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Constitutive Modeling of Γ-irradiated Silicone Rubber Foams Under Compression and Shear Loading
Constitutive Modeling of Γ-irradiated Silicone Rubber Foams Under Compression and Shear Loading
Constitutive Modeling of Γ-irradiated Silicone Rubber Foams Under Compression and Shear Loading
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Under the service conditions of nuclear engineering applications, silicone rubber foams should endure
Received 15 June 2020 radiation of γ rays accompanied by compression and shear loading. In this paper, the Hyperfoam model
Revised 26 September 2020
is extended to characterize the mechanical behaviors of silicone rubber foams under γ -irradiation. After
Accepted 22 October 2020
exposing silicone rubber foams to a wide radiation dose range from 0 to 500 kGy at room temperature,
Available online 23 October 2020
uniaxial compression and simple shear tests were carried out to establish the relationships between the
Keywords: model parameters of Hyperfoam model and radiation dose, and indentation tests were performed to ver-
Silicone rubber foams ify the extended Hyperfoam model. The linear radiation dose-related hardening properties of the material
γ -irradiation are derived using the testing results, including the linear increases of the initial shear modulus, and the
Hyperfoam model compression stress and the shear stress for a given strain condition, which result in the linear radiation
Uniaxial compression dose-dependent relationships for the initial shear modulus-related model parameters and the radiation
Simple shear
dose-independent hardening exponent-related model parameters of Hyperfoam model. The performances
Indentation test
of the extended Hyperfoam model are demonstrated by comparing the fitted material responses with
uniaxial compression and simple shear data. And the prediction ability is verified by comparing the sim-
ulated results of indentation using the finite element method with the test data. The extended model is
capable of characterizing the coupling stress state of compression and shear in the investigated irradia-
tion dose range, which is expected to aid in evaluating the safety of nuclear engineering structures.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction rubber foams change with γ -irradiation dose [4,6,7]. Prior to the
formation of products in engineering and manufacture, the me-
Silicone rubber foams are commonly foamed from silicone rub- chanical behaviors of silicone rubber foam structures strongly de-
ber matrix, including the main components of polysiloxane, voids, pend on the result of numerical analyses by computer simulation
fillers and other additives [1]. They are widely used in aerospace, [8]. To describe the mechanical behaviors of silicone rubber foams
weapon systems and nuclear plants as typical sandwich structures under the service condition accurately, it is necessary to establish
or cushion structures, owing to their high weight-to-volume ratio, a constitutive model to consider the γ -irradiation effect.
preferred thermal and chemical stability, and excellent mechani- In particular, there are two kinds of modeling methods to char-
cal properties [2–4]. In the service environments, the mechanical acterize the mechanical responses for rubber foams. The first kind
properties of silicone rubber foam structures deteriorate over time is based on the mesoscopic structures of the material, including
as a result of the extremely harsh conditions, including the γ - the rubber matrix and the distribution of voids [9–13]. After ac-
irradiation [4]. For example, the cushion structure made of silicone quiring the distribution of voids using a scanning reconstruction
rubber foams in nuclear power plants requires to bear thousands tool (such as micro X-ray CT [13]), a representative volume includ-
of kGy of γ -irradiation dose [5]. Because γ -irradiation changes the ing the solid mesh structure and several voids is constructed. Ap-
microstructure of rubber matrix by the crosslinking and scission plying the finite element method to simulate the mechanical be-
reactions of polymer chains, the mechanical properties of silicone haviors of the representative volume, the macroscopic response of
the rubber foam is obtained by averaging the values of the rep-
resentative volume. Although different rubber foam materials can
∗
Corresponding author.
be characterized by changing the constitutive model of the matrix
E-mail address: 402yansp@caep.cn (S. Yan).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2020.109410
0141-3910/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Jia, S. Yan, Y. Peng et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 183 (2021) 109410
2
D. Jia, S. Yan, Y. Peng et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 183 (2021) 109410
Fig. 2. The experimental setups for (a) uniaxial compression and (b) simple shear
tests.
3
D. Jia, S. Yan, Y. Peng et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 183 (2021) 109410
where the unit for G is “MPa”, D is the radiation dose and Dr is the
when the strain is more than 0.4. The reason is attributed to the
reference dose which is selected as 500 kGy in this paper. In fact,
nonlinear deformation modes of cell structures [29,30]. Because
the initial shear modulus is mainly related to mechanical proper-
the maximum compression strain (50%) is lower than the porosity
ties of silicone rubber matrix. The deformation of silicone rubber
(55%) of the material, the bending and elastic buckling of cell
matrix is dominated by the entropy variation of polymer chains,
walls are the main mesoscopic deformation modes, which only
which is proportional to the cross-link density of the silicone rub-
require a small increment of stress [37]. However, owing to the
ber matrix [35]. Under γ radiation, the cross-link density of sili-
inhomogeneity of cell distribution as shown in Fig. 1 (b), after cell
cone rubber increases linearly with radiation dose up to 1600 kGy
walls collapsing under large strain, large forces are required to
[36]. Therefore, the linear function of Eq. (1) defines the evolution
deform the crushed structures than the uncrushed ones. Fig. 5(b)
of cross-link density for the irradiated silicone rubber matrix. In
shows that the shear stress increases approximately linearly with
the following section, Eq. (1) was used to establish the radiation
the increase of shear strain. It is owing to the combined effects of
dose-related constitutive model for silicone rubber foams.
compression and tension on the mesoscopic deformation of cells
under the simple shear loading. The cell walls bend, rotate and
3.2. Effects of radiation dose on uniaxial compression and simple align in tension loading direction, so the platform of stress–strain
shear curve caused by the buckling of cell walls does not appear in
nominal shear stress–strain curves of Fig. 5(b) [38]. In Fig. 5, both
According to the experimental methods presented in compression stiffness and shear stiffness for a given strain are
Section 2.3, the nominal compression stresses and nominal increase with radiation dose, namely, the radiation dose-related
shear stresses of silicone rubber foams irradiated at different hardening effect. To highlight the hardening behaviors induced by
irradiation dose conditions were given in Fig. 5. Also, the corre- γ -irradiation, Fig. 6(a) shows the relationships between nominal
sponding standard deviation values were depicted as error bars. compression stresses and radiation dose for the given nominal
Fig. 5(a) shows that the nominal compression stresses increase compression strains ε = 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5, and Fig. 6(b)
slowly when the strain is less than 0.1, and increase rapidly shows the relationships between nominal shear stresses and
4
D. Jia, S. Yan, Y. Peng et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 183 (2021) 109410
Fig. 8. Load–irradiation dose curves for the given displacements of 1 mm, 2 mm, 3
Fig. 7. Comparisons of the predicted load–displacement curves with experimental
mm, 4 mm and 5 mm for indentation tests.
data in indentation tests. The error bars represent the standard deviation values.
4. Constitutive modeling and numerical simulation Because the porosity of silicone rubber foams studied in this
paper is high (55%), the transverse deformation of the sample dur-
4.1. Hyperfoam constitutive model ing uniaxial compression is so small that can be ignored, and we
have βi = νi = 0, λT = 1 and Eq. (4) is satisfied automatically. The
In 1972, Ogden proposed a constitutive model for compress- nominal compression stress can be redefined as
ible materials [43], by adding a compressible term on the basis of
hyperelastic constitutive model to describe the volume deforma- ∂U 2 2
μi αi
Tc = T1 = = (λ − 1 ). (5)
tion of compressible materials. Subsequently, the specific expres- ∂λ λ i=1 αi
5
D. Jia, S. Yan, Y. Peng et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 183 (2021) 109410
For simple shear test, the thickness and volume of the sam- which indicates that the hardening exponent-related model pa-
ple remain unchanged during the loading process, so we have rameters αi are independent of radiation dose. Introducing
λ3 = 1 and J = λ1 λ2 λ3 = λ1 λ2 = 1. Therefore, the in-plane princi- Eq. (9) and (13) into Eq. (5) and (7), we extended Hyperfoam
pal stretches λ1 and λ2 can be derived as functions of the shear model to describe the effect of radiation dose on mechanical be-
strain γ , which are haviors of silicone rubber foams with the functions
μ D + μ D μ Dr + μ2D D α2
2
Tc =
10 r 1D
(λα1 − 1 ) + 20 (λ − 1 ) ,
γ 2 γ 2
λ α1 Dr α2 Dr
λ1,2 = 1+ ±γ 1+ . (6)
2 4 (14)
The nominal shear stress can be expressed as
2
2γ
μ D + μ D
Ts = 10 r 1D
λαj 1 − 1
∂U 2
2γ
2
μi αi 2 λj − 1 − γ
2 2 α1 Dr
Ts = = 2 λj − 1 . (7) j=1
∂γ 2 λ j − 1 − γ i=1 αi
2
j=1
μ20 Dr + μ2D D α2
+ λj − 1 . (15)
α2 Dr
4.2. Effect of γ -irradiation on model parameters
The Hyperfoam model is a phenomenological constitutive 4.3. Fitting procedure of model parameters
model, which contains the macroscopic shape deformation of sili-
cone rubber matrix and compression deformation of voids. Micro- For the extended Hyperfoam model of Eq. (14) and (15), there
scopic properties, such as the changes of cross-link density induced are 6 model parameters required to be determined, including μ10 ,
by γ -irradiation, are difficult to be included in Hyperfoam model. μ1D , α1 , μ20 , μ2D and α2 . Based on Eq. (10), we have μ10 =
In this paper, the effect of γ -irradiation on mechanical properties (0.297 − μ20 )MPa and μ1D = (0.311 − μ2D )MPa, so the number of
of silicone rubber foams is introduced indirectly by establishing re- model parameters is reduced to 4. All the data of uniaxial com-
lationships between the model parameters and irradiation dose D. pression and simple shear for unirradiated and irradiated silicone
In general, the parameters μi and αi can be defined as μi = fi (D ) rubber foams were used to fit model parameters of the extended
and αi = gi (D ). In this way, the extended Hyperfoam model can Hyperfoam model. And the optimization method of minimizing the
be applied conveniently in the finite element models to investigate comprehensive relative error was used to determine the model pa-
mechanical behaviors of irradiated silicone rubber foams. To ob- rameters [48]. The relative error function is defined as
tain expressions of fi (D ) and gi (D ), the relationships between ex-
2
2
perimental data and model parameters were further analyzed. The
R
6
Tc th (λi , Dk ) Ts th (λi , Dk )
ED = 1− + 1− ,
comparison of Hyperfoam model with small-strain elastic theory
i=1 k=1
Tc test (λi , Dk ) Ts test (λi , Dk )
provides the relationship [47]
(16)
G = μ1 + μ2 . (8)
in which Tc (λi , Dk ) and Tc (λi , Dk ) are the nominal compres-
th test
Furthermore, the linear relationship between G and D is given sion stresses for the condition of stretch λi and radiation dose
in Eq. (1). So the simplified radiation dose-related definitions about Dk obtained from theoretical model and test, Ts th (λi , Dk ) and
μ1 and μ2 are Ts test (λi , Dk ) are the nominal shear stresses for the condition of
μ1 = μ10 + μ1D D/Dr , stretch λi and radiation dose Dk obtained from theoretical model
(9) and test, R represents the number of fitted test points, and Dk
μ2 = μ20 + μ2D D/Dr ,
(k = 1, 2, · · · 6) denotes the radiation doses of 0 kGy, 50 kGy, 150
where μ10 , μ20 , μ1D and μ1D are model parameters. For the ma- kGy, 300 kGy, 400 kGy and 500 kGy, respectively. The build-in op-
terial studied in this paper, the comparison between Eq. (9) and timization function “fmincon” in MATLAB software was adopted
(1) gives that to minimize ED with nonlinear least square method. Setting five
groups of the initial parameters in advance, the model parameters
μ10 + μ20 = 0.297 MPa,
(10) can be derived numerically. After obtained the model parameters,
μ1D + μ2D = 0.311MPa.
the stable condition that the initial shear modulus G is positive has
To get values of gi (D ), the radiation dose-related hardening be- been checked. And the parameters satisfying the stable condition
haviors of the nominal compression stress Tc in Eq. (5) and the have been adopted.
nominal shear stress Ts in Eq. (7) were investigated. In Fig. 6, the
linear hardening behaviors induced by radiation dose for the given 4.4. Numerical simulation
strain conditions denote that
The indentation tests of unirradiated and irradiated silicone
∂ Tc 2 ∂ μi λαi − 1
2
∂ λαi − 1
= + μi = const, (11) rubber foams were simulated using ABAQUS/Standard software
∂ D λ λ i=1 ∂ D αi ∂D αi [23]. The prediction accuracy of the extended Hyperfoam model
α was verified by comparing the simulation results with experimen-
∂ Ts 2
2γ 2
∂μi λ j i − 1
= tal data. In the numerical simulation, the axisymmetric finite el-
∂ D γ j=1 2 λ j − 1 − γ 2 i=1 ∂ D
2 αi ement model was adopted according to the symmetrical property
αi of indentation test, as shown in Fig. 9. The indenter and sample
∂ λj − 1
+ μi = const. (12) were meshed using four-node linear reduced integration elements
∂D αi (CAX4R), and the dimensions were consistent with the experimen-
tal conditions. The bottom surface of the cylindrical sample was
Because Eq. (11) is true for all values of λ, Eq. (12) is true for
completely constrained, and a compression displacement ranging
all values of γ and λj , and μi is a linear function about radiation
from 0 to 5 mm was applied by the steel indenter. The contact
dose D, we have
type between the hemispherical surface and the upper surface of
αi ≡ const, (13) the sample was surface to surface without friction as done by Li
6
D. Jia, S. Yan, Y. Peng et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 183 (2021) 109410
Table 2
Values of R2 for Tc , Ts , and indentation loads.
The larger the R-square value is, the better fitting quality is ob-
tained by the fitted model. It is evident that all the values of R-
square are more than 99%. The high values of R-square indicate
that the extended Hyperfoam model fits test data well, which is
demonstrated in Fig 5 for the comparisons of Tc and Ts with test
data. Based on Fig. 5(b), there is still some noticeable departure
Fig. 9. Finite element model for indentation test. of the fitted shear stresses from the experimental data, especially
when the shear strain γ > 25%. Two reasons can be used to ex-
Table 1
plain this derivation. On the one hand, the local debonding phe-
Model parameters estimated using data of uniaxial compression and simple shear.
nomenon may occur at the sample-steel plate interface under a
μ10 [MPa] μ20 [MPa] μ1D [MPa] μ2D [MPa] α 1 [-] α 2 [-] great shear strain condition. The shear stress-strain data may have
0.2969 6.0029E-5 0.3109 1.2446E-4 2.3679 -14.3983
a certain deviation under large shear strain condition. On the other
hand, the second-order Hyperfoam model has a poor prediction
about the nonlinear responses of silicone rubber foams under the
et. al. [49]. The elastic modulus of steel indenter was set as 210 large shear strain condition [32].
GPa and Poisson’s ratio was 0.3. The material property of silicone According to the numerical simulation method in Section 4.4,
rubber foams in finite element model was defined by the extended the extended Hyperfoam model with fitted model parameters of
Hyperfoam model defined in Section 4.2. Table 1 were used to simulate the indentation test. The predicted
load–displacement curves of the numerical model were compared
5. Characterization results and discussion with experimental data for different irradiation dose conditions in
Fig. 7, where the discrete experimental data are listed in Table
Firstly, the model parameters of the extended Hyperfoam model A.3 of the supplementary material. It shows that the indentation
were estimated based on the parameter fitting procedure proposed load increases nonlinearly with the increase of indentation dis-
in Section 4.3. The discrete experimental data of uniaxial com- placement. The R-square values of indentation loads between the
pression and simple shear for the parameter fitting procedure are numerical results and test data are listed in Table 3. All the val-
listed in Tables A.1 and A.2 of the supplementary material. Nu- ues of R-square are more than 99%, indicating that the extended
merical calculation for the parameter fitting procedure was im- Hyperfoam model can reproduce the mechanical responses of the
plemented in MATLAB. The fitted model parameters are listed in cylindrical samples under indentation. To further illustrate the dis-
Table 1, where the number of significant digits for the fitted model tributions of displacement and stresses for the indentation test,
parameters is selected as more than four to improve the numeri- taking the sample irradiated with 150 kGy as an example, the de-
cal accuracy of the model. In addition, the values of R-square for formation state and stress distributions of the cylindrical sample
Tc and Ts about each radiation dose condition are listed in Table 2. at the maximum compression displacement (5 mm) are shown in
Fig. 10. Illustrations of (a) the deformation state from indentation test, and (b) displacement contours, (c) compression stress contours, (d) shear stress contours from
numerical simulation for the sample irradiated with 150 kGy.
7
D. Jia, S. Yan, Y. Peng et al. Polymer Degradation and Stability 183 (2021) 109410
Fig. 10. Fig. 10(a) showed that a dimple-shaped deformation ap- Acknowledgments
peared on the upper surface of the sample when the steel indenter
was loaded downward, and the circumferential bulging deforma- We acknowledge the financial supports from NSAF (Grant No.
tion occurred, which were consistent with the numerical results il- U1530259), Science Challenge Project (Grant No. TZ2018007) and
lustrated in Fig. 10(b). Figs. 10 (c) and 10 (d) gave the compression National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 11602254
stress and shear stress distributions of the sample when indenter and 11632001).
reaching the end of indentation. The maximum compression stress
was approximately 0.84 MPa, which was located at the center of Supplementary materials
the upper surface. The maximum shear stress was approximately
0.20 MPa, which was located on the slope of the dimple with a Supplementary material associated with this article can be
ring distribution. Hence, the stress state of the indented sample is found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.
a coupling state with compression and shear stresses, which can 2020.109410.
be captured by the extended Hyperfoam model. In conclusion, the References
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