity
of Data (during fieldwork as well as after completion
of fieldwork)
 Analytical Techniques

◼ Identification of the statistical tools and

techniques that are needed to analyze the data
in order to achieve your research objectives?
◼ Mention the assumptions needed for applying
advanced analytical techniques
◼ Provide a brief description of the techniques
that you planned to use for analysis.
◼ It is recommended to write the steps of the
analysis for each of the objectives with
appropriate techniques.