Computer-Aided Design of Communication Networks

Advanced Series in Circuits and Systems - Vol.
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
OF COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
Yi-Sheng Zhu
Wai-Kai Chen
World Scientific
Advanced Series in Circuits and Systems -Vol. 4
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN OF COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
by Yi-Sheng Zhu (Dalian Maritime Univ.) & Wai-Kai Chen (Univ of Illinois, Chicago)
Electronic circuit design is now routinely carried out by computers using algorithms
instead of tables, charts and rules of thumb. The book is an introduction to the computer-
aided design of communication networks, based on a firm analytic foundation of circuit
theory and numerical techniques. It provides detailed procedures for designing filters,
broadband matching networks, compatible impedances, diplexers and multiplexers.
All programs were written in FORTRAN90 and run by FTN90 compiler (Salford
Software Ltd 1995) on personal computers. A special feature of the book is that it
bridges the gap between theory and practice, and algorithms and implementations.
The level of the book is suitable as a text for a senior elective or as a circuit design
course for the first-year graduate students. It can also be used as a reference for
practicing engineers.
2835 he
www.worldscientific.com 9 789810 223519

OF COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
ADVANCED SERIES IN CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS
Editor-in-Charge: Wai-Kai Chen (Univ. Illinois, Chicago, USA)

Associate Editor: Dieter A. Mlynski (Univ. Karlsruhe, Germany)
Published
Vol. 1: Interval Methods for Circuit Analysis
by L. V. Kolev
Vol. 2: Network Scattering Parameters
by R. Mavaddat
Vol. 3: Principles of Artificial Neural Networks
by D Graupe
Forthcoming
Vol. 5: Feedback Networks: Theory & Circuit Applications
by J Choma & WK Chen
Advanced Series in Circuits and Systems - Vol. 4
OF COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
Yi-Sheng Zhu
Dalian Maritime University
Wai-Kai Chen
University of Illinois at Chicago
World Scientific
Singapore• New Jersey• London• Hong Kong
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
P O Box 128, Farrer Road, Singapore 912805
USA office: Suite 18, 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661
UK office: 51 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN OF COMMUNICATION NETWORKS

Advanced Series in Circuits and Systems - Vol. 4
Copyright© 2000 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof. may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be
invented, without written pennissionfrom the Publisher.
For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222
Rosewood Drive, Danvers. MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher.
ISBN 981-02-2351-X
Printed in Singapore by Uto-Print

Preface
With rapid development in telecommunications, we are entering a new millennium of
information technology. Mobile communications, Internet, multimedia, high definition television
etc have become an integral part of our daily life. Electrical networks permeate modem
information technology so much that it is difficult to find any communication system that does
not employ electrical networks in one form or another. Presently, a large variety of electrical
components are now available due to the rapid advance of solid-state technologies and readily
available wide band connections. The circuit design process has become increasingly complex
and a modem communications system demands more precise and accurate design of its circuits
and subsystems. With the wide use of digital computers, computer-aided design (CAD)
techniques have become an essential tool for circuit designers. Computers using algorithms
instead of tables, charts and rules of thumb are now routinely employed to carry out the design.
The book is an introduction to the computer-aided design of communication networks, based on
a firm analytic foundation of circuit theory and numerical techniques. It provides detailed
procedures for designing filters, broadband matching networks, compatible impedances, and
diplexers and multiplexers. More than 70 Fortran programs are included in this book. All
programs were written in Fortran 90 and run by Ftn90 compiler (Salford Software Ltd 1995) on
personal computers. A special feature of the book is that it bridges the gap between theory and
practice, and algorithms and implementations.
The book can be divided into three parts. Part one includes Chapters l, 2, and 5 and the
appendix. They introduce the fundamentals of modem network theory. Chapter 1 describes the
basic network elements, network functions and their properties. Chapter 2 gives a fairly complete
exposition of the reflection coefficients and the scattering matrices. Chapter 5 is a brief review of
various circuit optimization methods. The appendix lists the commonly used Fortran programs
for network synthesis.
Part two, consisting of Chapters 3, 4 and 6, is dealing with network realization. Chapter 3
introduces the basic realization methods: Forster and Cauer canonical forms for the one-ports,
and the transfer function realization, the Darlington synthesis and the cascade realization for two-
ports. Chapter 4 presents design formulas and Fortran programs used for the computation of the
element values of a Butterworth, Chebyshev, elliptic, Bessel or Thomson low-pass filter having a
preassigned transducer power-gain characteristic. Chapter 6 is concerned with the impedance
transformation network.
The last four chapters belong to part three. The broadband matching theory is developed in
Chapter 7, and the compatible impedances in Chapter 8. The use of the real-frequency method to
solve the broadband matching problem is introduced in Chapter 9 for two-ports, and in Chapter
10 for multi port networks.
Communication network is an important topic for study by electrical engineering students

preparing to enter the profession, and by practicing engineers wishing to extend their skills. The
book is suitable as a senior elective or as a circuit design course for the first-year graduate
students. It can also be used as a reference for practicing engineers. It should be preceded by a
V
vi PREFACE
linear network and systems course, in which Laplace transform and state-variable techniques are
introduced. Some familiarity of the theory of a complex variable and matrix algebra are
necessary for the last three chapters.
Finally, illustrative examples employing the programs and subroutines given in the book can be
downloaded from the following ftp site:
ftp to ftp.dlmu.edu.cn
login as anonymous
use your email address as the password
cd to pub/yszhu/fortran.90
It is a pleasure to acknowledge publicly the support received by the first author from the Council
of Education, National Natural Science Foundation of China, The Dalian Maritime University
and the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, the University of Illinois at
Chicago.
Yi-Sheng Zhu
Wai-Kai Chen
January, 2000
Contents
Preface v
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Network Theory 1

1.1 The Complex Frequency Variables s 1
1.2 Network elements 4
1.3 Network functions 8
1.4 Transducer power gain 15
1.5 Tellegcn's theorem 18
1.6 Passive immittances 21
1.7 Positive real functions 25
1.8 Positive real matrix 29
References 33
Chapter 2 The Transmission and Reflection Coefficients 35

2.1 The reflection coefficients in a one-port network 35
2.2 Real normalization 37
2.3 Multiport real normalized scattering parameters 40
2.4 The scattering matrix of a two-port networks 45
2.5 Complex normalization 50
2.5.1. Basis-independent reflection coefficient 52
2.5.2. Factorizing of para-Hermitian matrix 54
2.5.3. Complex normalization reflection coefficient of a lossless two-port network 59
2.6 Physical interpretation of the normalized scattering parameters 61
2.7 The normalized scattering matrix and passivity 65
2.8 Interconnection of multiport networks 67
2.9 The consistency of complex normalized scattering matrices 70
References 77
vii
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 3 Elements of Passive Network Synthesis 79

3.1 Synthesis of LC one-port networks 79
3.1.1 The Fostor canonical forms 81
3.1.2 The Cauer canonical forms 85
3.2 Transfer function synthesis 89
3.2.1 Calculation of two-port parameters from the transfer functions 89
3.2.2 Ladder realization of a non-terminated or singly terminated two-port 93
3.2.3 Partial pole removal and zero shifting 95
3.3 Darlington synthesis for a double-terminated LC network 100
3.3.1 Darlington's procedure 100
3.3.2 Darlington synthesis 103
3.3.3 Program for computing mid-series and mid-shunt element values 106
3.4 Cascade synthesis 113
3.4.1 The main theorem 115
3.4.2 The zero producing sections 119
The Darlington type-C section 120
The Brune section 121
The Darlington type-D section 126
The Darlington type-E section 130
The Richards section 132
3.4.3 Illustrative examples 133
References 136
Chapter 4 Filter Approximation and Realization 139

4.1 The low-pass Butterworth response 139
4.2 Realization of a low-pass Butterworth filter 142
4.3 The low-pass Chebyshev response 151
4.4 Realization of a low-pass Chebyshev filter 156
4.5 The low-pass elliptic response 163
4.5.1 Jacobian elliptic functions 165
4.5.2 The design parameters of an elliptic filter 172
4.6 The elliptic network 176
4.7 The Bessel-Thomson response 190
4.7.1 Maximally-flat delay characteristic 191
4.7.2 Design of Bessel-Thomson filters 196
References 205
CONTENTS ix
Chapter 5 Circuit Optimization 207

5.1 Basic concepts 207
5.2 Gradient optimization methods 212
5 .2.1 Steepest descent 212
5.2.2 Newton's method 217
5.2.3 The conjugate gradient method 219
5.3 Least-squares problem 225
5.4 Direct search optimization method 228
5 .4.1 Tabulation method 228
5.4.2 Flexible polyhedron search 229
5.5 One-dimensional search 237
5.5.1 Interpolation method 237
5.5.2 Elimination method 241
References 244
Chapter 6 Impedance Transformation 245

6.1 Exactly transfonnation at a given frequency w0 245
6.1.1 Real source and real load at a given w0 247
6.1.2 Complex source and complex load at a given w0 248
6.1.3 Three-element matching networks 254
6.1.4 Unifonn lossless transmission lines 258
6.2 Low-pass impedance transfonnation networks 260
6.2.1 Introduction 260
6.2.2 The Butterworth impedance transfonnation networks 263
6.2.3 The Chebyshev impedance transformation networks 265
6.2.3 Derivation of fonnulas 269
6.2.4 Denominator polynomial of p(s) 270
6.3 Computer-aided design of low-pass impedance transfonnation networks 275
6.3.1 The Butterworth impedance transfonnation networks 275
6.3.2 The Chebyshev impedance transformation networks 278
6.3.3 Subroutines 280
6.4 Short-step Chebyshev impedance transformers 282
6.4.1 Response parameters 282
6.4.2 The transfonnation network 286
6.4.3 The Richards realization 292
References 296
x CONTENTS
Chapter 7 Broadband Matching Networks 297

7.1 Bod e's gain-bandwidth limitations 297
7.2 Youla's theory of broadband matching 302
7.2.l Preliminary considerations of Youla'stheory 302
7.2.2 Basic constraints on p 2 (s) 305
7.2.3 Design procedure for singly matched networks 306
7.3 Parallel RC load 308
7.3.1 Butterworth matching networks 309
7.3.2 Chebyshev matching networks 315
7.4 RLC load: the low-pass Butterworth networks 322
7.4.1 Low-pass Butterworth matching networks 322
7.4.2 Explicit formulas for the low-pass Butterworth response 327
7.4.3 Explicit formuas for Butterworth network containing a Darlington
type-C section 332
7.5 RLC load: the low-pass Chebyshev networks 343
7.5.1 Basic constraints for the low-pass Chebyshev response 343
7.5.2 Explicit formulas for the low-pass Chebyshev response 347
7.6 Ladder impedance matching networks for the RLC load 361
7.6.1 The Butterworth ladder impedance matching networks 361
7.6.2 The Chebyshev ladder impedance matching networks 366
7.7 RCR load 372
7.7.1 The Butterworth transducer power-gain characteristic 373
7.6.2 The Chebyshev transducer power-gain characteristic 381
7.8 Constant transducer power gain 389
References 397
Chapter 8 Compatible Impedances 399

8.1 Preliminaries 401
8.2 Design by means of the open-circuit impedance parameters 407
8.3 Chain parameter approach 422
8.4 Wohler's compatibility theory 430
8.5 Equivalent conditions 436
8.6 Double matching problem 446
References 461
CONTENTS xi
Chapter 9 Real-Frequency Solutions of the Broadband

Matching Problems 463
9.1 Direct real-frequency approach 463
9.2 Piecewise linear approximation 466
9.3 Piecewise linear Hilbert transfonns 470
9.4 Gain objective function 481
9.5 Rational least-squared-error approximation of R22 ( w) 496
9.6 Rational function method 505
9.7 Network synthesis from a given real part 507
9.7.1 Bode method 508
9.7.2 Brune-Gewertz method 510
9.8 Double matching problems 514
9.8.1 Scattering properties ofthe equalized system 515
9.8.2 Computational technique 517
9.8.3 Illustrative example 520
9.9 Using chain parameters to solve double matching problems 523
9.9.1 Solution of the double matching problem using chain parameters 526
9.9.2 Illustrative example 529
References 533
Chapter 10 Diplexer and Multiplexer 535

10.1 The scattering matrix of a lossless reciprocal three-port network 535
10.2 Analytic method for the design of a constant resistance multiplexer 542
10.3 Maximally flat low-pass high-pass reactance-ladder diplexers 555
10.4 A real-frequency approach to the design of a low-pass high-pass
reactance-ladder diplexer 568
References 586
Appendix Basic Fortran Subroutines in Network Synthesis 587

1.1 The detenninant of an N x N matrix 587
1.2 Matrix inversion 588
1.3 Gauss elimination algorithm 591
2.1 Evaluation of a polynomial 593
2.2 Detennination of a polynomial from its complex zeros 594
2.3 Multiplication of two polynomials 596
2.4 Solution of cubic equation 598
xii CONTENTS
2.5 Find a real root of a nonlinear equation 600

2.6 Find the roots of a nonlinear equation 602
3. 1 Expansion of a rational function into a continued fraction 604
3.2 Determination of a rational function from a continued fraction 606
3.2 Partial fraction expansion 608
3.4 Long division 610
4.1 The golden section search 611
4.2 Interpolation method 616
References 621
Index 623
Fortran Programs 627
Chapter l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Fundamentals of
Network Synthesis
1.1 The Complex Frequency Variables
Network functions are expressed in term of the complex frequency variable s, resulting
from the application of the Laplace transformation to the time-domain network equations.
Network synthesis techniques based on these functions are known as the frequency-domain
synthesis as opposed to the time-domain synthesis. Consider, for example, the circuit of Fig. 1.1,
where is (t) is an arbitrary current source, being a function of the time t. This function can be of
any form such as shown in Fig. 1.2(a). Summing the currents of the individual elements and
equating the sum to the generator current, we obtain
i (t) = C dv(t) +Gv(t)+ 1 þÿ# t

v(x)dx+iL(0-) (1.1)
s dt L þÿ#!0
where iL(0-) is the initial current through the inductor at time t=0-. The solution of the
differential equation (1.1) can be conveniently performed using Laplace transformation
+
C L G
Fig. 1.1 A simple parallel tuned circuit
(1.2)
The complex variable s is a purely mathematical quantity, introduced for convenience and
without any physical significance. Also, vc(0-) is the value of the initial voltage across the
capacitor. Assuming
1
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF NETWORK SYNTHESIS
and solving for the unknown transfonned voltage V(s) yield
is(t)
þÿjÉ
0 (J
0 (a) (b)
Fig. 1.2 (a) Input current signal is(r) and (b) the poles and zero of network function ( 1.5).
1 1 s
V(s) =H(s)Is(s) / Is(s) = (
sC+G+1 sL
X _Is(s)
C s-s0 s-s0
(1.4)
where H(s) is the network function ca11ed the impedance fimclion,
√
2
_ . G . 1 ( G)
S0 s0 þÿ = - ± ± j É=--±;
d -- - (1.5)
, 2C LC 2C
and the bar denotes the complex conjugate operation. The physical voltage v(t) can now be
obtained by carrying out the inverse Laplace transfonnation of V(s) from the poles and zero of
Fig. 1.2(b). If the parallel GLC circuit is driven by a impulse current source with þÿ"C/
L > G/2,
the voltage v(t) across the elements is given b/
v(t) = inverse Laplace transfonns[H(s)]

(1.6)
= þÿ1 u(t)e-±t cos(roJI + ~) = u(t) [e<-a+J..,)r+J♦ + e<-a-.,.,,ho]
C 2C
where 11(1) is the step function and

.I. • -I a, 2 1
'i'=Sln -, (iJ --
o- LC (1.7)
CiJo
In (1.5), the quantities s0 and s0 =CL±jroJ are identified as the complexfreq11encies, a phrase
used by such early contributors to circuit theory as Heaviside (about 1900), Kenne11y (1915), and
t Use Loplnce lrnnsforms tnble, see Chen. W. K. ( 1990) l.lnt!ar Nerwork and Systems, Vol. I, Singapore: World Scientific.
Chnpler S.
THE COMPLEX FREQUENCY VARIABLES S 3
Vanncvar Bush (1917) [2]. When a= 0, s = jro is seen to be the usual frequency associated
with sinusoidal generators and electronic oscillators. We will employ the concept of complex
frequency to study the notion such as the poles and zeros of network functions H(s) on the
complex-frequency plane.
Consider now the following completely different problem. Let us assume that the circuit of
Fig. 1.1 is excited by the sinusoidal current signal
(1.8)
Suppose that we are interested only in the steady-state behavior of the circuit. It is convenient to
introduce the notation of complex-phasor and rewrite (1.8) in the form
(1.9)
where Re denotes "the real part of' and

1 .
I.r =-1
✓2 .,
e19 (1.10)
is the complex phasor of the sinusoidal current. Since the steady-state solution will also be
sinusoidal [5], we can write
v(t) = v.. cos(rot + P) = ✓2 Re {ve 1"' )= ✓2 {ve 1

0ll + ve-JU') (1. 11)
2
where Vis the unknown complex phasor of the sinusoidal voltage, and
1
V=-V e 111 (1.12)
✓2 ..
Substituting (1.9) and (1.11) in (1.1) and neglecting the terms corresponding to the initial
conditions Ve (0-) and i,. (0-), which contribute only to the transient response, we obtain
. 1 j
Re/ eJtO' =Re;"roCVe 1141 +ReGVeP' +Re--Ve"' (1.13)
~ ~L
After simplifications, we obtain
ls =jroCV+GV+~ (1.14)
;roL
from which the unknown phasor Vis found to be
V= I. (1.15)
jroC +G + I/jroL
4 FUNDAMENTALS OF NElWORK SYNTHESIS
showing that
V = I., (1.16)
., .Ja 2 +(roC-1/roL) 2
and
...,n. =cp-tan -I roe- 1/rol (1.17)
G
We can now formally set sejro. Observe that (1.15) becomes identical to (1.4). Recall that the
meaning of s in the two equations was completely different. Equation (1.4) shows the Laplace
transforms of the arbitrary time functions i(I) and v(I), whereas those in ( 1.1 S) arc the complex
phasors of the corresponding functions under steady-state sinusoidal condition ifs is set equal to
jro. Whenever we attach any physical significance to the quantities V , I and "power" Vl, it is
meaningful only under the sinusoidal steady-state condition or s = jro, because a Laplace-
transformed function has no immediate physical significance, only the complex phasor docs.
1.2 Network Elements

An electrical network is an interconnection of electrical elements. These elements are
idealization of physical devices in that they are assumed to be lumped, linear,finile, and lime-
invarianl.
One Port Elements
Three familiar basic one-port network elements are listed in Fig. 1.3.
i(I) i(I)
v(I) R v(I) l
(a) Resistor (b) Capacitor (c) Inductor
Fig. 1.3 Symbols and definitions of basic network elements.
In terms of the time I and com~lex frequency variable s, the voltage-current relations of these
elements are shown in Table 1.1 .
Normally, the parameters R, L, and C arc constant, being independent of the electric state
of the element and time. Therefore, they are linear and lime-invariant as opposed to nonlinear
t For Laplace trnnsfonns of the derivatives and integrals ofn funclion and their initial conditions. sec Chapters Sand 7 of[3).
NETWORK ELEMENTS 5
and time-varying elements [4]. Using the standard references defined for the voltage and current
in Fig. 1.3, the instantaneous power entering each element is given by
p(I) = v(t)i(I)
The energy delivered to each element from time l1 to l2 is found to be
W= r.J p(t)dt = r.J v(t)i(t)dt (1.19)

'• '•
resistor capacitor inductor
Relationship between
v(I) =L di(t)
instantaneous voltage v(I) =Ri(I)
v(i)= ~ 1i(x)dx+v(O-) di
and current
i(t) =Gv(t)
II -
'( )-Cdv(t)
--
dt
i(I) = .!_
L
l
o
v(t')dt + i(O-)
Transformed equation VL (s) =L[sl(s)- /(0" )]

V(s) = r v(t)e""dt V(s)=Rl(s)
I
V,(s)=-l(s)+--
sC
v(O")
s I /(0')
/(s) .. -V(s) + -
/(s) = r i(t)e-"dt
J(s)=GV(s) /(s) =C[sV(s)-v(O-)] sl s
Wc(t) =f C dv(x)v(x)dx JV, (t) = [_ L dr\x)ca

Energy WR(t) = f_ RiJ(x)dx • dx
= .!. CvJ (t)-.!.cvJ (-co) = .!. LiJ (t)-.!.L;J (-co)
2 2 2 2
Table 1.1 The voltage-current relations of one-port elements.
Neglecting the initial conditions and considering the instantaneous electrical energy Wr(t)
stored in a capacitor at any time t under a sinusoidal excitation voltage of (1.11) and assuming
p= 0, we obtain from Table 1.1
1 1
Wc(t)= 2 Cv(t) 2 = 4CV;(l+cos2rot} (1.20)
The average electrical energy v.v stored in the capacitor is found to be

(1.21)
The instantaneous power stored in the capacitor is given by

dW. (I) ro 2 •
Pc(/)= c --CV,,, sm2ro/ (1.22)
dt 2
Likewise, the instantaneous magnetic energy w,.(t) stored in an inductor at any time t under a
sinusoidal excitation voltage is obtained as
WL (t) = J:i(x)v(x)dr = J:[~ fo" V., cosroydy ]v. cosroxdx

(1.23)
v2
= -"'-(1 - cos2ro/)
4Lro 2
The average electric energy T1 v stored in the inductor is given by
T = V; (1.24)
av 4Lro2
The instantaneous power stored in the inductor is
dW (t) V • 2
p
L
= '· =-"'-sm
dt 2Lro
2rot ( 1.25)
In the circuit of Fig. 1. 1, assume that the voltage across the source is given by ( 1.1 I). The
instantaneous power entering the circuit is found to be
p(t) = Gv 2 (t) +~~Vc(t) +JVL (I)]

dt
=GV,; cos2 rot - ,.J CV,: - V; 2 )sin 2rot (1.26)

\. 2 2Lro
=GV,; cos 2 rot-2ro{V.,., -T.,.,)sin2rot
We use phasor to express the complex power of Fig. I.I. From (1.12) and (1.14), we obtain
VI =V(G+1·roc+-1-)v=.!..ov 2 +1·ro(CV,; - V,;2 )

• jroL 2 "' 2 2ro L
(1.27)
=.!..ov
2 "' +1·2ro(V.,., -T.,., )
2
Two Port Elements
The three two-port elements of Fig. 1.4 are frequently employed in communication
networks. We now proceed to calculate the total energy delivered by the external sources to the
couple coils of Fig. 1.4 (a):
NETWORK ELEMENTS 7
• • •
C
(a) Coupled coils (b) Ideal transformer (c) Gyrator
Fig. 1.4 Symbols and definitions of basic two-port network elements.
Couple coils Ideal transformer Gyrator
Relationship (} L di1(1) M di2 (t)

VI= - - + - - v,(I) =nv2 (1} v 1 (1) = r/ 2 (1)
between I I di dt
instanuncous i2 (I}= -ni1(t) = - ri 1 ( I)
,·oltagc and turrcnt V (I)= M di,(I} + L dil(I) V 2 (/)
2 dt 2 dt
Energy store in lhc Wu= [A-"C)dx

1wo-pon network
W7 (t) = ( p(x)dx = 0 W0 (t)= [p(x)=O
=¾[L,i/(1)+M((l)i2 (t)+li22 (1)]
Table 1.2 The voltage-current relations of two-port elements.
From energy consideration, it is easy to verify that (1.28) will be non-negative if
(1.29)
When (1.29) is satisfied with the equality sign, the coils are said to be perfectly coupled. Set
(1.30a)
(1.30b)
We obtain an equivalent circuit for the perfectly coupled coils of Fig. 1.5.
In the case of the ideal transformer, the resistance looking into port 11' is n 2 R, when port
22' is terminated in a resistor of resistance R. Thus, the ideal transformer is capable of changing
8 FUNDAMENTALS OF NElWORK SYNTHESIS
the resistance level by a factor of n 2 • In the case of a gyrator tenninating in a resistor R at port
22', from Table 1.2, we have
t =-r,'()
v1() 2 t =-r
( -R r 2 .1(t)
V2(I)) =R1 (1.31)
n: I
+ +
• •
Ideal transformer
Fig. 1.5 An equivalent c1rcu1t tor pertectly coupled coils.
showing that, in the frequency domain, the equivalent resistance at port 11' equals r 2 times 1/ R.
Therefore, the gyrator is capable of impedance inverting.
-------~ ------
l
+
/ 1 (t) r
+
) R
I' 2'
Fig. 1.6 A gyrator tenninating in a resistor.
1.3 Network Functions
In the foregoing, we have studied simple one-port and two-port elements. A complex one-
port network is composed of these simple elements and can be represented by its Thevenin or
Norton equivalent of Fig. 1.7(a). A one-port network is characterized by its driving point
immittance, which can be either impedance or admittance. It will be shown in Section 1.7 that
the driving-point immittance of a passive one-port network is a positive real function'. In
general, an n-port network can be characterized by its immittance matrix, which can be shown to
be a positive real matrix.
We study two-port networks in tenns of their equivalent circuits. The equivalence is
maintained only at the tenninal pairs, not inside the original network. Figure 1.7(b) is a symbolic
representation of a two-port network or simply two-port composed of an input port and an output
port. Fundamental to the concept of a port is the assumption that the instantaneous current
entering one tenninal of the port is always equal to the instantaneous current leaving the other
'The strict definition of passive one pon ncl work can be found in (4]
NETWORK FUNCTIONS 9
terminal of the port. This assumption is crucial in subsequent derivations and the resulting
conclusions. Our discussion is based on the assumption that the two-port network is devoid of
independent sources inside and has zero initial conditions and the Laplace-transformed
equations describing its behavior are available. To proceed, we establish the sign convention for
the references of the port voltages and currents as indicated in Fig. 1.7(b).
-
I I (S) l 2 (s)
! 2
TMveninor +
- •+
Two-port
Norton V.,(s) network Vz(s)
eauivalent - --
I' I' 2'
(a) One-port network (b) Two-port network
Fig. I. 7 One-port and two-port networks.
The Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters
Suppose that we choose port currents 11(s) and J2 (s) as the independent variables. The
port voltages V.(s) and V2 (s) are related to the port currents J 1(s) and J 2 (s) by the matrix
equation
(1.32)
The coefficient matrix is called the open-circuit impedance matrix, the elements of which are the
open-circuit impedance parameters or simply the z-parameters. The reason for the name
becomes apparent by noting from (1.32) that
(1.33a)
(1.33b)
The condition 11 (s) = 0 or / 2 (s) = 0 is met by having the corresponding pnir of terminals open-
circuited. For example, the coupled coils of Fig. 1.5 can be described by the following equation
(1.34)
Likewise, a gyrator is a two-port network characterized by a single parameter r, known as the

gyration resistance. Its defining equation is given by
(1.35)
The Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters
Instead of choosing the port currents, suppose that we choose port voltages V1(s) and
V2 {s)as the independent variables. Then the port currents / 1 (s) and / 2 (s) and the port voltage
V.(s) and V2 {s)arerelated by
{1.36)
The four parameters y 11 (s), (ij = 1,2) arc known as the short-circuit admittance parameters or
simply the y-parameters. The coefficient matrix is called the short-circuit admittance matrix.
Observe that if V. (s) or V2 (s) is zero, the four parameters
(1.37a)
(1.37b)
The term "short-circuit" becomes obvious.
The Chain Parameters
Another useful way is to express the output variables Vi(s) and Ii(s) to the input variables
Vi(s) and l1(s) as follows:
where E(s),A(s),B(s),C(s),and D(s)are polynomials. Youla [12] showed that the 2x2 real
polynomial matrix
T{s) = [A(s) B(s)] (1.39)

C(s) D(s)
is the polynomial chain matrix of a passive, lumped, lossless, reciprocal two-port network if, and
only if,
NETWORK FUNCTIONS 11
(1) A(s) and D(s) are both even or both odd,

(2) B(s) and C(s) are both even if A(s) is odd and both odd if A(s) is even,
(3) A(s)D(s)- B(s)C(s) = E 2 (s), where E(s) is a real polynomial,
(4) A(s) + B(s) + C(s) + D(s) = S1:\jl(s 2 )g(s), where k is non-negative integer, 'l'(s 2 ) is an
even polynomial and g(s) is a strict Hurwitz polynomialt
(5) s1:\jl(s 2 )divides both A(s) + B(s)and C(s) + D(s).
The coefficient matrix in (1.38) is called the transmission matrix, or the chain matrix of the two-
port network. Its entries are defined as follows:
a(s) = v;(s) , b(s) = (s) v; (1.40a)

V2(s) l1C•>•o -/2(s) V1C•>•0
c(s) = I, (s) ' d(s) = I, (s) (1.40b)
l2(s) 11<•>-o -l2(s) V1<•>-o
The description of a two-port network in terms of its chain matrix is convenient when
several networks are connected in cascade. The overall chain matrix is then equal to the product
of the chain matrices of the individual two-port networks, in the same order. It is also useful for
the ideal transformer because it possesses neither z- nor y-parameters. The chain parameters of
the ideal n : I transformer given in Fig. 1.4 (b) is
(1.41)
The Hybrid Parameters
Another set of parameters used extensively in electronic circuits is defined by choosing

/ 1(s) and V2 (s) as the independent variables and v;(s) and / 2 (s)as the dependent variables:
(1.42)
The coefficient matrix is called the hybrid matrix, and its elements the hybrid parameters or
simply the Ii-parameters. They can be determined as follows:
(1.43a)
(1.43b)
' A polynominl with its zeros restricted to the open UIS, Res< 0 is called n strictly Hurwft:. polynomial. Also see Section 1.8.
12 FUNDAMENTALS OF NElWORKSYNTHESIS
In addition to z, y, T and h representations, two other less used sets of parameters known as the
T' and g parameters can be defined, the details of which are omitted. The interrelationships
among all of them are summarized in Tablel.3, where the matrices appearing in each of the rows
are equivalent.
[~]=z[;:J (;:]=v[~] [~]=T[3J [~]=T'[~.] [1]=h [~] [~]=g[1]

Y22 _Y12
-aC ArC -d'c' -c'I A,. !!JL -I 812
z Z11
Z21
z,2
Zn
Ar
_ Y2,
Ar
.fu. -CI -dC Ar a'
-
h22
-~
'122
I
-h22
811
Ai:
811
Ar Ar c' c' h22

821
-
811 gll
y
Z22
!}. z
- z,2
Az Y11 Y12
-db - Ar
b
-b'a' --b'I -hI.. _!!E_
11..
tir
Kn
h
822
_ Z21
.=!!.. Y21 Y22 --b -ba
I _Ar
b'
-d'b' ~ ~ _g:,
-I
Az Az
=u. Az _ Y22
--I d'
-Ar b'
_T_
""--
ti,.
/,II
-~ -g21I
K22 822
g22
Z21 Z21 Y21 Y21 a b Ar ,,21 h21 g21
T
- I z,2 -~ _.:fu. C d
-c'
-a' _!!.::_
-- I !.u. ~
Y21 Y21
Z21 Z21 Ar Ar "21 "21 821 821
Z22
=,2
Az
Z12
_.fu
Y12
--I
Y12
-tird -tirb a' b' -/,12I ~
/,12
tir
g,:
Ku
--
gll
T'
- 1 .:!!. -~
Y,2
_Y:2
- C
- a c' d'
"22 ti,. _!.u_
--I
Y12 ,,12 g,2
Z12 Z12 Ar Ar h,2 812
Az .:!L -Y11I _Y,:

-db ~ -a'b' -a'I g:2 _ _fu
h Z22
_ .:ll_
Z22
- 1 Y21
Yu
~
Yu
Yu
--d -d1
d
C - Ar -c'
a' a'
""
h2,
h,2
h22
ti,
-~
tit
ti r
1fu..
ti,
Zn Zn
-1 _.:!,t ~
Y22
Yi2
Y22
-aC -~a
-d'c' --1
d'
!!E. _!!E_
ti,. ti,. 811 812
Z11 Z11
g Ar b'
.:ll. Az _Y21
Y22
-Yz2
I 1
-a -ab
d'
-d' -~ ti,.
-~
ti,.
821 822
Z11 Z11
Table 1.3 Conversion chart of two-port matrices.

Transfer Functions
In network synthesis, specifications are often given in terms of the transfer functions,
However, realization is usually accomplished in terms of they- or z-parameters, pointing to the
need in expressing the transfer functions in terms of these parameters.
Consider the circuit of Fig 1.8 (a). We have
V,: (s) = z1(s)/1(s) +V. (s) (1.44a)

V2 (s) =-z 2 (s)/2 (s) (1.44b)
Substituting (1.32) in (1.44) yields
(1.45)
If we set z 1(s) = 0, the circuit of Fig. I.8(a) becomes that of Fig. l.8(b). Substituting
z1(s) = 0 in (1.45) and using Table 1.3 result in the transfer voltage ratio or voltage gain function
(1.46)
where y 2 (s) = 1/z2 (s). If, in addition, port 22' is open-circuited, Fig. 1.8(b) degenerates to Fig.
1.8(c). Setting y 2 (s)=0 of(l.46) gives
G (s) s V2 (s) = - Y21 (s) (1.47)
,2 V. (s) Y22 (s)
/ 1 (s) / 2(s)
+ +
Two-port
V.(s) network J'i(s) =2Cs)
V1 (s)
(a)
/ 1 (s) / 2(s)
+ +
Two-port
V1 (s) V1(s) network V2(s) =2Cs)
(b)
/ 1 (s) ...--------.
+
Two-port
V.(s) network
(c)
Fig. 1.8 Three network models approximating physical systems.
Similarly, by substituting (1.44) in (1.32) and solving the resulting equation for / 1(s) and / 2 (s)
of Fig. 1.S(a), we can compute the transfer current ratio or current-gai11fimctio11 as
(1.48)
We summarize the above results in Table 1.4.
Transfer function in terms of Transfer function in terms of

Network
Y11(s),Yn(s),Y12(s), Y21(s) =11(s),=22(s),=12(s), =21 (s)
+ = - Y2,(s) G ( ) 1'2(s) _ : 21 (s)

V. N v,
G,2(s) a V2(s)
v, (s) Y22Cs)
12 s a-----
V. (s) : (s)11
G (s) a l'1(s) =- Yu(s) G ( ) l'1(s) =11Cs):1(s)

II S &--=
N =, II V,(s) Yu(s)+ Y1(s) I', (s) l:i., + : 11 (s):, (s)
6,(s) = : 11(s)=22(s)-=12(s)=21 (s)
V (s)
Z (S}I!!!-'-
11 / 1 (s) Z11 (s ) sI',
-(s)
- = :11 (s)
,. N
+
v, - y,.(s) / 1(s)
Yu(s)yu(s}- Y11(s)y11(s)
zII (S ) ■---
Y,(s) - -yu(s) Z ( ) l',(s)
II SI!!--'"
=11(s):,(s)
N =, / 1(s) l:i., + Y11 (.l')Y1 (s) / 1(.1') : 11 (s)+ : 1(s)
l:i. 1 = Y11(s)yu(s)-Y11(s)y11(s)
Table 1.4 Transfer functions associated with a two-port network.

NElWORK FUNCTIONS 15
1.4 Transducer Power Gain
The most useful measure of power flow is called the transducer power gain G(ro), which
is defined as the ratio of average power delivered to the load to the maximum available average
power at the source. It is a function of the two-port parameters, the load and source impedances.
The transducer power gain is the most meaningful description of the power transfer capabilities
of a two-port as it compares the power delivered to the load with the power that the source is
capable of supplying under optimum conditions. To illustrate, we derive an expression for
G(ro) in terms of the impedance parameters of the two-port and the source and load impedances.
Refer to Fig.1.9 and use (1.44b) and (1.32), the input impedance Z 11 (s)of the two-port network
when the output is terminated in z 2 (s) can be determined as
(1.49)
+ +
Two-port
network
I' 2'
Fig. 1.9 A two-port network together with its terminations.
The average power P2 (ro) delivered to the load is given by
(1.50)
The maximum available average power P2~. (ro) from the source occurs when the input
impedance Z11 (s) is conjugately matched with the source impedance, or Z11 (jro) = z1(jro).
Under this condition, the average power gain delivered by the source to the load z1(jro) is
From (1.50) and (1.51), we obtain the transducer power gain
(1.52a)
Likewise, in terms of the admittance parameters, G(ro) becomes
G(ro) = 4IY21 (jro)l2 Rey,(jro)Rey2(jro)

(1.52b)
lf;,11 Uro)+ y,(jro)]f;,22Uro)+ Y2Uro)]-Y,2Uro)y2,Uro)I
where y 1(s)=J/z,(s) and y 2 (s)=J/z 2 (s). In terms ofthechainparameters, G(ro)becomes
G(ro) = 4Rez,(jro)Rez2(jro)
(1.52c)
la(jro)z 2 (jro) + b(jro) + c(jro)z, (jro)z 2 (jro) + d(jro)z 1(jro}l2
Loss, Phase, and Delay of Reactance 1\vo-Port Networks
When both terminations arc resistive, the transducer power gain becomes
(1.53)
In addition, we define the transducer function Hr (s) as
(1.54)
For a reactance two-port, its loss a.(ro), phase P(ro), and group delay T11 (ro) are all derivable
directly from Hr (jro) . The zero loss point is the sinusoidal frequency where maximum power
transfer occurs:
(1.55)
The phase P(ro) is defined as the difference between the angles of V11 (jro) and of V2(jro), which
is by (1.47) simply the angle of H rUro). Hence
P(ro} = tan-•[Hr,,(s)/
Hrc(s)
j] J•J!O
= tan-•[JmH rUro)]
ReHr(jro)
(1.56)
where the subscripts e and o indicate the even and odd parts of H r(s), respectively:
Hrc(s) = [Hr(s)+ Hr(-s)l/2 (1.57a)

Hr0 (s) = [Hr(s)-Hr(-s)l/2 (1.57b)
where Im stands for "Imaginary part or•. From P(ro), the group delay T/ro)can be obtained
from its definition as
T(ro)=dp(ro)=[~tanh_,Hra(s)] ={EvH~(s)} (1.58)

,: drods Hr~(s) •-~ Hr(s) •-.ia
where Ev[/(s)] denotes the even part of f(s) and H~(s) e dH7 (s)/ds.
Insertion Loss
Consider the two-port of Fig. 1.10, obtaining
(1.59)
The power delivered to the load R2 is
P ( ) _ IV20Uro)l
2 1vKurof R2 (1.60)
20 (I) - - - - - - - -
R2 (R, +R2)2
/ I (S) /1 (1)
I ,-----------------
I
I
I
I 2
R, + +
V.(s) l':111(s) Rz
"•(s) I
I I
I' •---------------- I
2'
Fig. 1.10 Two-port network used to define the insertion loss.
Combining (1.51) and (1.60) and letting z1(s) = R1 gives
fio(ro) = 4R,R2 2 Pimu(ro) (1.61)

(R1 +R2 )
The effect of inserting the two-port Nin Fig. 1.9 is characterized by the ratio of power before
insertion Pi0 (ro) to the power after insertion Pi(ro), or
(1.62)
an important measure in the design of filters or equalizers for transmission systems such as
telephone lines.
1.5 Tellegen's Theorem
Kirchhofrs current and voltage laws are algebraic constraints ansmg from the
interconnection of network elements and are independent of the characteristics of the clements.
In this section, we show that they imply the conservation of energy. This result is known as
Tellegen's rheoremt, and will help us understand the fundamental properties of physically
realizable impedance functions to be discussed later in this chapter.
Consider the network of Fig. 1.11 with branch voltages vk (I) and currents i4 (I)
(k = 1,2,- ••,5) as labeled. Kirchhoff's current law equations arc found to be
i1(t)
-
I 0 0 i2 (1)
[~
-1 I
0 0 -1
1
1J =m i3 (t)
i4 (t)
i5 (t) _
(1.63)
V2
0 + ;2 @ ;. +
;, /J
2F
+
+
4'2 v, v, v,
+
Fig. 1.11 Network used to show the proof of Tcllcgcn's theorem.
or more compactly
Ai(t) =O (1.64)
where the coefficient matrix A is called the incidence matrix and i(t) the branch-current vector.
The clements of A written explicitly as
(1.65)
18. D. Tcllcgcn, •A general network theorem, with applications,• Proc. Inst. Radio Engrs. Australia, vol. 14, 1953, pp.265-270.
TELLEGEN'S THEOREM 19
are ascertained as follows:

+ 1, if branch current i1(1) leaves node k
al-J {
= -1, if branch current i1 (t) enters nodek (1.66)
0, otherwise
Note that only n - 1 current equations are required, where n is the number of nodes of the
network. As usual, the nodal equation corresponding to the potential-reference point is ignored in
(1.63). The branch voltages vk (t) can be expressed in tenns of the nodal voltages vlll(t),j = 1,2,3
from nodesj to the common reference node 4, as follows:
v1(t)
- -
1 00
v2(1) 1 -1 0 [..,(1)]
v3 {/) = 0 1 0 Vn2(I) (1.67)
v~(I) 0 1 -1 Vn3(I)
v5 (1)_ 0 0 -1
Using the incidence matrix A defined in (1.65), the above equation can be compactly written as
v(I) = A'v n (I) (1.68)
where the prime denotes the matrix transpose, v(I) the branch-voltage vector, and v n(I) the
nodal voltage vector.
The instantaneous power delivered to branch k is vk(l)ik(I). The sum of the instantaneous
powers vk (t)ik (I) for all b branches is given by
b
~:vk (t)ik (t) =vi (l)i1 (t) + V2 (t)i2 (t) + ... +vb (t)ib(I) =v'(l)i(I) = i'(l)v(t) (1.69)
hi
Substituting (1.68) in (1.69) and invoking (1.64), we obtain

b
~>k (l)i4(1) =[A' v n(t)1 i(t) = v~(t)[A i(I)]= v~{I) 0 = 0 (1.70)
k•I
This equation shows that the sum of instantaneous powers delivered to all the elements is equal
to zero. If we integrate (1.70) between any two limits 10 and I, the total energy stored in the
network from 10 to I is found to be
b
w(I) =L r~t{t)ik{t)dt =constant (1.71)

k•I '•
meaning that conservation of energy is a direct consequence of Kirchhofrs current and voltage
laws.
V4 • 2il
CD + v1 -4 (%)
i + G)
30 ;J ;,
+ +
i1 =2A v, 40 iiJ 9H ii,
Fig. 1.12 Network used to show the proof of Tellegen's theorem.
Consider another network N of Fig. 1.12, having the same topological configuration and
the same references as those of the network N of Fig. 1.11. As a result, both networks have the
same incidence matrix A, and all the equations from (1.63) to (1.68) remain valid for Nas well.
Let i(t) and v(t) denote the branch-current vector and branch-voltage vector of N. Then
Ai(t) =0 (1.72)
v(t) = A'v n (t) (1.73)
hold, where v" (t) is the nodal voltage vector for the network N. Refer to Fig. 1.12. The branch
currents and voltages are represented by ~ (t) and ii1 (t), respectively. We next compute the sum
of products
±v.t (t)i.t(t) =v'(t)i(t) =[A'(t)vn(t)f i(t) =v:(r)[A i(t)]= v:(1) 0 =0

k•l
(1.74)
where (1.68) and (1.72) were used. A similar derivation gives
L" "• (t)i1 (t) =v'(t)i(t) =o

k•l
(1.75)
By taking the transposes of these equations and observing that the transpose of a scalar, being a
1x 1 matrix, is itself, we obtain several variations of (1.74) and (1.75), as follows:
v'(t)i(t) =v'(t)i(t) =i'(t)v(t) =i'(t)v(t) =0 (1.76)

TELLEGEN'S THEOREM 21
Equation (1.76) is referred to as Tellegen's theorem. Note that the entity v'(l)i(/) does not have
any physical significance as the sum of instantaneous powers, because v(t) and i{t) belong to
two different networks. Since Kirchhofrs laws are independent of the characteristics of the
network elements, Tellegen's theorem is valid whether the networks are linear or nonlinear and
time-invariant or time varying. In addition to its fundamental importance, the theorem provides a
way to check the accuracy of the numerical results of a computer solution. After all the voltages
and currents are computed, the sum of the products of the corresponding terms must be zero for
every value oft.
1.6 Passive Immittance

In early part of the book, we are concerned with the design of one-port networks composed
exclusively of passive clements such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, and coupled inductors. A
one-port is characterized by its driving-point impedance or admittance. A basic question that
must be answered before design can be proceed is as follows: Given an immittance function, is it
possible to find a one-port network composed only of R, L, C, and M elements that realizes the
given immittance function? This is known as the realizability problem. The answer to this
question was first given by Brune [l].
Consider a linear RLCM one-port network of Fig. 1.13, which is excited by a voltage
source v1(t) . Assume that the overall network has b branches. For our purpose, the branch
corresponding to the voltage source v 1(t) is numbered branch 1 and all other branches are
numbered from 2 to b. Using Laplace transformation, Kirchhoff's current law equations (1.64)
can be written as
Al{s)=O (1.77)
and from (1.68)

(1.78)
where l(s), V(s), and Vn(s) are the Laplace transforms of i(t), v(t), and v n (t), respectively.
Taking the complex conjugate of (1.77) and combining this with (1.78) give
V'(s)l(s) =V~ (s)Al(s) =V~ (s)O =O (1.79)
or
6
Ivt(s)lt(s)=O (1.80)
k•I
where Vt(s)and /t(s)denotethe Laplace transforms of the branch voltage vk(t) and the branch
current it (I), respectively.
In accordance with the reference directions of Fig. 1.13, the driving-point impedance of the
one-port network is defined as
(1.81)
A network
composed
J'i(s) of RLCM
clements
Fig. 1.13 One-port network composed only by RLCM elements.
Equation ( 1.80) can be rewritten as
b
-Vi (s)l, (s) = I V1 (s)l1 (s) (1.82)
k•l
Substituting (I. 82) in ( 1.81) leads to
(1.83)
Since the most general branch of the RLCM circuit is shown in Fig. 1.14, we have
V1 (s)=(R1 +sL1 +-1-)11:(s)+ ±sMul,(s) (1.84)

sC" 1-2
l•k
Substituting (1.84) in (1.83) gives
Denote
(1.86)
(1.87)
POSITIVE REAL IMMITTANCE 23
These quantities F 0 (s),V0 (s)and M 0 (s)are closely related to the power and stored energies of
the circuit under steady-state sinusoidal conditions, as described in Section 1.2. The power
dissipated as heat in the resistors, averaged over one period of the sine wave, is
(1.89)
The average stored electric energy in all the capacitors is
(1.90)
The average stored magnetic energy in coupled inductors is
(1.91)
With these physical interpretations, we conclude that all of the three quantities ,Fo(s), J'o(s) and
M 0 (s)are real and nonnegative [12]t.
Fig. 1.14 General branch ofan RLCM one-port network.
'Kami, S. (1966) Network Theory: Analysis and Synthesis, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Chapter 3.
Substituting (1.89), ( 1.90) and ( 1.91) in (1.85) shows
Zin(s}= 1 [Fo(s)+.!.Vc,(s)+sM0 (s)] (l.92)

11,(s)
12 s
Our main purpose here is to establish analytic properties of a passive one-port immittance. To
this end, we set s =a+ joo and compute the real and the imaginary parts of Zin (s) as follows:
(1.93)
(1.94)
From (1.93) and (1.94), observe that
(1) Whens is real, Zin (s) is real,

(2) ReZin(s)~O, when cr~O.
Thus, the closed right-half of the s-plane (RHS) maps to the closed RHS of the Z-plane, as
illustrated in Fig. I. I 5. A function satisfying the above two properties is called a positive real
function, or simply a pr function. The concept of positive realness is of fundamental importance
in network synthesis.
Z-Plane
ReZ(s)
Fig. 1.15 The s-plane to the Z-plane mapping by a positive real function.
Definition 1.1 Positive-real function. A positive-real function F(s) is analytic function of

the complex variable s = a+ joo satisfying the following three conditions:
(1) F(s) is analytic in the open RHS, i.e., er> 0.
POSITIVE REAL IMMITTANCE 25
(2) F(s) = F(s) for alls in the open RHS.

(3) ReF(s) ~ 0 whenever Res~ 0.
The above definition establishes a new class of mathematical functions. Our objective is to
show that positive realness is a necessary and sufficient condition for a passive one-port
immittance. By making a study of this class of functions, we can deduce many properties that we
could not establish from physical reasoning alone. The concept of a positive-real function, as
well as many of its properties, is due to Otto Brune.t The above definition holds for both rational
and transcendental functions. A rational function is defined as a ratio of two polynomials.
Network functions associated with any linear lumped system, which we deal with exclusively in
this book, are rational. In following section we study the rational positive-real function in detail.
1.7 Positive Real Functions
In the foregoing, we demonstrated that the driving-point impedance Zin (s) of a passive one-
port is positive real. Conversely, it was also shown by Brune [1] that every positive real function
can be realized as the driving-point immittance function of a passive one-port containing only
passive elements such as R's, L's, C's, ideal transformers, couple coils and gyrators.
From ( 1.93), we notice that a positive-real function maps the a-axis of the s-plane into the
real axis of Z-plane, and maps the closed RHS of s-plane into the closed RHS of the Z-plane,
where closed RHS means Re s ~ 0. An immediate consequence of this interpretation is that a
positive real function of a positive real function is itself positive real, or
Property 1.1 If Fi (s) and F2 (s) are positive real, so is Fi [F2 (s)].
This is a useful result and can be employed to derive other properties. For example, let
Fi (s) = 1/s. Then Fi (s) is positive real, and by Property 1.1 the function defined by the equation
F(s) = F;[F;(s)]=-1- (1.95)

F;(s)
is positive real if F2 (s) is positive real. Likewise, letting F2 (s) = 1/s shows that
F(s) = Fi [F2 (s)]= Fi (1/s) (1.96)

is positive real, if Fi (s) is.
Property 1.2 If Fi(s)and F2 (s)are positive real, so are 1/F(s) and F(l/s).
Property 1.3 A positive real function is devoid of poles in the open RHS.
t 0. Brune, (1931)," Synthesis ofa finite two•tenninnl network whose driving-point Impedance Is a prescribed function of
frequency," J. Math. Phy:s., Vol. 10, pp. 191-236. This is the same as his M.I.T. Sc.D. dlsscrtaUon, 1930.
To show that a pr function is devoid of poles in the open RHS plane, we show only for a
rational function F(s). Assume that s0 is a RHS pole of order n of F(s). In the neighborhood
of this pole, the Laurent series expansion of F(s) takes the form
(1.97)
The constant a_ 1 is called the residue of the function F(s) evaluated at the pole s0 • In a
sufficiently small neighborhood of s0 , the first term of the Laurent series expansion can be made
much larger in magnitude than the rest. Write
a •n =meJO (1.98)
s-s 0 =rel+ (1.99)
where m and r arc real. Then in the neighborhood of s0 , Re F(s) can be approximated by
(1.100)
Since 8 is a fixed angle and cj, can vary from Oto 21t in this neighborhood, Re F(s) changes sign
2n times as cj, varies from Oto 21t. To satisfy the condition that Re Z(s) ~ 0, when cr ~ 0, no such
poles can exist, showing that F(s) is analytic in the open RHS. Property 1.2 states that the
reciprocal of a positive-real function is positive real. It follows that a positive-real function
cannot have zeros in the open RHS. For if not, its reciprocal, being positive real, would have a
pole in the open RHS, which is impossible. In the same way, we can also show [3]:
Property 1.4 If a positive real function has poles and zeros on the jro -axis, 0 and co
included, such poles or zeros must be simple. At a simple pole on the jro -axis, its residue is real
and positive.
Base on the above discussion and by appealing to the maximum modulus theorem of the
complex variable thcoryt, it can be shown that the following conditions arc equivalent.
Theorem 1.1 A rational function F(s) is positive real if and only if the following three
conditions are satisfied:
(1) F(s} is real, whens is real.
(2) For all real ro, Re F{jro) ~ 0. (1.101)
(3)AII poles of F(s) lie in the closed left-half of the s-plane (LBS). All jro-axis poles, zero
and infinity included, must be simple with positive real residues.
tscc Guillcmin, E. A. (1949) Tlie Mathematics a/Circuit A11alysis, New York: John Wiley, pp. 327-330.
POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS 27
Definition 1.2 A polynomial with its zeros restricted to the closed LHS is called a Hunvitz
polynomial. A polynomial with its zeros restricted to the open LHS (excluding thejroaxis) will
be called a strictly Hunvilz polynomial.
For computational purposes, Theorem 1.1 can be reformulated and put in a much more
convenient form, as follows:
Theorem 1.2 A rational function represented in the form
(1.102)
where m1(s), m2 (s) and n 1(s), n2 (s) are the even and odd parts of the polynomials P(s) and Q(s),
respectively, is positive real if and only if the following condition are satisfied:
(i) F(s) is real whens is real.

(ii) P(s) + Q(s) is strictly Hurwitz.
(iii) m1(jro)m 2 (jro}-n1(jro}n 2 (jro)';!.0 for all ro.
The testing of the second condition can easily be accomplished by means of the Hurwitz
test. It states that a real polynomial is strictly Hurwitz if and only if the continued-fraction
expansion of the ratio of the even part to the odd part or the odd part to the even part of the
polynomial yields only real and positive coefficients, and does not terminate prematurely. For
P(s) + Q(s) to be strictly Hurwitz, it is necessary and sufficient that the continued-fraction
expansion
(1.103)
yields only real and positive a' s, and does not terminate prematurely. In other words, assuming
that there is no common factor in (1.103), k must equal to the degree of m1(s)+m 2 (s) or
n1(s)+n 2 (s), whichever is larger. It can be shown that the third condition is satisfied if and only
the polynomial m1(jro)m2 (jro)-n1(jro)n 2(jro) does not have real positive roots of odd
multiplicity. This may be determined by factoring it or by the use of Sturm's theorem, which can
be found in most texts on elementary theory of equations.t
An alternative testing procedure that avoids the necessity of computing residues can be
deduced from the above Theorem by the well-known bilinear transformation
t Ternes, G. C. and LaPatra, J. W. ( 1977), Jn1roduction to Circuit Synlhesis and Dtslgn. New York: McGraw-Hill, Chapter 4.
F(s)-1 F(s) = 1+ w(s)

w(s) = -=--=--- or (1.104)
F(s) + 1 1-w(s)
which has the property that
ReF(s);?: 0 (1.105)
if and only if
(1.106)
respectively. We see that two alternative sets of necessary and sufficient conditions for F(s) to
be positive-real is that
Corollary 1.1 A rational function F(s) is positive-real if and only if the following three
conditions are satisfied:
(i) w(s) is real whens is real.

(ii) w(s) has no poles in the closed RHS, i.e., Res;?: 0.
(iii) lw(jco)j S 1, for OS co S co.
Corollary 1.2 A rational function F(s) is positive-real if and only if
larg F(s >I S larg sl for largsl S rr/2 (1.107)
We illustrate these results by the following examples:
Example 1.1 Test the following function to see ifit is positive-real:
F(s)=2s 2 +s+l (1.108)

s 2 +s+2
By inspection, condition (i) of Theorem 1.2 is obviously true. To test condition (ii), we write
P(s) + Q(s) =(3s 2 + 3) + 2s =m(s) + n(s) (1.109)
showing that
m(s) 3s 2 + 3 3 1
--=---=-s+- (1.110)
n(s) 2s 2 fs
Since the continued-fraction expansion does not terminate prematurely and all of its coefficients
POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS 29
are real and positive, we conclude the polynomial P(s) + Q(s) is strictly Hurwitz, and condition
(ii) is satisfied.
To test condition (iii), we compute
(I.Ill)
which is nonnegative for all ro. Therefore, F(s) is positive-real.
1.8 Positive Real Matrix
In this section, we extend the notion of a positive real function to that of a positive real
matrix in order to study an n-port network. Before doing this, we review Hermitian matrix and
the concept of positive definiteness and nonnegative definiteness.
An n x n matrix F is said to be a Hermitian matrix if
F=F" (1.112)
where• denotes matrix transpose and conjugate operations.
Definition 1.3 Positive-definite matrix. An n x n Hermitian matrix F is said to be positive-

definite if
X"FX>O (1.113)
for all complex n-vectors X :t O.
Definition 1.4 Nonnegative-definite matrix. An n x n Hermitian matrix F(s) is said to be

nonnegative-definite if
X"FX~O (1.114)
for all complex n-vectors X .e O.

This process to test positive or nonnegative definiteness from its definition is long and
tedious and really does not help very much. In following, we present simple equivalent testing
criteria in terms of the elements of the given Hermitian matrix.
In a matrix F of order n, a principal minor of order r is the determinant of an r x r
submatrix consisting of the rows i1,i2 ,··•,i, and the columns i1,/2 ,··•,I,. The leading principal
minor of order r is the determinant of the submatrix consisting of the first r rows and first r
columns. For example, given a 3 x 3 matrix
(1.115)
the principal minors of Fare listed below:

Principal minors of order 1
(1.116)
Principal minors of order 2
(1.117)
Principal minor of order 3
/11 f.2 fu
/21 /22 /23 (1.118)
/2, /22 J;3
Of the seven principal minors, only
fu f.2 f,3
J;, /22 J;3 (1.119)
/2, /22 /23
arc the leading principal minors.
With these preliminaries, we now state Sylvester's criteria for positive definiteness and
nonnegative definiteness of a Hermitian matrix.
Theorem 1.3 A Hermitian matrix is positive definite if and only if all of its leading
principal minors are positive. A Hermitian matrix is nonnegative definite if and only if all of its
principal minors are nonnegative.
We remark that for a positive-definite matrix, not only its leading principal minors arc
positive, but all of its principal minors are also positive. In other words, for a positive-define
matrix, the positiveness of its leading principal minors also implies the positiveness of all of its
principal minors. However, for a nonnegative-definite matrix, the nonncgativcncss of its leading
principal minors docs not necessarily imply the nonnegativencss of all ofits principal minors.
Example 1.2 Consider a 2x 2 matrix
(l.120)
Clearly, the two leading principal minors

POSITIVE REAL MATRIX 31
/11 =0, /11 f..21=0

1J;, (1.121)
/22
but Fis not nonnegative, since X"FX = -3lxi!2 < 0.

Example 1.3 An optimization process yields the following Hession matrix
2 -3 1 2
-3 5 -2 -1
H= (1.122)
1 -2 7 -5
2 -1 -5 16
Determine the nature ofH. We first evaluate the following principal minors:
D1 =2, D2=12 -31 =1 (1.123)

-3 s
2
-3 1
D3 = -3 5 -2 =6 (1.124)
1 -2 7
-3 1 2
2
-3 5 -2 -1
D4= =20 (1.125)
1 -2 7 -5
2 -1 -5 16
where D4 was computed by Program AIOI given in the appendix. Since all four leading
principal minors are positive, it follows from Theorem 1.3 that H is positive definite. After this
brief digression, we now proceed to introduce the notion of a positive real matrix.
Definition 1.4. Positive real matrix. An n x n matrix function F(s) of a complex frequency
variables is said to be a positive real matrix if it satisfies the following three conditions:
(1) Each element of F(s) is analytic in the open RHS, i.e. Res> 0.
(2) F (s) = F( s) for all s in the open RHS.
(3) Its Hermitian part
Fh (s) = ½[F(s) + F" (s)] (1.126)
is nonnegative definite for all s in the open RHS.

Theorem 1.4 A necessary and sufficient condition for a linear, time invariant n-port
network possessing an admittance, impedance, or hybrid matrix to be passive is that the matrix
be positive real. We illustrate the above by the following example.
Example 1.4 Consider the impedance matrix
(1.127)
of a passive two port network of Fig. 1.16, the Hcnnitian part of which is given by
(1.128)
'----------1(1----•
C
Fig. 1.16 A two-port network used in Example 1.3.
Since the only singularity of Z(s) lies on the jro-axis at s = 0, Z(s) is analytic in the open
RHS. Because coefficients in the matrix are all real, we have Z(s) = Z(s). Finally, its Hcnnitian
part Zh (s) is nonnegative definite for all s in the open RHS if and only if the following three
inequalities are satisfied:
(1.129)
(1.130)
(1.131)
for cr > 0, showing that for real and positive R1 , R2 and C, Zh (s) is nonnegative definite for alls
in the open RHS. Therefore, the impedance matrix is positive real.
REFERENCES 33
References
I. Brune, 0. ( 1931) Synthesis of a finite two-tenninal network whose driving-point impedance
is a prescribed function of frequency. J. Math. Phys., Vol. 10, pp. 191-236.
2. Bush, V. ( 1917) The coupled circuit by the method of generalized angular velocities. Proc.
IRE, Vol. 5, pp. 363-382.
3. Chen, W. K. (1986) Passive and Active Filters, Theory and Implementations, New York:
John Wiley.
4. Chen, W. K. (1976) Theory and Design of Broadband Matching Networks, Cambridge,
England: Pergamon Press, Chapter I.
5. Desoer, C. A and Kuh, E. S.(1962) Basic Circuit Theory, New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Guillemin, E. A.(1949) The Mathematics ofCircuit Analysis, New York: John Wiley.
7. Kami, S. (1966) Network Theory: Analysis and Synthesis, Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Chapter
3.
8. Ternes, G. C. and LaPatra, J. W. (1977), Introduction to Circuit Synthesis and Design, New
York: McGraw-Hill.
9. Van Valkenburg, M. E. (1974) Network Analysis, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
I 0. Van Valkenburg, M. E. (1982) Analog Filter Design, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
11. Van Valkcnburg, M. E. (1960) Introduction to Modern Network Synthesis, New York: John
Wiley.
12. Youla, D.C. (1961) A new theory of cascade synthesis. IRE Trans. Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-9,
No. 3, pp. 244-260.
This page is intentionally left blank
Chapter2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
The Transmission and

Reflection Coefficients
2.1 The Reflection Coefficients in a One-Port Network
Consider the one-port network N of Fig. 2.1, characterized by its input impedance Z(s).
Assume that N is excited by a voltage source in series with an impedance z(s).
z(s) /(s)
+
N
V(s)
Z(s)
Fig. 2.1 A one-port network excited by a voltage source in series with an impedance.
The current at the input loop is
l(s) = VK(s) (2.1)

z(s)+Z(s)
whereas the port voltage is

V(s)= Z(s) Vg(s) (2.2)
z(s)+Z(s)
It is well known that the maximum average power transfer from the source to the one-port N
occurs when the input impedance is conjugately matched to the source impedance:
ZUro) = z(jro) (2.3)
where the bar denotes complex conjugate. With the exception that z(s) is a frequency
independent constant, the conjugate impedance z(jro) cannot be physically realized by a passive
network for all frequencies. Thus, for a complex z(s) this maximum average power transfer is
35
36 THE TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION COEFFICIENTS
attained only at a single or several sinusoidal frequencies. To extend this optimal power
matching condition from the jro-axis to the entire complex frequency plane, which has the
physical significance of maximum energy absorption by the one-port under an arbitrary
excitation (transient or steady state), we appeal to analytic continuation in the theory of a
complex variable. This is equivalent to replacing z(jro) = z(- jro) by z(-s), and the optimal
power matching condition (2.3) is extended to
Z(s)=z(-s) (2.4)
Under this condition, the input current referred as the incident current I,(s) is found to be
I,(s)= Vs:(s) VK(s)

(2.5)
z(s) + z(-s) 2r(s)
where the even part of z(s) is defined as
r(s) =]_ [z(s) + z(-s)] (2.6)

2
The port voltage known as the incident voltage V, (s) is given by
z(-s)
~(s) = 11(s)z(-s) =--Vs:(s) (2.7)
2r(s)
These relations arc iUustrated in Fig. 2.2.

Borrowing the terms from transmission theory, the reflected current I, (s) and reflected
voltage V, (s) are defined as
(2.8a)
V,(s) =V(s)-V, (s) (2.8b)
z(s) /(s) r----------------------
V(s) :(-s)
Fig. 2.2 A matched one-port network.
Substituting (2.1 ), (2.2), (2.5), (2.6) and (2. 7) in (2.8) yields

THE INCIDENT AND REFLECTION COEFFICIENTS FOR A ONE-PORT NElWORK 37
1 (s) = /(s)-l(s) = [Z(s)-z(-s)]V,(s) (2.9)

' ' [Z(s)+z(s)][z(s)+z(-s)]
V,(s) = V(s)-V,(s) = [ [Z(s)-jts)]z(s) ]Vir(s) =z(s)l,(s) (2.10)
Z(s)+z(s) z(s)+z(-s)
The current reflection coefficient and the voltage reflection coefficient are defined as
p,(s) = l,(s) = Z(s)-z(-s) (2.11)

/ 1(s) Z(s)+z(s)
p,,(s)= V,(s) = z(s) . Z(s)-z(-s)
(2.12)
V,(s) z(-s) Z(s)+z(s)
When source impedance z(s) is purely resistive or
z(s) =z(-s) =r (2.13)
we obtain from (2.11) and (2.12)
Z(s)-r Y(s)-g
P,(s) = Pv(s) = - - - = - - - - - (2.14)
Z(s)+r Y(s)+g
where Y(s) =1/Z(s) and g =1/r. Substituting (2.13) in (2.7) and (2.10) shows that
~(s) V,(s)
--=--=r (2.15)
I,(s) I,(s)
2.2 Real Normalization

In the foregoing, using the transmission concept we define the incident and reflected
currents and voltages for a one-port. In this section, we consider the special situation where the
source impedance z(s) is purely resistive as shown in Fig. 2.3, and introduced the notion of
normalized waves.
r l(s)
+
One-port
V1 (s) V(s) network
Fig. 2.3 A one-port network with resistive source impedance.

Using (2.15), the normalized incident and reflected waves arc defined as follows:
(2.16a)
b(s) = ✓rl,(s) = V Jr) (216b)
where r is real, being independent of the complex frequency s. They are also referred to as the
scattering parameters. Multiplying ✓ r to both sides of (2.8a) and t/✓ r to (2.8b) and using
(2.16), these parameters can be expressed in terms of the port current and voltage:
a(s)=½[J;> + ✓rl(s)] (2.17)
b(s) =½[1) - ✓r/(s)] (2.18)
Defining the normalized voltage and current can eliminate the square root of r appearing on the
right-hand side of these expressions:
V(s)= V(s) (2.19)

✓r
i(s) = ✓rI(s) (2.20)
The scattering parameters become
a(s) = ½[V(s) + i(s)] (2.21)

b(s) = ½[V(s)- i(s)] (2.22)
Finally, we define the real normalized reflection coefficient as
p(s)= b(s) = ~(s)-~(s) _ ~(s)-1 Z(s)-r (2.23)

a(s) V(s)+l(s) Z(s)+l Z(s)+r
where Z(s) = Z(s)/r is the normalized input impedance of the one-port N.
Power relations
The scattering parameters arc most appropriate in describing the power. In the following
we express the power relation for the network of Fig. 2.3 in terms of these parameters. Under
sinusoidal steady state condition, the complex power delivered to the one-port is given by
REAL NORMALIZATION 39
Wi (jro) = P,(ro) + jQ;(ro) = V(jro)l(jro) = vc_;,) (✓rIUro))= V(jro)/(jro) (2.24)
Substituting (2.21) and (2.22) in (2.24), the real average power delivered to the one-port is found
to be
P,(ro) = Re {[a(jro)+b(jro)l[aUro)-b(jro)]}
(2.25)
=lauro}l2-lbUro}l2 =lauro)l2{1-1p(jro)l2}
From (2.25) we can draw the following conclusions:

(1) The magnitude squared of both a(jro) and b(jro) has the dimensions of power,
implying that the dimensions of the scattering parameters are the square root of power.
(2) From Fig. 2.3, we have
Vi: (s) = rl(s) + V(s) (2.26)
Dividing both sides of (2.26) by ✓r, we obtain a relationship between the normalized source
vi:
voltage (s) and normalized port voltage V(s) and current i(s):
vi: cs>= V(s) + i<s> = 2a(s) (2.27)
As is well known, the maximum available average power P_ (ro) that a source can deliver
to the one-port N with internal impedance r is
(2.28)
obtaining from (2.25)
(2.29)
where P, (ro) = Pmu ( ro )lp(jro)12 = ~(jro }12 referred to as the rejlected power from the one-port to
the source.
(3) For a passive one-port, the maximum average power cannot exceed the available power,
or P,(ro)/P-~ (ro) S 1. Hence
IPU00>l Sl (2.30)
A real function of s satisfying (2.30) is called a bounded-real junction. Properties.of a bounded

real function will be presented in Section 2.6.
2.3 Multiport Real Normalized Scattering Parameters
r, / 1(s)
W-1
., Y:(s)
'2
"""'
l 1(s)
.+ N
••
r,. •
/,.(s)
W-1
►Y;(s)
Fig. 2.4 A multiport network with real nonnalization.
In this section, we extend previous discussion for a one-port to a multiport network, each
port of which is tenninatcd in a positive resistance in series with a voltage source as shown in
Fig. 2.4. The extension is straightforward except those matrices now replace the scalar quantities.
To begin, we define the port voltage, current and source voltage vectors as
V(s) = [v; (s), V2(s), Vn(s)1 (2.31)
l(s) = [11(s), / 2 ... , ln(s)1

(s), (2.32)
V1 (s) = [v,: 1(s), v.c2(s), ... , V""'(s)J (2.33)
and the diagonal reference matrix

r• 0 0 0
0 r2 0 0
r= 0 0 r;i 0 (2.34)
0 0 0 rn
Since all source resistances r1 (j =1,2, •••, n) are assumed to be positive, the matrix r is
nonsingular and positive definitet. From Fig. 2.4 we obtain
t For positive definite matrix. see Section 1.9.

MULTIPORT REAL NORMALIZED SCATTERING PARAMETERS 41
Vg(s) = V(s)+rl(s) = [Z(s)+r]I(s) (2.35)
where Z(s) is the open-circuit impedance matrix of the multiport N defined by
V(s)= Z(s)l(s) (2.36)

where
-z 11 (s) z 12 (s) z1n(s)
-
z 22 (s) Z2n(S)
Z(s)=
Z21(S)
. (2.37)
_zn, (s) Zn2 (s) zM(s)_
Assume that each of its ports is matched to its source resistance, meaning that the input
impedance Z 0 (s),U = 1,2, .. ,,n) looking into each port when all other ports are terminated in
their load is equal to its source resistance r1 • The situation is depicted in Fig. 2.5. Under this
condition, the incident current vector and the incident voltage vector are found to be
I,(s) =½ r- 1v,c(s) (2.38)
V,(s) = rl,(s) =½ Vll(s) (2.39)
r, ~----------------,I
-v;(,):~
I
l,,(s) I I
I
f\M I
Y_,(•)Q ~ ,,
I
' I
I
I
I
I
t
I
r2 / 12 (s) I
$,
I
'W\J
v.,<•lQ -Y,~(,i:
•• N
•
'•(•~ Y~(•\ $'•

I
I
·----------------·
Fig. 2.5 A completely matched multiport network.
As in the one-port case, the reflected voltage vector V,(s) and the reflected current vector
I,(s) are defined as
(2.40)
(2.41)
Combining (2.35), (2.38) and (2.39) with (2.40) and (2.41) obtains
V,(s) =½[V(s)-rl(s)] (2.42)
I,(s) = ½r- 1[V(s)-rl(s)] (2.43)
The scattering matrices
The matrix S 1 (s) relating the incident current vector to the reflected current vector is
called the current-basis scattering matrix:
(2.44)
Likewise, the matrix Sv (s) relating the incident voltage vector to the reflected voltage vector is
called the voltage-basis scattering matrix
V,(s) = Si. (s)V, (s) (2.45)
As in the one-port case, they can be expressed in terms of impedance matrix Z(s) and the
reference impedance matrix r through (2.38), (2.43), (2.39) and (2.42):
(2.46)
Sv (s) = [Z(s)- r][Z(s) + r J-' (2.47)
To obtain the normalized scattering matrix, we define the normalized incident and reflected
wave vectors as follows:
(2.48)
1 _J,
b(s) =r 3 l,(s) =r 3 V,(s) (2.49)
which can be expressed in terms of the port voltage and current vectors as
(2.50)
The matrix relating the incident wave vector to the reflected wave vector is called the normalized
scattering matrix S(s):
b(s) = S(s)a(s) (2.52)
Substituting (2.48) and (2.49) in (2.52) in conjunction with (2.46) and (2.47) gives a relation
among the nonnalized scattering matrix and the current-basis and voltage-basis scattering
matrices:
J. _1 ..J. J.
S(s)=r' S1 (s)r '=r 1 Sv(s)r' (2.53)
Finally, combining (2.46), (2.47) and (2.53) obtainst
(2.54)
where Z(s) is the nonnalized open-circuit impedance matrix defined by
A _j_ ..1
Z(s) = r 1 Z(s)r 1 (2.55)
and
A I [ ] I I r,A 1-• (2.56)
Y 0 (s)=r 1 Z(s)+r · r 1 =LZ(s)+Uj
can be identified as the short-circuit admittance matrix of an augmented multiport and U is the
identity matrix.
Example 2.1 Consider an ideal transfonner N with turns ration to 1 as shown in Fig. 2.6.
We wish to compute the incident and reflected voltage and current vectors and the scattering
matrices with respect to the reference impedance matrix
(2.57)
From Fig. 2.6, the port voltage and current vectors are found to be
(2.58)
'We used the following relationship: S 1(1)= r· 1[Z(1)-r][Z(1)+rt 1r = [Z(s)+rf1[Z(s)-r]

(2.59)
From (2.38) and (2.39), the incident current and voltage vectors arc obtained as
(2.60)
(2.61)
r------------------------------------
Fig. 2.6 Ideal transformer and its augmented two-port network N 0 •
Substituting these in (2.42) and (2.43) yields the reflected voltage and current vectors:
(2.62)
(2.63)
the coefficient matrices of which are the voltage-basis and current-basis scattering matrices
Sv (s) and S 1 (s), respectively, of the ideal transformer. Using (2.53), the normalized scattering
matrix of (2.57) is obtained as
(2.64)
Example 2.2 Consider an ideal gyrator N with gyration resistance r as shown in Fig. 2.7.
We wish to compute its scattering matrix normalized to the reference impedance matrix (2.57).
lj r ,,
" - - - - ~ ,-++_ _,,
+
Fig. 2. 7 Gyrator with its terminations.
The open-circuit impedance of the gyrator is given by
Z(s)= [ r
o -r]
0 (2.65)
From (2.55) we compute

-r
0
Z(s)=
f,i; (2.66)
r
0
-~
Finally, substituting (2.66) in (2.54) yields the scattering matrix of the gyrator normalized to
reference impedance matrix (2.57) as
(2.67)
2.4 The Scattering Matrix of a Two-Port Nehvork
Because of their practical applications, we now focus on the scattering matrix of a two-port
network of Fig. 2.8.
(2.68)
normalizing to the terminating impedance matrix
(2.69)
o1(s) al(s)
~ ~
I 2
~
b1(s) Lossless two- ~
port network b2 (s)

v,,(s) l'x:(s)
I' 2'
Fig. 2.8 A two-port network terminating in two resistors.
From (2.52) its scattering parameters can be computed as follows:
(2.70a)
(2.70b)
Observe that each parameter is the ratio of a reflected wave to an incident wave under the
condition that the incident wave at the other port is zero. For, say, a 2 (s) to vanish, from (2.50) it
is necessary and sufficient that V2 (s) =-i 2 (s), or V2 (s) = -r2 / 2 (s). This is equivalent to saying
that if port 22' is terminated in its reference impedance and without voltage source, the reflected
voltage is the port voltage V2 (s) = Vr 2(s), and the reflected current is the total current
/ 2 (s) = -lr 2 (s). This is similarly valid for a 1(s) = 0.
In other words, the scattering parameters of a two-port can be interpreted as the ratios of a
reflected wave to an incident variable when the other port is terminated in its reference
impedance. From (2.50), we have
S ( ) _ b1(s) _ 111(s)-i,(s) _ Z11 (s)-l _ Z 11 (s)-r1 (2.71)

11 s - a, (s) "JM•O - V. (s) + i, (s) - Z11 (s) + 1 - Z 11 (s) + r,
where Z 11 (s) is the input impedance at port 11 ', when port 22' is terminated in its reference
impedance, i.e., the normalization impedance r 2 and 211 (s) = Z 11 (s)/r1 • S 22 (s) can be obtained
in the same way.
Now consider S 21 (s). When a 2 (s) = 0, as mentioned above, V2 (s) = -r2 / 2 (s) leads
(2.72)
Applying (2. 72) to (2.51) shows
(2.73)
THE SCATIERING MATRIX OF A TWO-PORT NETWORK 47
when port 22' is tenninated r2 • Also from (2.50) we have
(2.74)
Substituting (2.73) and (2.74) in (2.70) gives
(2.75)
Recall that the available power from the source at port 11' is Pm:a (ro) = IVi:1(jro>j2 /4r1 , and
the power absorbed by the load is P2 (ro) = IV2 (jro)l 2 /r2 , showing that
(2.76)
Therefore, the magnitude squared of S 21 (jro) is the transducer power gain.
Properties of the Scattering Matrix
The total complex input power delivered to the two-port in the sinusoidal steady state is
Using (2.50) to (2.77), we obtain
Win (jro) = [a'(-jro)+ b'(-jro))[a(jro)-b(jro)]

(2.78)
= (a'(-jro)a(jro)-b'(-jro)b(jro)]+ [b'(-jro)a(jro)-a'(-jro)b(jro)]
Since the last tenn inside the parentheses on the right-hand of (2.78) is imaginary, the real power
becomes
Pin (ro) = a'(-jro)a(jro)-b'(-jro)b(jro)

= a'(-jro)a(jro)-a'(-jro)S'(-jro)S(jro)a(jro)
(2.79)
= a'(-jro)[U-S'(-jro)S(jro)}l(jro)
Special properties of the nonnalized scattering matrix for different classes of networks can
be established by means of (2. 79). If a two-port is lossless, Pin (ro) = 0 for all ro . From (2. 79) we
have
U-S'(-jro}SUro) =0 (2.80)
Appealing to analytic continuation in the theory of a complex variable, we can write for all s
U-S.(s)S(s) = 0 (2.81)
where S.(s)=S'(-s).
Definition 2.1 Para-unitary matrix: A matrix S(jro) satisfying (2.80) for all ro is said to
be unitary on the jro -axis. A matrix S(s) satisfying (2.81) for all s is termed a para-unitary
matrix.
Now consider the para-unitary condition (2.81) rewritten as
S.(s)S(s) =U (2.82)
or explicitly as
(2.83)
giving
S 11 (s)S11 (-s) + S 21 {s)S21 (-s) = 1 (2.84)

S 12 (s)S12 (-s) + S 22 (s)S22 (-s) = I (2.85)
S12 (s)S 11 (-s) + S22 (s)S21 (-s) =0 (2.86)
S 11 (s)S 12 (-s) + S 21 (s)S22 (-s) = 0 (2.87)
Form (2.86) we obtain
(2.88)
Solving (2.84) to (2.87) also gives
S 12 (s)S 12 (-s) = S 21 {s)S21 (-s) (2.89)

S 11 (s)S11 (-s) = S 22 (s)S 22 (-s) (2.90)
In particular, for s = jro, (2.89) and (2.90) become
1s,2uro)l2 =IS2,Uro)l2 (2.91)
IS11 (jro}l2 =IS22 (jro}l2 (2.92)

THE SCATTERING MATRIX OF A TWO-PORT NETWORK 49
Equation (2.91) states that the magnitude of the forward transmission coefficient S2,Uoo)
equals that of the reverse transmission coefficient S12 (jro), even for nonreciprocal network.
Similarly, from (2.92) the magnitude of input reflection coefficient S11 (joo) and that of the
output reflection coefficient S22 (joo) arc equal. We. summarize the above as a theorem [I].
Theorem 2.1 The 2 x 2 scattering matrix S(s) of a lossless two-port network possesses the
following properties:
( 1) Each entry of S(s) is rational and real for s real.
(2) S(s) is analytic in Res~ 0, i.e. each entry is analytic in the closed right half of the S-
plane.
(3) S(jro) is unitary, satisfying U-S'(-joo)S(joo)=O; thus S(s)is para-unitary having
S. (s)S(s) = U for alls.
( 4) If S(s) is symmetric, S12 (s) = S 21 (s), and the lossless two-port is reciprocal.
We remark that each entry of S(s) is the ratio of two real polynomials. We now introduce
a more compact representation of S(s) in terms of these polynomials. This representation follows
from Theorem 2.1 and is due to Belevitch [3].
Corollary 2.1 A lumped lossless two-port N possesses the following scattering matrix
S(s) = _1_[ u(s) f(s) ]

g(s) r.f(-s) -r.u(-s)
(2.93)
where
(1) g(s), u(s) and /(s) are real polynomials for s real; & = ±1,
(2) g(s) is strictly Hurwitz,
(3) u(s)u(-s) + f(s)f(-s) = g(s)g(-s). (2.94)
Corollary 2.2 A lumped lossless reciprocal two-port N possesses the following scattering
matrix:
S(s) = _l_[u(s) f(s) ] (2.95)

g(s) f(s) -&u(-s)
where
(1) g(s}, u(s) and /(s) are real polynomials; f(s) is either even or odd; E=1 if /(s)
is even, & = -1 if /(s) is odd; and & is called the polarity of /(s).
f(s) = r.f(-s) (2.96a)
(2) g(s) is strictly Hurwitz,

(3) u(s)u(-s) + ef 2 (s) =g(s)g(-s). (2.96b)
2.5 Complex Normalization
The scattering parameters treated up to this point arc useful for multiports with resistive
tenninations. Nonnalization was carried out with these real numbers. In this section we extend
the real nonnalization to complex normalization in order to accommodate the situation where
multiport tcnninations are impedances instead of resistances.
To this end, consider an arbitrary multiport network N with complex load at its ports, as
depicted in Fig. 2.9, obtaining
V ,:(s) =V(s)+z(s)l(s)= [Z(s)+z(s)]I(s) (2.97)
where Z(s) is the open-circuit impedance matrix of N and z(s) is the terminating reference
impedance matrix
:'i(s)
,.cs)
+
J/.r1Cs) 1'1(s)
=2(s) / (s)
2
+
J/.r2(s) l';(s)
N
••
•
zH(s)
IH(s)
+
V,..,,(s) Vn(s)
Fig. 2.9 A multiport network together with its complex terminations.
-z,(s) 0
0 0
z(s)= (2.98)
0 0
COMPLEX NORMALIZATION 51
Following the one-port case, we consider the optimum matching situation of Fig. 2.10.
Observe that the impedance looking into portjj' of the multiport is z1 (-s). Under this condition,
the port current and port voltage vectors are defined as the incident current vector l,(s) and
incident voltage vector V1 (s):
(2.99)
(2.100)
,-----------------
----tC::J
z.(s) I (s)
II..
I
I
v,,(,)9.______v.....~_s>•._;_ __,O ,,(-,)

I' :
I
e I
: :
----1C::J
:J(s) I() :
v.c,> 9. .______.,~. . !_ __.0

I/ s.. I
/
'
"'>....
I
:
,,c-,>
e
e
I
I
N
z,.(s) 1 ( ) • !
V,.(,) 9-.. ==:C::J
___. _s_• _v;c_s>-!-:_
I
O,.(-,)
....
n' :
Fig. 2.10 A matched multiport network.
As before, we define the reflected current vector and reflected voltage vector as (2.40) and
(2.41). Following (2.42) and (2.43) we obtain
lr(s) =[z(s) +z(-s)l'[V(s)-z(-s)I(s)] (2.101)
V,(s) = z(s)[z(s) +z(-s)j1[V(s)-z(-s)I(s)] (2.102)
The matrix relating the reflected-current vector lr(s) to the incident-current vector l 1(s),
(2.103)
is called the current-basis scattering matrix. Substituting (2.97), (2.99) and (2.101) in (2.103)
gives
S,(s) = [z(s)+z(-s)l' [Z(s)-z(-s)][Z(s)+z(s)J 1[z(s)+z(-s)]

= [Z(s) + z(s)J-' [Z(s)-z(-s)]
Likewise, the matrix relating the reflected voltage vector V, (s) to the incident voltage vector
V,(s),
V,(s) = Sv(s)V,(s) (2.105)
is called the voltage-based scattering matrix. Substituting (2.100) and (2.102) in (2.105) gives
Sv(s) = z(s)[z(s) + z(-s)J-1[z(s)-z(-s)][Z(s) +z(s)J-' [z(s) +z(-s)}-• (-s)

= z(s) [Z(s)+z(s)l' [Z(s)-z(-s)]z-• (-s) = z(s) S1 (s) z-• (-s) (2.106)
Scattering matrices S, (s) and S,, (s) nonnalizing to the complex impedance matrix z(s) of
(2.104) and (2.106) are basis-dependent scattering matrices, and are not analytic in the RHS.
How to make them basis-independent is the subject of the following section.
2.5.1 Basis-Independent Reflection Coefficient
Given a square matrix A(s), as before write
A.(s)=A'(-s) (2.107)
A square matrix A(s) is said to be para-hermitian if A. (s) = A(s). The matrix
½[A{s) + A.(s)] (2.108)
is called the para-hermitian part of A(s) since it is para-hennitian. The para-hermitian part of
the reference impedance matrix z(s) is
r(s) =½[z(s) + z.(s)] (2.109)
Fora diagonal matrix z(s), we have z(s) =z'(s), and its even part
r(s) =½[z(s) + z{-s)] (2.110)
t s,(.r) = r"'(.r)[Z(.r)-z{-.r))[Z(.r) + z(.rll'r(.r) = r"'Cs>[U- 2r(.r)[Z(.r) + z(.r>t'J r(.r) • U -2[Z(.r)+ z(.r>l'r(.r)

•[Z(.r)+z(.r>t'[Z(.r)-z(-.r)], where r=f[z(.r}+z(-.r)].
COMPLEX NORMALl2'ATION 53
is also the para-hermitian part. The next step, as before, is normalization. Previously, the matrix r
is a matrix of real numbers, and normalization amounts to either dividing or multiplying the
components of a vector by the square roots of the scalar elements of r. Now r(s) is an even
rational function of s, and the process of taking the square root is not that simple. Our criterion in
defining the normalized scattering parameters is not only to preserve the power transfer
relationship among the n ports, but also to keep the scattering matrix rational and analytic in the
RHS for a passive lumped n port network. To this end, we consider the following factorization
instead of finding the square root of r(s) :
r(s) = h(s)h. (s) (2.111)
the details of which will be discussed later.

Recall that we have introduced two types of basis-dependent scattering matrices, one is
based on voltage and the other on current. This dual representation can be eliminated by
normalization, where the normalized reflection coefficient becomes basis-independent. As
before, we define the normalized incident-wave vector and the normalized reflected wave vector
as
(2.112)
b(s) = h(s)I,(s) (2.113)
respectively. Like (2.52), the basis-independent normalized scattering matrix S(s) is defined as
the matrix relating the incident wave vector to the reflected wave vector:
b(s) =S(s)a(s) (2.114)
The elements of S(s) are called the normalized scattering parameters of then-port network. Like
the basis-dependent scattering matrices, S(s) can also be expressed in terms of the impedance
matrix Z(s) and the reference impedance matrix z(s):
b(s) = h(s)l,(s) = h(s)S,(s)I,(s) = h(s)S,(s)h; 1(s)a(s) (2.115)
giving
S(s) =h(s)S,(s)h; 1(s) =h(s)h; 1(s)-2h(s)[Z(s)+z(s)J1h(s)
(2.116)
= h(s)Y {s)[Z(s)-z.(s)]b; 1(s)
0
where
Y.,(s) = [Z(s) + z(s)]-1 (2.117)
Equation (2.116) follows directly from (2.104).

Like (2.17) and (2.18), we can express the port voltage and current vectors and the
impedance matrix in terms of the normalized wave vectors and the normalized scattering matrix:
V(s) = V,(s) + V,(s) = z.(s)h;' (s)a(s)+z(s)h- 1(s)b(s) (2.118)

l(s) = I,(s)-1,(s) = h;'(s)a(s)-h-'(s)b(s) (2.119)
Z(s) = [z.(s)b; 1(s)a(s)+z(s)h- 1(s)b(s)][b; 1(s)a(s)-h- 1(s)b(s)j' (2,120)
The inverse relations of expressing the normalized waves in terms of the port voltage and current
vectors V(s) and I(s) and the impedance matrices Z(s) and z(s) can easily be obtained from
(2.118) and (2.119), and are given by
a(s) =½h- 1(s)[V(s)+z(s)I(s)] (2.121)
b(s) =fh;'(s)[V(s)-z.(s)l(s)] (2.122)
Again, much of the foregoing manipulation could have been avoided by simply regarding
(2.121) and (2.122) as the formal definitions of the wave vectors a(s) and b(s). This approach is
entirely consistent with the above exposition, yet it does not depend on the existence of the open
circuit impedance matrix Z(s) of N.
2.5.2 Factorizing of Para-Hermitian Matrix
In (2.111) we have indicated that the para-hermitian part of the referencc impedance z(s)
can be expressed as the product of two diagonal matrices h(s) and h. (s). Clearly, this type of
factorizations is not unique. For example, consider z, (s), the ith diagonal entry of z(s) is
s+4
z,(s)=-- (2.123)
s+9
whose para-hermitian part can be factored in the following four different ways:
r,(s) = t[z,(s) + z1(-s)]= (s+ 6)(s- 6)

(s+9)(s-9)
=(s+6)(s-6) = (s-6)(s+ 6) (2.124)

s+9 s-9 s+9 s-9
=(s+6)(s-6) = (s-6)(s+6)
s-9 s+9 s-9 s+9
At this point, it is natural to ask, "Which factorization shall we select for the normalization of the
reflection coefficient? 11 To answer this question, we recall that the passivity and activity of a
one-pork are defined in terms of its immittance functions in the closed RHS, since no useful
information can be obtained in this manner regarding the behavior of its immittance functions in
the open LHS. Thus, our criterion is selecting the factorization is to make the basis independent
normalized reflection coefficient analytic in the open RHS for passive n port networks.
Let us examine the properties of r 1(s) , and assume that it is not identically zero. This is
true as long as z,(s) does not represent a lossless network. The assumption is necessary since, as
we have shown before, the scattering parameter provides a quantitative measure of the deviation
of the actual power matching behavior of the network from the optimal power matched
condition, which cannot be meaningfully defined if r, (s) =0. We write explicitly the rational
impedance z1(s) as the ratio of two polynomials:
z (s)= p,(s) (2.125)

I q,(s)
Because the impedance, by assumption, is strictly passive, both p 1(s) and q,(s)are Hurwitz
polynomials. The para-hermitian part r1(s) becomes
r. (s) = p 1 (s)q1 (-s)+ p1 (-s)q,(s}

(2.126)
' 2q1 (s}q1(-s}
showing that r, (s) is the ratio of two even polynomials. Thus, the zeros and poles of r, (s) must
appear in quadrantal symmetry, i.e. they are symmetric with respect to both the real and
imaginary axis. Since z, (s) is positive real, 1j (s) has no poles on the jro -axis. For, if there
were such a pole, the partial fraction expansion of r,(s) would contain an odd term
K K 2Ks
---+ =--- (2.127)
s + jro 0 s - jro0 2s + ro~
and r,(s) would be odd, which is contrary to the fact that r1(s} is even. On the jro-axis, for
z,(s) to be positive real it is necessary that Rez,(s)=r,(ro)~0 for all ro, and this is satisfied if
and only if r,Uro} has no real positive zeros of odd multiplicity in ro, or equivalently the jro-
axis zeros of r 1 (s) must be even multiplicity.
To sum up, the property of 'i (s), when z1(s) is positive real, is
(1) r,(s) is the ratio of two even polynomials, the zeros and poles of r,(s)must appear in
quadrantal symmetry.
(2) r, (s) has no poles on the jro-axis.
(3) The jro-axis zeros of r, (s) must be of even multiplicity.
(4} Poles of r 1 (s) may be either simple or of higher multiplicity.
(5} The degree of numerator of r 1(s} is no greater than that of the denominator.
We remark that from (2.116) for a passive n-port its basis-independent normalized
scattering matrix S(s) will be analytic in the open RHS if h(s) and h:1 (s) arc both made analytic
in the open RHS. Since Z(s) + z(s) together with its inverse matrix is a positive-real matrix, thus
being analytic in the open RHS. For h(s)and h;'(s) to be analytic in the open RHS, it is
necessary and sufficient that the zeros of h(s) be restricted to the closed RHS and the poles of
b(s) to the open LHS, since r(s) is devoid of any jro-axis poles. Thus, the poles and zeros of
r(s)can be uniquely distributed between h(s)and h.(s) as follows: The open LI-IS poles of
r,(s) belong to h,(s), whereas those in the open RHS belong to h,(-s); the open RHS zeros of
r,(s) belong to h,(s), whereas those in the open LHS belong to h,(-s). The jro-axis zeros of
r,(s), being even multiplicity, arc divided equally between h,(s) and h,(-s). For example, in
(2.124) the only permissible factorization is given by
r,(s)= ( -s-6xs+6)
- =h,(s)h,(-s) (2.128)
s+9 s-9
with h,(s)being identified as (s - 6)/(s + 9).
Although the distribution of the poles and zeros of r, (s) is unique, the decomposition of
the para-hermitian part r, (s) into the factor h, (s) and h, (-s) is not. In fact, if "surplus factors"
are permitted we can have infinitely many decompositions with the property that both h, (s) and
h,-• (-s)are analytic in the open RHS. It is unique only if no additional surplus factors arc
allowed. To see this, we consider a real all-pass function defined by the equation
(2.129)
where the c:;" (k = 1,2, •••, m) occur in complex conjugate pairs if they are complex. The all-pass
function 11(s) is analytic in the closed RHS and such that
TJ(S)TJ(-s) = 1 (2.130)
Thus, if Ii, (s) is a solution of (2.111) obtained by the unique distribution of the poles and zeros
of r1(s) without using any additional surplus factors, then the product
h(s) = 11(s)h; (s) (2.131)
is also a solution. Therefore, for a given reference impedance matrix z(s), the decomposition of
its para-hermitian part r(s) into the factors h(s) and h. (s) is uniquely determined once and for
all, if their entries
(2.132)
are detennined in according with the following three requirements:
(i) h, (s) (i = 1,2, •••, n) is analytic in the open RHS;

(ii) h/ (s) is analytic in the open LHS;
(iii) h, (s) is the ratio of two polynomials of minimal degree with positive leading
coefficients.
Example 2.3 We first factor the reference impedance matrix
zs)=[s/(s+l) 0 ] (2.133)
( 0 2/(2s+ 1)
in accordance with (2.111 ), whose para-hennitian part can be decomposed as
s2
0 - 0 - 0
r(s)= [ s2;1 2
_ s+l
] -[0
s
✓2
][s-1
s
0 ✓2
] (2.134)
-4s2 +I 2s+l -2s+l
identifying
h(s)=HI 0 ]
✓2
(2.135)
2s+l
It is easy to confinn that

s-1 ]
h(s)h;'(s) = [ s+ I so-½ (2.136)
0 --
s+.l2
is a diagonal matrix, the elements of which are all-pass functions.
Example 2.4 Consider the lossless two-port network N of Fig. 2.1 I. We wish to compute
its scattering matrix nonnalizing to the load impedances as shown in the figure.
111
Ill
JF Hl
Fig. 2.11 A lossless reciprocal two-port network together with its loading.
To this end, we first compute the reference impedance matrix z(s) and the open-circuit
impedance matrix Z(s) of the two-port, obtaining
(2.137a)
(2. 137b)
From (2.104), the current-based scattering matrix is obtained as
S,(s)=[Z(s)+z(s)l'[Z(s)-z(-s)]= 1 [ q(~) 2 ] (2.138)

6(s)(-3s+l) 2(-9s +l) -q(-s)
where
A(s) = 6s 4 +8s1 + 10s 2 + 1s+2 (2.139)
q{s)=-18s 5 +18s 4 -22s 3 +15s 2 -3s (2.140)
The para-hermitian part of z(s) is given by
r(s)=½[z(s)+z(-s)]=[ 01 / 02 ]=h(s)h,(s) (2.141)

1 (-9s +1)
from which we apply the procedure outlined in section 2.5.2 and obtain a desired factorization of
r(s) as
h(s)-[1 0 ] (2.142)
- 0 1/(3s+ 1)
Finally, substituting (2.138) and (2.142) in (2.116) yields the basis-independent normalized
scattering matrix
S(s)=h(s)S,(s)h:'(s)=-l-[6s4 -4s3 +6s2 -3s • 2l 2 ]

.1(s) 2 -6s· -4s -6s -3s (2.1 43 )
It is significant to point out that, unlike the current-based scattering matrix (2.138), the
normalized scattering matrix (2.143) of the two-port network N is symmetric, reflecting the
property that the two-port network itself is reciprocal.
2.5.3 Complex Normalized Reflection Coefficient of a Lossless Two-Port Nehvork
Consider a lossless two-port N terminated in z 1(s)and z 2 (s), as shown in Fig. 2.12. Write
(2.144)
the even part of which is found to be
(2.145)
where w,(s)w1(-s)=½[p,(s)q 1(-s) + p,(-s)q,(s)], and w,(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial

composed of all the open LHS zeros and half of the jro-axis zeros of w,(s)w,(-s). Using the
definition of h(s) we have
(2.146)
Applying (2.114), (2.121) and (2.122)
his) Z11 (s)-z1'-s)

S (s ) =--·-----------, J=l,2 (2.147)
JJ h1 (-s) Zu(s)+zis)
where
(2.148)
and A(s), B(s), C(s),D(s) are the chain parameters of the lossless two-port. We remark that
A(s) and D(s) are even polynomial in s, and B(s) and C(s) odd, or vice versa.
a,(s) a 1 (s)
~ ~
~
Lossless two-
___,.
2
bi(s) bi(s)
port network
V,: 1(s) J',:l(.f)
I' 2'
Fig. 2.12 A lossless two-port network terminating in two impedances.
Substituting (2.144), (2.146) and (2.148) in (2.147) gives
S (s) = w,. Aq .p 1 + Bq,.q2 -Cp1.p2 - Dp,.q2 =3=. U

2
(2.149)
11 W1 Aq,P2 + Bq1q2 + Cp,pz + Dp1q2 ll'1 Q
where w,. =1111(-s) and
(2.150a)
(2.150b)
In the same way, we obtain
(2.151)
where & = ±1. We choose the minus sign if A(s) and D(s) are even, and the plus sign if A(s) and
D(s) are odd. For a lossless reciprocal two-port, the para-unitary property of the scattering matrix
requires that
(2.152)
where
QQ. = uu. + ff. (2.153)
Example 2.5 Consider again the lossless two-port network N of Fig. 2.11, where the chain
parameters are found to be
T(s)= [ 1 s ] (2.154a)
2s 2s 2 + 1
(2.154b)
From the reference impedance matrix (2.136a), we have

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE NORMALIZED SCATTERING PARAMETERS 61
(2.154c)
(2.154d)
The input reflection coefficient is given by
6s4-4s 3 +6s 2 -3s

S (s)-------- (2.155a)
11 - 6s + 8s 3 + 1Os 2 + 7s + 2
4
conforming that
U(s) =6s 4 -4s 3 +6s 2 -3s (2.155b)
Q(s)=6s"' +8s 3 +10s 2 +7s+2 (2.155c)
The output reflection and transmission coefficients arc obtained as
-6s 4 -4s3 -6s 2 -3

822 (s) = -6-s4_+_8_s_3 -+-1O_s_2 _+_7_s_+_2 (2.156a)
±2
S,2 (s) = S21 (s) = -6....,◄,---g-.,..J-10----:-2-7--2 (2.156b)
s + s + s + s+
where
f(s)=±2 (2.156c)
2.6 Physical Interpretation of the Normalized Scattering Parameters
The normalized incident and reflected waves defined in (2.121) and (2.122) can be
expressed explicitly as
a., (s) = ½h;' (s)[V,,, (s) + z .. (s)l.,(s)] (2.157)
b,,, (s) =½ h;~ (s)[V.. (s)- z.,.(s)l.,,(s)] (2.158)
where m denotes the mth equations of (2.121) and (2.122). These two equations permit us to
determine the conditions under which there will be no incident wave a.,(s) or reflected wave
b., (s) at port mm'. For a,,, (s) to vanish, it is necessary and sufficient that
(2.159)
Referring to Fig. 2.9, this is equivalent to tenninating port mm' by its reference impedance
z,., (s) and short-circuiting the voltage source V>=., (s) = 0. Under these conditions, port mm' is
matched. In a similar manner, for b., (s) to vanish identically, we require that
V.,(s)
---/.,-(s-) =-z,,,.(s) (2.160)
In other words, if port mm' is tenninated in - z ,.,. (s), there will be no reflected wave b., (s) at
the mth port. Write S(s) explicitly as
s.. (s) S12 (s)

S21(s) S22 (s)
S(s)= . (2. 161)
Sni(s) sn2 (s)
From the defining equation (2.114) for the nonnalizcd scattering matrix, we see immediately that
(2.162)
and form ;t j
(2.163)
Substituting (2. 157) and (2. 158) in (2. 162) yields
(2.164)
where ZJi (s) is the driving-point impedance looking into port jj' when all other ports are
tenninated in their reference impedances, as depicted in Fig. 2.13. We recognized that S1, (s) is
also the basis-independent nonnalized reflection coefficient of the one-port constructed from the
original n-port network by tenninating all of its ports except port jj' by their reference
impedances. Port jj' is excited by a voltage source in series with the impedance z 1 (s). In a
similar manner, we examine the physical meaning of S,.,1 (s), m ;t j. Substituting (2.157) and
(2.158) in (2. 163) yields
(2.165)
PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE NORMALIZED SCATTERING PARAMETERS 63
In the following, we demonstrate that, on the real-frequency axis, the squared magnitude of
S.,,1 (s) represents the transducer power gain from portjj' to port mm' with all other n-2 ports
being terminated in their reference impedances, as depicted in Fig. 2.14.
Consider the squared magnitude of S..,1 (jco)which can be written as
!s.,uooll' ~ I JI.(jo,/!'/"')
Vl!J(jco) 4rlco)
.. a.,(oo') (2.166)
0 ,(Jo,)-0~- J
where r.r(co)=Rez.r{jco). This is recognized to be the transducer power gain from port jj' to
port mm' of the two-port derived from the original n-port by terminating all of its ports except
r-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·---·-·-·-·-·
•• N
+
•
V,(s)
'--·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-
Fig. 2.13 A physical interpretation ofthejth port reflection coefficient S JJ (s)
of the n-port network N of Fig. 2. 9.
ports mm' and jj' in their respective reference impedances. Port jj' is excited by a voltage
source in series with the impedance z 1 (s), whereas the port mm' is terminated again in its
reference impedance zm (s).
With these interpretations, the diagonal element SJJ (s) of S(s) can be identified as the
normalized reflection coefficient at port jj'. The off-diagonal element SDJJ (s) is the normalized
transmission coefficient from port jj' to port mm'. Recall that on the real-frequency axis the
squared magnitude of the transmission coefficient denotes the fraction of the maximum available
average power at the input port jj' that is transmitted to the load at the output port mm'.
1·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-· .
I !
!: I, (s) ---- :.
i
I +
i =,(s)
I
i
i
j /.,(s) ••
•
+
z.,(s) V.,(s)
/1 (s) •••
+
=i(s) Y,(s)
=1(s)
I ,(s)
•• N
•
+
V1:1(s) V1(s)
-
l,,(s) .••
+
z,,(s) V,,(s)
. ·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-
Fig. 2.14 A physical interpretation of the transmission coefficient Sm, (s)

of then-port network N of Fig. 2.9.
Example 2.6 Consider the lossless two-port N of Fig. 2.11. The input impedance Z 11 (s)
of N looking into port 11' when port 22' is terminated in its reference impedance is given by
ZII (.,;·) -_ 3s2 + s + l (2.167)

1 2
6s· + 2s + 5s + l
Substituting (2.167) in (2.164) yields the normalized reflection coefficient at the input port as
6s 4 -4s 3 +6s 2 -3s

S11(s)= 3 2 (2.168)
6s 4 +Ss +10s +7s+2
THE NORMALIZED SCATTERING MATRIX AND PASSIVITY 65
where h,(s) is given in (2.142). This confinns the result given in (2.143). Appealing to (2. 166),
the transducer power gain of N can be computed directly and is given by
(2.169)
Note that the fraction of the available average power returned to the source is IS 11 (jro)l2
and that all the squared magnitudes of S 11 (jro) cannot be greater than unity, a property that will
be shown to hold for all passive n-port networks in the following section.
2.7 The Normalized Scattering Matrix and Passivity
In this section, we derive the power relations and the passivity criterion of an n-port in
tenns of its nonnalized scattering matrix.
Using (2.118) and (2.119), we can express
t[V.(s)l(s) + I.(s)V(s)] = a.(s)a(s)-b.(s)b(s) (2.170)
On the real-frequency axis, the average power absorbed by the n-port network is given by
P,(ro) =½Re [V'(-jro)l{jro)]=¼ [V'{-jro)l(jro)+ l'(-jro)V(jro)]

= ½[a'(-jro)a(jro)-b'(-jro)b(jro)] (2.171)
= ½a'(-jro)[Un -S'(-jro)S(jro)]a(jro)
For a passive n-port network, P,(ro) is nonnegative for all a(jro), showing that the Hermitian
matrix defined by the relation
Q(jro) = Un -S'(-jro)S(jro) (2.172)
is nonnegative-definite. If, in addition, the n-port network is lossless, then P,(ro) = 0 for all
a(jro), whence
S'(-jro)S(jro) = Un =S(jro)S'(-jro) (2.173)
The bounded-real scattering matrix

To investigate the global characteristics of the nonnalized scattering matrix in the entire
complex-frequency plane, we first introduce the concept of a bounded-real matrix.
Definition 2.2 Bounded-real matrix. A square matrix A(s) is said to be bounded-real if it

satisfies the following three conditions:
(i) A(s) = A(s) for alls in the open RHS,

(ii) (each of the elements of) A(s) is analytic in the open RHS,
(iii) Un -A. (s)A(s) is nonnegative-define for alls in the open RHS.
A 1x 1 bounded-real matrix is called a bounded-real function. The first condition in

Definition 2.2 is equivalent to stating that each element of A(s) is real when s is real. and, for
rational A(s), is always satisfied if all the coefficients of its elements are real. The third condition
defines the boundedness of the quadratic form of A(s) by virtue of the fact that, for all complex
constant vectors x,
[A(s)xi[A(s)x]s x.x (2.174)
meaning that the sum of the squared magnitudes of the elements of the vector A(s)x is bounded
above by that ofx for all x and alls in the open RHS. The second condition permits us to test the
third one by using only s = jro for rational A(s). We note that the elements of A(s) in the above
definitions need not be rational functions. However, if they are, then not all of the three
conditions are independent; for, in this case, condition (i) and (iii) would require that A(s) be
analytic in the closed RHS. To sec this, assume that a/J (s), the (i, j)-element of A(s), has a pole
in the closed RHS, and let x be the vector all of whose elements are zero except the jth one,
which is 1. It is clear that, in the neighborhood of this pole in the closed RHS, the inequality
(2.174) is violated. Consequently, A(s) must be analytic in the closed RHS.
We now state a set of equivalent conditions for a rational matrix to be bounded real, a proof
of which can be found in Chen [S].
Theorem 2.2 A square matrix A(s) of rational functions is bounded-real if and only if the
following three conditions are satisfied.
(i) A(s) = A(s) for alls in the open RHS,

(ii) (each of the elements of) A(s) is analytic in the closed RI-IS,
(iii) Un -A'(-jro)A(jro) is nonnegative-define for all real ro.
Theorem 2.2 is a fundamental limitation imposed on the scattering parameters as a

consequence of passivity. It tells us that for a passive network, the magnitude of a reflection
coefficient cannot exceed unity, nor can the magnitude of a transmission coefficient. These
conclusions arc useful in broadband matching, compatible impedance and multiport network
synthesis. To summarize our discussions on the characterizations of a passive n-port network in
terms of its normalized scattering matrix by the following fundamental theorem, which is
perhaps the most penetrating result presently available in network theory.
THE NORMALIZED SCATTERING MATRIX AND PASSIVITY 67
Theorem 2.3 The necessary and sufficient conditions for an nx n matrix S(s) to be the
scattering matrix of a linear, lumped, time-invariant and passive n-port network, normalized to
then minimum reactance functions (no poles on the real-frequency axis) are that
(1) S(s) be rational and bounded-real;

(2) The admittance of augmented network
(2.175)
be analytic in the open RHS;

(3) YaCs) have at most simple poles on the jro-axis and the residue matrix evaluated at
each of these poles be Hermitian and nonnegative;
( 4) S'(s) = S(s), if the system is reciprocal;
where d(s) = h(s)h:'(s), and h(s)h.(s) is the para-Hermitian part of the reference impedance
matrix z(s) corresponding to then minimum reactance functions.
Proofs of this theorem can be found in Wohlers [8] and Chen [5].
2.8 Interconnection of Multiport Networks
It is well known that simple multiport networks can be interconnected to make up a

complex n-port network. The reasons for doing this are that from the designer's viewpoint it is
much easier to design simple blocks and interconnect them than to design a complex network in
one piece, and that each specific type of interconnection can be accompanied by a
characterization which facilitates the matrix manipulation. For example, if the voltage-current
relationships of the individual multiport networks remain unaltered when they are connected in
parallel (series), the admittance (impedance) matrix of the composite network is simply the sum
of the admittance (impedance) matrices of the individual networks. In this section, we shall
present formulas relating the scattering matrix of an n-port network in terms of the scattering
matrices of its component networks.
Let N be an m + n-port network, which is an interconnection of an m + k-port N and an

k + n -port N, as depicted symbolically in Fig. 2. 15. The scattering equations in partitioned
form for N, N and N, normalized with respect to the reference impedance matrices z, z and z,
respectively, are given by
(2.176)
(2.177)
(2.178)
V1, 11:
r------------------------------------------------
I v,, 1,
I ''
I
z, =z,
i: z,
I' I' I'
2 2 2
(111+.I:) - (.t+n)-
port port
.,. r
network network
a, ii, Dz 81
~
• ->
~ ~
h, • ii, iJ N
~ • ~ bz ii,
~ ~
m k n
m'
n'
I
I
N I
I
I
-------------------------------------------------
Fig. 2.15 An (m+n)-port network composed of an interconnection
of an (m + k) -port network N and an (k + n )-port network N.
with
z= [Z10 ~] (2.179)
z= [z,0
A
z:] (2. 180)
z=[z•0 ~]
z2
(2.181)
In order to simplify the formula and make the physical interpretation of the incident and
reflected waves meaningful, we set
INTERCONNECTION OF MULTIPORT NETWORKS 69
(2.182)
From (2.121) and (2.122) the incident and reflected waves for the networks for N, N and N can
be expressed in terms of their port voltages and currents, as indicated in Fig. 2.15 and again in
partitioned form:
(2.183)
(2.184)
where h 1, h1, ii, and h2 = ii,. are the decompositions of the para-Hermitian parts of z 1, z1, z1 and
z2 , respectively. Likewise, we can show that
(2.185)
Using (2.183), (2.184) and (2.185), the second equation of (2.177) and the first of (2.178)
become
i 1 =S 21 a 1 +S 22 2 a (2.186)
+s
32 =S11a1 12a 2 (2.187)
From these two equations, we can solve for a and 3

1 2 in terms of a, and a 2 :
(2.188)
(2.189)
assuming, of course, the existence of the required inverses. Substituting (2.188) and (2.189) in
the first equation of (2.177) and second of (2.178) and applying (2.183), (2.184) and (2.185)
yield the desired formulas
(2.190)
(2.191)
(2.192)
(2,193)
We remark that the formulas are valid only under the assumption of (2.182). This is equivalent to
saying that if the reference impedance matrix i 2 of the output ports of N is equal to z;. with
h2 = ii,. , z1being the reference impedance matrix for the input ports of N, then (2.190)-
(2.193) represent the submatrices of the scattering matrix of the composite m + 11-port network
N, normalizing to the reference impedance matrix
(2.194)
z z
where 1 and 2 are the reference impedance matrices of the input and out ports of and Fi , ,v
respectively.
We also mention that in Fig. 2.1 S if N is an (n + k )-port and N a k-port, the scattering
matrix of the resulting n-port N can be greatly simplified, and is given by
(2.195)
where S is the scattering matrix of N. W c shall illustrate the use the above formulas in the
following section.
2.9 The Consistency of the Complex Normalized Scattering Matrices
The scattering matrix has been used extensively in the design of broadband matching
networks. In this section, an n-port network N, terminated in 11 non-Fostert positive real
impedances z.1:(s) (k = 1,2,• ,n) is given. After the Darlington realization of each z,1:(s), an
00
augmented network N 0 shown in Fig. 2.16 consisting of N and the Darlington equivalent
network N is obtained. We will investigate the consistency between the scattering matrix S(s) of
Nnormalized to z.t(s) and the scattering matrix S 0 (s)ofthe augmented network N.,normalizcd
to the unit resistances.
Theorem 2.4 For n given non-Foster positive-real impedances z1 (s) = P.(s)/<1.t(s)

(k = 1,2... ,n), let
(2.196)
where Pt(s) and q1 (s) are Hurwitz polynomials, and the factorization is to be performed so that
w.1:(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial and it includes all the zeros in the open LHS and those on the
jro-axis are equally divided between w.1:(s)and w.1:(-s). Write w.1:.=lt'A:(-s), and let
S(s) = [Sy(s)] be the scattering matrix of a lossless reciprocal or nonreciprocal n-port network N
of Fig. 2.16 normalizing to the reference impedance matrix z(s) =diag[z1(s),z2 (s),• .. ,zn(s)].
'The input immittance ofa real lossless one-port is an odd positive-real function, and is referred to as the Foster
function. See Chapter 5, reference [3).
THE CONSISTENCY OF THE COMPLEX NORMALIZED SCATTERING MATRICES 71
Notice that ~'A: (s) only includes all the zeros in the open LHS. Then the unit nonnalized
scattering matrix S 0 (s) of the augmented n-port network N0 is given by
,------------------------------------------------
------------·
,.
I
I
I
- - - - . : n+I
t -....---<~-4 ...• - - - - - -
I' (n+l)'
••
•
/J n+k
k
n-port
network
=,~ Fi, 1n
It (n+k)'
N ••
•
I,. n 2n
=.. ~ Ra In
n' (2n)'
N,,
Fi
------------
-------------------------------------------------
Fig. 2.16 An n-port network tenninated in n non-Foster positive-real impedances.
S.,(s) = L(s)S(s)R(s) (2.197)

where
.k ... ,
L(s) = diag[~.
w,. 1112• 1:.] (2.198)
R(s) = diag[ 1" 1 ,

lY2 ... , 111 11 ]
(2.199)
2;, 2;2 2;,.
~. =±~w.1vA:.)''2 for the reciprocal Darlington representations of zt (s) , and ~. = ±w. or
;A: = ±,v;. for the nonreciprocal representations.
Proof. Consider the kth lossless two-port network Nt of Fig. 2.17 with port n + k of Fig.
2.15 being denoted as port k2 and port k as port kl. Let the input impedance of Nt be Zt (s),
when port k2 is tenninated in a 1n resistor; and let the transmission parameters of N1 be

defined by the equation
(2.200)
1.. le n+k lu
+ Lossless two- +
port network ICl
Vu Vu
v,.(s) iJ"
1c' (n+k)'
z1 (s)
Fig. 2.17 A lossless two-port network terminated in z1• (s) and a 1n resistor.
For lossless N1;, A1 (s)and D,.(s)are even polynomials of s, B1;(s) and C,.(s) are odd, or vice
versa. From (2.200), we have
(2.201)
(2.202)
where we choose the plus sign when A,.(s) and D1;(s) are even, and the minus sign when they
arc odd. Since z,. (s) is positive real, the jro-axis zeros of (2.202) are of even order. Because the
other zeros of(2.202) havequadrantal symmetry, [A1;(s)D,.(s)-B1;(s)C1;(s)] can be factored as
A1:(s)D1:(s)-B,.(s)C,.(s) =s 2... IT(s 2 +ro~)2"', rr[cs+a,) 2 +b,2 t·ks-a;) 2 +b,2 t·

) I (2.203)
= (-1)"" W1:(s)w1:(-s) = e,. w1 (s)w1:(-s)
where
W1;(s)=s ... n(s +ro~t nks+a,)2 +b;J'

j
2 1
I
(2.204)
&k = (-})"'• (2.205)

THE CONSISTENCY OF THE COMPLEX NORMALIZED SCATTERING MATRICES 73
and ro J, a, and b, arc nonnegative real; and m,, mJ, m,,, i and/ are positive integers or zero. If
N1 is reciprocal, [A1 (s)D,, (s)-Bt(s)C 1 (s)] and (-1)9" w,,(s)w4 (-s) are complete square. Write
\Y,(s)= nks+a,)2 +b,2

I
J' (2.206)
We first determine the scattering matrix of N,, normalizing to zk(-s) at port kl and to the
1Q resistance at port k2. Write the reference impedance matrix
(2.207)
where
(2.208)
(2.209)
(2.210)
(2.211)
Substituting (2.200), (2.201), (2.202), and (2.208)-(2.211) in (2.157) and (2.158) gives the
scattering matrix of N4 normalizing to (2.207)
(2.212)
Since N• is lossless, S,, (s) is para-unitary. We have
l;,, (s) =±1v,, (s) (2.213a)

or
(2.213b)
for the nonreciprocal Darlington representation, and
(2.214)
for the reciprocal Darlington representation. After cancellation of the jro-axis zeros between
w1-(s)and e1-w1 .(s), the overall matrix composed of these n matrices (2.212) constitutes the
2nx2n scattering matrix of the 2n-port network N of Fig. 2.16 normalizing to the impedance
matrix z(-s)=diag[z1(-s),z2(-s),·••zn(-s)] and then 1Q resistances:
S(s) = [ 0 R(s)] (2.215)

L(s) 0
where
(2.216a)
(2.216b)
Write explicitly the scattering matrix of the n-port network N of Fig. 2.16 normalizing to
z(s) =diag[z,(s), z 2 (s), ···• zn(s)] as
(2.217)
From Fig. 2.16, the augmented n-port network N 0 is composed of the n-port network N in
cascade with the 2n-port N. Applying the interconnection formula (2.190), we obtain (2.197), in
which
(2.218)
for the nonreciprocal Darlington representation, and
(2.219)
for the reciprocal Darlington representation.
Example 2.7 The lossless two-port network N of Fig. 2.18 is terminated in the 1n
resistor and
s 2 +2s+l
z ()
2
s =---
s 2 +s+1
(2.220)
We wish to determine the complex-normalized scattering matrix of N and the unit-normalized

scattering matrix of the augmented network NO •
THE CONSISTENCY OF THE COMPLEX NORMALIZED SCATIERING MATRICES 75
From (2.202) we obtain
(2.221)
(2,222)
Using (2.116), the scattering matrix of N nonnalized to I and z2 (s) is found to be
-
-15s 4 -13s 3 -16s 2 +3s
S(s) _ [ lSs" + 23s 3 + 28s 2 + I ls+ 2
±2(s 2 - ✓ 2s+l) s2 - ✓2s+l
±2(s 2 - ✓2s+1)
lSs" + 23s + 28s + I ls+ 2
3 2
lSs" -13s 3 +16s 2 +3s

l
(2,223)
1Ss4 +23s 3 +28s 2 + I ls +2 s2 + ✓2s+ 1 · ISs" + 23s 3 +28s 2 + 1 ls+2
1------------------------~
I
Ir---------i
I I S II I
I
I Da,lington
I rcprtSenllltion
JF -1..-
I
of : 1(.r)
10
I
I ii
II I__________
N JI
,__________ ·---------------
I N.
Fig. 2.18 A lossless two-port network N and its augmented two-port network N O •
Applying Theorem 2.4 gives the unit-nonnalizcd scattering matrix of the augmented
network N 0 :
-15s4 -13s3 -16s2 + 3s ±2(s2- ✓2s+ 1) ]
s (s)= [ 1Ss4+23s3+28s2+11s+2 1Ss4+23s3+28s2 +lls+2 (2.224)
0
±2{s 2 + ✓2s+l) 15s"-13s3 +16s2 +3s
1Ss + 23s + 28s2 + I ls+ 2
4 3 I Ss4 + 23s3 + 28s2 + I ls+ 2
Notice that the transpose s:(s) of S0 (s) is another possible solution. S 0 (s) and s:(s)
correspond to four nonreciprocal Darlington representations of z2 (s) as shown in Fig. 2.19.
.fio .fin
• • • •
ei9 IF
e],,
IH IH
(a) (b)
1:-1 .fin 1:-1 .fin

•
IP
•
~ IF
Ill
(c) (d)
Fig. 2.19 The four nonreciprocal Darlington representations of z2 (s).
From Theorem 2.4, we reach the following conclusions:
Corollary 2.3 Given a lossless two-port network terminated in the non-Foster positive real
impedance z1(s) and z2 {s) at its input and output ports, respectively. Let S11 {s) be the input
reflection coefficient S11 (s) defined for z 1(s) and normalized to the driving-point impedance
Z 11 (s), S22 (s) be the output reflection coefficient defined for Z 22 (s) and normalized to the load
impedance z2 (s), then
8 11 (s) = 01 (s)S 22 (s), if N is a lossless reciprocal non-minimum-phase two-port network.

S11 {s) = 0(s)5\2(s), if N is a lossless nonreciprocal non-minimum-phase two-port network.
811 (s) = S21 (s), if N is a minimum-phase two-port network.
where 8(s) = ,v(-s)/f'v(s) is real regular all-pass function.
REFERENCES 77
References
1. Baher, H. (1984) Synthesis ofElectrical Networks, Chichester: John Wiley.
2. Balabanian, N and Bickart, T. A. (1969) Electrical Network Theory, New York: John Wiley.
3. Belevith, V. (1968) Classical Network Theory, San Francisco: Holden-Day.

4. Carlin, H.J. and Giordano A. B. (1964) Network Theory: An Introduction to Reciprocal and
Nonreciprocal Circuits, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
5. Chen, W. K. (1988) Broadband Matching: Theory and Implementations, Singapore: World
Scientific.
6. Kuo, F. F. (1962) Network Analysis and Synthesis, New York: John Wiley.
7. Wan, J. L. and Chen, W. K. (1993)" On consistency of the complex normalized scattering
matrices of multi-port networks," J. Franklin Inst. Vol. 330, No.3, pp. 441-451.
8. Wohlers, M. R. (1965) "Complex normalization of scattering matrices and the problem of
compatible impedances", IEEE Trans Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-12, pp. 528-535.
9. Youla, D. C. "A tutorial exposition of some key network-theoretic ideas underlying classical
insertion-loss filter design", Proc. IEEE, Vol. 59, No. 5, pp.760-799.
10. Youla, D. C. (1964) "An extension of the concept of scattering matrix," IEEE Trans. Circuit
Theory, vol. CT-11, pp. 310-312.
11. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1988) "On complex normalization reflection coefficient of a
terminated lossless two-port network," Int. J. Circuit Theory and Applications, Vol.16, pp.
329-334.
12. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1993) "On real and complex normalization," Circuits Systems
Signal Process, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 579-587.
Chapter 3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Elements of Passive
Network Synthesis
3.1 Synthesis of LC One-port Networks
Consider an impedance function written in the form
(3.1)
where m1(s) and n1(s) denote the even part and the odd part of the numerator polynomial, and
m2 (s) and n 2 (s) the even part and the odd part of the denominator polynomial, respectively.
From (3.1), we see that
Even part of Z(s) =Ev Z(s) = m1(s)m22 (s) - n,2 (s)n 2 (s) (3.2)
m2 (s)- n2 (s)
Odd part of Z(s) s 0d Z(s) = m2 (s)n~ (s)- m! (s)n 2 (s) (3.3)

m2 (s)-n 2 (s)
Substituting of s = jro into Ev Z(s) gives
Ev Z(s)t_1tt = Re Z(jro) (3.4)
If Z(s) is the driving-point impedance of a lossless network, then
ReZ(jro)=0 for all ro (3.5)
To make Re Z(jro) = 0, there are three nontrivial possibilities:
(l)m 1{jro)=0 and n 2 (jro)=0,

(2)m 2 (jro) = 0 and n 1 (jro) = 0,
(3) m1(jro)m 2 (jro)- n 1(jro)n 2 (jro) = 0,
each of which leads to the conclusion that Z(s) can only assume one of the two forms
79
80 ELEMENTS OF PASSIVE NElWORK SYNTHESIS
n1(s)/m 2 (s) and m1(s)/n 2 (s). Write

m(s) n(s)
Z(s)=- or Z(s)=- (3.6)
n(s) m(s)
where the degrees of m(s) and n(s) differ by exactly 1, since Z(s) or Y(s) can only have a
simple pole or zero as s ➔ oo. Therefore, (3.6) can assume only one of the following forms:
(3.7a)
or
(3.7b)
Equation (3. 7) shows that at s = 0 there is either a zero or a pole.
Expanding (3. 7) in a partial fraction results in
(3.8)
where k, and k; are positive real numbers and k, = k;. Using this condition, (3.8) can be
rewritten as
(3.9a)
where
(3.9b)
The input reactance of the LC one-port, being the imaginary part of Z(jro), is obtained from
(3.9) by substituting s = jro:
(3.10)
and it is straightforward to verify that its slope is always positive or
(3.11)
This is possible only if the zeros and poles of Z(s) arc simple, located on the jro-axis and
SYNTHESIS OF LC ONE-PORT NETWORKS 81
interlace, for example, the pole and zero frequencies of (3.7) are related by
(3.12)
In addition, the residues evaluated at these poles are real and positive.
We summarize the above properties for the reactance function as follows:
(I) Z(s) is the ratio of an even m(s) and an odd n(s) polynomial, or vice versa.
(2) The degrees of m(s)and n(s)differ by exactly I, since Z(s)or Y(s)can have only a
simple pole or zero as s ➔ oo.
(3) At s = 0 there is either a zero or a pole.
(4) As s ➔ oothere is a zero or a pole.
(5) Z(s) has only simple poles and zeros; all are located on the j(l)-axis and interlaced.
(6) The residues evaluated at all these poles are real and positive.
3.1.1 The Foster Canonical Forms
In the partial fraction expansion of an LC input impedance
(3.13)
each term of which can be identified as a simple impedance as shown in Fig. 3.1, the realization
is known as the First Foster Canonical Form.
"·
:
Fig. 3.1 The first Foster canonical form ofan LC impedance.
Alternatively, instead of expanding the impedance we expand the input admittance in a partial
fraction, and obtain a realization shown in Fig. 3.2, called the Second Foster Canonical Form.
0 +
K' K's K's K's
s2 + (1),2I + s2 + (1),22 + .. ·+ s2 +•00,2 (3.14)
Y(s)=K' s+- 1 2
., s n
Observe that to realize the immittance function of either (3.13) or (3.14), we need to
82 ELEMENTS OF PASSIVE NETWORK SYNTHESIS
perform the following three operations:

(1) A long division is necessary, if the numerator degree is greater that of the denominator,
the quotient of which is the residue K.,. or K: as s ➔ O'J.
(2) To determine the jro-axis pole locations 00 1, ro 2 , ···, ron, we need to compute the roots
of the denominator polynomial.
(3) To realize the network of Fig. 3.1 or Fig. 3.2, we perform a partial fraction expansion.
To this end, Fortran programs are available in the Appendix: Program A304 for long division,
A206 for polynomial root finding, and the Program P301 for partial fraction expansion of a
reactance function.
K: K;
I Q)i' c,iJ
K~ Ko
I I
x: Ki
Fig. 3.2 The second Foster canonical realization of an LC impedance.
Program P301: Partial Fraction Expansion
1. Purpose. This subroutine is to realize a reactance function in the form of the first or second
Foster canonical form by means of a partial fraction expansion.
2. Usage. Given a reactance function, assume that the order of the numerator polynomial is
one less than that of the denominator polynomial after a long division using the
program given in A304 with known pole locations.
Input: N: is an integer, the order of the denominator polynomial
Bi: are real numbers, being the coefficients of the numerator polynomial
(3.15)
Pj: are complex numbers, being the poles of the reactance function and obtained
by means of Program A206 given in the Appendix.
3. Remarks. The leading coefficient of denominator polynomial is required to be 1. If not, the

coefficients B, are replaced by B,lan, where an is the coefficient of the highest
power of s in the denominator polynomial.
Subroutine PF(N,A,P,Ep)
Complex A(N),P(N),Y
Do 4 I•l,N
Il .. N-I+l
IF(Il.EQ,1) Goto 3
Do 2 Je2, Il
A(J)•A(J)+P(I)*A(J-1)
2 Continue
3 Do 5 J•l,I
JlaN-J+l
IF(J,EQ,1) Goto 7
IF(CABS(P(J)-P(J-1)).LE.Ep) Goto 6
A(Il)=A(Il)-A(Jl+l)
7 IF(CABS(P(j)-P(I)).LE. Ep) Goto 4
Y=P(J)-P(I)
A(Jl)aA(Jl)/Y
Goto 5
6 A(Jl) (A(Jl)-A(Jl+l))/Y
0
5 Continue
Write(*,*) P(I),A(I)
4 Continue
Return
End
Example 3.1 Realize the following admittance function
Y(s)= s4 +10s 2 +9 O.Ss 4 + S.Os2 + 4.5

(3.16)
2s 5 + 40s 3 + 128s s(s 2 +4)(s 2 + 16)
Run the following program

Program Partial
Dimension A(25),B(25),P(25)
Complex A,P
Write(*,*) 'Partial Fraction Expansion of PR rational Function'
Write(*,*) 'Denominator Degree='
Read(*,*) N
Write(*,*) 'Input Real numerator coefficients:'
Do 10 I•l,N
Write(*,12) N-I
Read (*,*) B(I)
10 A(I)=Cmplx(B(I),0.0)
12 Format(2X,'Real Coefficient of s•• 1 ,I2)
Do 20 I•l,N
Write(*,*) 'Root ll in(*,*) ',I
Read ( *, •) P (I)
20 Write(*,*) P(I)
Ep,.1.0E-10
Call PF(N,A,P,Ep)
Write(•,•) 'The residues at each pole'
Do 40 I•l,N
40 Write(*,*) "k",N+l-I,"•",A(I)
End
We obtain
Partial Fraction Expansion of PR rational Function

Denominator Degree=
5
Input Real numerator coefficients:
Real Coefficient of s•• 4
0.5
Real Coefficient of su 3
0.0
5.0
o.o
4.5
Input Denominator Roots in Order of
Root I in(*,*) 1
( 0.0000000E+00, 0.0000000E+00)
Root I in (*,*) 2
( 0.0000000E+00, -2.0000000)
Root I in(*,*) 3
( 0.0000000E+00, 2.0000000)
Root tin (*,*) 4
( 0.0000000E+00, -4.0000000)
Root i in(*,*) 5
( 0.0000000E+00, 4.0000000)
The residues at each pole
k 5 • ( 0.1367188, 0.0000000E+00)
k 4 • ( 0.1367188, 0.0000000E+00)
k 3 • ( 7.8125000E-02, 0.0000000E+00)
k 2 • ( 7.8125000E-02, 0.0000000E+00)
k 1 • ( 7.0312500E-02, 0.0000000E+00)
giving
) 0.0703125 0.0781250 0.0781250 0.1367188 0.1367188

Y(s=----+----+----+----+----
s s+j2 s-j2 s+j4 s-j4
(3.17)
0.0703125
0.15625s 0.2734376s
=----+-,--+--,----
s s 2 +4 s 2 +16
3.657H
1422H
0.01709F
Fig. 3.3 A realization for Example 3.1.

SYNTHESIS OF LC ONE-PORT NElWORKS 85
3.1.2 The Caucr Canonical Forms
In addition to the two Foster canonical forms, there is another synthesis procedure that gives
rise to networks known as the Cauer canonical formsf. The process of obtaining the Cauer
canonical forms is as follows: Let
Z(s) = N(s) (3.18)

D(s)
and assume that the degree of the numerator polynomial N(s) to be of higher than that of the
denominator polynomial D(s). Otherwise, we consider Y(s) = 1/Z(s) instead of Z(s). Expand
(3.18) in a continued fraction
(3.19a)
or
(3.19b)
which can be realized as the driving-point immittance of the ladder network of Fig. 3.4. This LC
ladder realization is known as the first Cauer canonical form. The physical process associate
with (3.19) is equivalent to the successive removal of poles at infinity.
-----
• •
(a) Z(s)
t Named after the Gennan engineer Wilhelm Adolf Eduard Cauer ( 1900-194S).
--- - .
(b) Y(s)
Fig. 3.4 The first Cauer canonical fonn of an LC immittancc.
Now we rearrange the numerator and denominator polynomials in ascending order of s

instead of descending order and expand the resulting function in a continued fraction. The result
is
(3.20a)
or
(3.20b)
The expansion can be realized by the ladders of Fig. 3.5. The resulting LC ladder is called the
second Cauer canonical form. Physically, this ladder is attained by the successive removal of
poles at the origin. Both Cauer fonns are canonical, because they contain the same number of
elements as in the Foster fonns. We illustrate the above procedures by the following example.
(a) Z(s)
c,
----------------E-------
(b) Y(s)
Fig. 3.5 The second Cauer canonical fonn of an LC immittance.
Program P302 A Continued Fraction Expansion [12]
1. Purpose. It is used to realize a reactance function in the fonn of the first or second Cauer
canonical fonn (3.19) or (3.20) by means of a continued fraction expansion.
2. Usage.
Input: N: Integer, N =M +I, where M= max {order of the denominator polynomial,
order of the numerator polynomial}
A(i): are real numbers, being the coefficients of
(3.21a)
2 11-1
F(s)= a1 +a1s /··•+a.,s ,. (3.21b)
a 2s+a4s + •+a.,+ 1S
00
for the second Cauer realization.

Yield: QG): are real numbers, being the stored result
Program expand
Dimension A(30),O(30)
! Expansion into continued Fraction
Write(*,*) 'Continual Fraction Expansion of PR Function'
Write(*,*) 'Input the Order of PR function'
Read(*,*) N
MaN+l
K=M+l
A(K)a0.0
Write(*,•) 'Input the coefficient of PR Function'
Do 1 I=l,M
1 Read(*,*) A(I)
Do 2 J•l,M
2 Write(*,*) 'A(',J,')a',A(J)
Write(*,*)
K-=1
4 O(k)aA(k)/A(k+l)
Write(*,5) k,Q(k)
5 Format(3X,'O(',I2,')a',G14.8)
I-=K+2
IF(I>M) Goto 8
7 Do 6 L=I,N,2
6 A(L)aA(L)-Q(k)*A(L+l)
k•k+l
Goto 4
8 End
Example 3.2 Consider the reactance function
Z(s) = 2s 5 + 40s 3 + 128s

s' + 10s 2 +9 (3.22)
Using Program P302 with input n = 6 and the known coefficients, we obtain
Continual Fraction Expansion of PR Function
Input the Order of PR function
5
Input the coefficient of PR Function
A( 1 )a 2.0000000
A(
A( 3
2 )•
A( 4 ) .,.
,.. 1.0000000
40.0000000
10.0000000
A( 5 )a l,2800000E+02
A( 6 ) .. 9.0000000
Q( l)a 2.0000000
Q( 2)•0,SOOOOOOlE-01
Q( 3)= 4.4444447
Q( 4)•0.64285718E-Ol
Q( S)• 7.7777777
or
1
Z(s) = 2.0s + - - - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - (3.23)
0.0Ss + - - - - - - - - 1- - - -
4.44444s + - - - - - - - -
0.0642857 s + - -1- -
7. 777778s
2.011 4.444}1 7.77SH
0.0SF 0.06429F
Fig. 3.6 The first Cauer canonical form realization of Example 3.2.
TRANSFER FUNCTION SYNTHESIS 89
3.2 Transfer Function Synthesis
Transfer function synthesis is to realize a two-port network having a preassigned transfer

function. In this section we are mainly concerned with lossless two-port networks known as the
reactance two-port networks. Consider the two-port network of Fig. 3.7. Let Z(s) be open-
circuit impedance matrix ofN. Assume that N is lossless and write
(3.24)
the elements of which can be expanded in partial fractions as
( ) klj(O) Ln k,~t)s
s =kIJ., s+-+
z/J () 2
' 2 ,
i =12
, ;J. =12, (3.25)
s ,_, s +(J),
J,(s) I 2 /1(1)
+- Lossless two- +
V.(s) port network Vz(s)
N
I' 2'
Fig. 3. 7 A two-port network with tenninations.
Since N is lossless and Z(s) is positive real, we obtain following theorem [IO]:
Theorem 3.1 A necessary and sufficient condition for a matrix of (3.24) to be the
impedance matrix of a reactance two-port network is that its elements be given by the partial-
fraction expansions of (3.25), where the residues of its elements evaluated at each pole are all
real and satisfy the residue condition
(3.26)
3.2.1 Calculation of Two-Port Parameters from the Transfer Functions
Non-terminated 1\vo-port Nehvork
Consider a non-terminated two-port network of Fig. 3.8, the transfer admittance of which is
given by
(3.27)
From the properties of z21 (s), we know that Zr(s) must be a real rational odd function of s with
only simple jc.o-axis poles, including s = 0 ands ➔ oo. If a realizable Zr(s) is given, we can
choose any realizable reactance functions to be z11 (s) and z22 (s) as long as the residue
condition (3.26) is satisfied at each pole of z21 (s). A simple way to achieve this is to expand
z21 (s) into a partial fraction
zII (s)- z22 (s)-li"'>ls+-2_1

lk(OJ I
+ LJ 221+ 2 '°' lkl'l Is
n
- - 21 (3.28)
S l•I S C.01
+ +
Lossless two-
1-j(s) port network 1'2 (s)
N
l
Fig. 3.8 A non-terminated two-port network characterized by its transfer impedance.
Example 3.3 Consider transfer impedance function of Fig. 3.8:
-2s 3 +7s
= (3.29)
s4 +5s 2 +4
Expand Zr (s) in a partial fraction
3s -Ss
Zr(s) =Z21(s) =-2-+-2- (3.30)
s +l s +4
Following (3.28) we obtain
3s Ss 8s 3 + 17s
z11(s)=z22(s)=-2-+-2--= ◄ 2 (3.3 I)
s + 1 s + 4 s + Ss + 4
which can be realized by the two-port shown in Fig. 3.9t.

Consider the voltage transfer function of a non-terminated reactance two-port of Fig. 3.10,
from which we obtain
Z21 (s)
=-- (3.32)
Z11(s)
t See Chen, W. K. (1986) Passive and Active Filters, Theory and lmplcmcntntions, New York: John Wiley, Chapter. 4.
3.f
.r' +I
Fig. 3.9 A realization of the transfer impedance of Example 3.3.
+
/,(s)
Lossless two•
~ l
+
v.cs) port network ~(s)
N
•
-
I
Fig. 3.10 A non-terminated two-port characterized by its voltage transfer function.
Since both z11 (s) and z21 (s) are rational odd functions of s, A.,(s) must be a real rational even
function of s with poles restricted to the finite nonzero portion of the jro-axis. Express it
explicitly as
A (s)= N(s) (3.33)
" D(s)
where N(s) and D(s) are even polynomials and all zeros of D(s) are simple, lying on the finite
nonzero jro-axis. Write
(3.34)
and choose a polynomial

(3.35)
where the ro 1 and &, interlace, i.e.,
(3.36)
Set
D(s)
z11 (s)=--, (3.37)
P(s)
z11 (s) is guaranteed to be a realizable reactance function. Furthermore, z 21 (s) possesses the
same denominator. Substituting (3.37) in (3.33) yields the preassigned voltage transfer function.
Example 3.4 Consider a non-terminated two-port network of Fig. 3.10, the voltage
transfer function of which is found to be
Av(s)= s2 +4 (3.38)
(s 2 + 3)(s 2 + 7)
To satisfy (3.36), choose arbitrarily

P(s) = s(s 2 + 5) (3.39)
giving
s 2 +4 ( ) (s 2 + 3)(s 2 + 7)
z (s)---- Z11 s =--s-(s_2_+_S_)_ (3.40)
21 - s(s2 + 5) '
A realization of these parameters is given in following section.
Singly terminated two-port nehvork
We now study a singly terminated two-port network of Fig. 3.11 with R2 = 1, the voltage
transfer function of which is found to be
N(s)
(3.41)
D(s)
where N(s) is either even or odd, and D(s) is a strictly Hurwitz polynomial. Assume that N(s)
is odd. We can set
.I ...
/ 1(s)
Lossless two-
l:(s)
+
port network l'1(s) IIl
V,(s) ( )
N
•
-1
Fig. 3.11 A singly terminated two-port network characterized by its voltage transfer function.
(3.42)
where D~ (s) denotes the even p~ and D 0 (s) the odd part of D(s), showing
(3.43)
Observe that y 22 (s), being the ratio of the odd and even parts of a strictly Hurwitz polynomial,
is realizable. Also, y 21 (s) is an odd rational function having the same denominator as that of
y 22 (s). Thus, Yn (s) and y 21 (s) are realizable admittance parameters for a reactance two-port
network.
Example 3.5 Given a voltage transfer function
Av(s)= s2 +4 (3.44)
s3 + 6s 2 + lls + 6
of a singly loaded two-port with R =1, we obtain from (3.43)
6s 2 +6
Y22(s)= 3 1l (3.45)
s + s
The above procedure for a singly terminated two-port network was carried out in terms of
Av (s). Because of similarity in functional forms, it is equally valid for the derivations of Yu (s)
from the transfer admittance function, zu(s) from the transfer impedance function or the current
transfer function.
3.2.2 Ladder Realization of a Non-terminated or Singly Terminated Two-Port
Ladder is one of the most widely used passive circuit configurations, because of its
practical applications. First of all, the generator Vg (s) and the load impedance Zn have a
common terminal. Therefore, both can be grounded at the same time. Secondly, a ladder has
only one path, going through Yi, Y3 , • • ·, Y,,_ 1 as depicted Fig. 3.12, between the generator and the
load. As a result, the signal flow can easily be interrupted, either by causing one of the series ~
to be zero or, alternatively, by making one of the shunt Z 1 equal to zero. The latter short-circuits
the signal path to ground.
94 ELEMENTS OF PASSIVE NE.WORK SYNTHESIS
r. )j Y•• , Y•• ,
r,(s) z.
Fig. 3.I 2 A ladder configuration.
A transmission zero is defined as a zero of the transfer function. For a ladder its
transmission zeros occur only if either a series admittance Yi or a shunt impedance ZJ equals
zero. Consider the singly terminated two-port of Fig. 3.11. Our goal is to realize a preassigned
voltage transfer function by realizing y 22 (s) and y 21 (s) simultaneously. The transfer function
zeros will be located at the zeros of y 21 (s) and at the private poles of y 22 (s) t_
We now proceed to synthesize y 22 (s) in the form of a ladder. By choosing the zeros of the
ladder immittances appropriately, we can realize a circuit, the voltage transfer function Av (s) of
which is a scaled version of the prescribed one. The zeros of N(s) in (3.41) arc the transmission
zeros. If the degree of N(s) is lower than that of D(s), there will be transmission zeros at infinity.
D(s) must be strictly Hurwitz, whose zeros are the natural frequencies and are given by the zeros
of y 22 (s) + 1. We remark that poles of y 21 (s) are not the poles of Av (s), as can be seen from
the residue condition, whereas a pole of y 21 (s) is also a pole of y 22 (s).
If a transfer function is realized by a two-port in the form of a reactance ladder, its

transmission zeros are solely determined by the zeros of the series Y, and the shunt ZJ. This
shows that if y 22 (s) is realized as the driving-point admittance of a reactance ladder having
preassigned transmission zeros (the zeros of Y, and Z 1 ), both zeros and poles of Av (s) will be
realized by the ladder within a multiplicative constant K
Example 3.6 Given a transfer impedance of a singly loaded two-port with R2 =In,
(3.46)
we choose
6s 2 +l 1
Z22Cs)= 3 , Z21(S)=-3-- (3.47)
6s +4s 6s +4s
Observe that from (3.46) there are three transmission zeros at s ➔ oo. Since z 22 (s) has no
private poles, all transmission zeros are due to the zeros of z 21 (s). The three transmission zeros
t A pole for either or both of : 11 (1) and :u(.r) but not for : 11 (.r) and .:11(.r) is called aprfrare pole of : 11 (.r) or : 11 (s), or of both.
are to be realized by two shunt capacitors and a series inductor, as shown in Fig. 3.13(b) or two
series inductors and a shunt capacitor in Fig. 3.13(a). Since z 22 (oo) = 0, we choose the circuit of
Fig. 3.13(b). By a continued fraction expansion of z22 (s), the result is shown in Fig. 3.14.
L, t., Li
•
l~I
Tc, Tc,
Tc.
~ •
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.13 Reactance ladder network.

2H
3F 1. Hl
Fig. 3.14 A realization of Example 3.6.
3.2.3 Partial Pole Removal and Zero Shifting
Now we wish to realize the voltage transfer function
Av(s)= s2 +4 (3.48)
(s 2 + 3)(s 2 + 7)
of Example 3.4. For our purposes, choose
S 2 +4
z (s)---- z (s) = (s2 + 3)(s2 + 7) (3.49)
21 - s(s2 + 5) ' 11 s(s 2 + 5)
There are four transmission zeros in (3.48), two of which are located at s ➔ oo and two at
s = ±j2. They can be realized by the series admittances Y, or shunt impedances Z 1 by means of
a continued fraction expansion of z11 (s), if z11 (s) can be made to contain these transmission
zeros as its zeros or poles. To this end, we introduce the notion of partial pole removal for the
purpose of shifting a zero of a resultant function of z 11 (s) to a desired location.

Consider impedance of (3.9). The first term K.,,s on the right-hand side of (3.9) is due to
the contribution of the pole at infinity. If the term K.,s is subtracted from Z(s), the resulting
function Z(s) - K.,s is devoid of the pole at infinity. We say that the pole at infinity has been
removed. Instead of complete removal of the pole at infinity, we subtract a fraction of the term
K.,s from Z(s) by introducing a constant kP such that
(3.50)
We say the pole at infinity is partially removed or weakened. While Z 1(s) still possesses the
pole at infinity, all of its zeros remain on the jro-axis. To see this, we substitute s = jro in (3.50)
and obtain
(3.51)
where Z1(jro) = jX1(ro). The zeros of X 1(ro) are the values of ro satisfying the equation
(3.52)
Solutions to this equation are found graphically from the intersections of the curves X(ro) and
kPK.,s as depicted in Fig. 3.15.
Observe that all of the zeros of X 1(ro) are shifted toward the pole being weakened. The
amount of shift of the zeros depends on the value of k P •
X((!))
.\"((!))
.\"((!))
Fig. 3 .15 Reactance diagram showing zero shifting by partial pole

removal of the pole at infinity.
We next consider the term K 0 / s of (3.9), which is due to the pole at the origin. The partial
removal of this pole is equivalent to the operation
(3.53)
As before, the zero of Z2 (s)are defined by the intersections of the curves X(co) and -kPK0 /co
with co,
(3.54)
as illustrated in Fig. 3.16. Observe again that the zeros are shifted toward the pole being
weakened, which is at the origin.
X(C>)
X(Cll) X(Cll)
Fig. 3.16 Reactance diagram showing zero shifting by partial pole removal at the origin.
Finally, for the finite nonzero poles, the corresponding factors take the general form
K;s/(s1 +co:) as previously given in (3.9). The partial removal of this pair of complex conjugate
poles results in the new function
Z3 (s)=Z(s)-kp K 1s k p<l (3.55)
2 2 ,
s +co,
The zeros of this function are defined by the intersections of the plots of X(co) and
kP K,co/(-co 2 +co:) with co,
(3.56)
as indicated in Fig. 3.17. From these three cases, we can make the following observations:
( 1) The partial removal of a pole shifts the zeros toward the pole being weakened.
(2) In no case can a zero be shifted beyond an adjacent pole.
(3) The complete removal of a pole at infinity shifts the adjacent zero to infinity, the
complete removal of a pole at the origin shifts the adjacent zero to the origin, and the
complete removal of a pair of complex conjugate poles shifts two adjacent zeros toward
the positions of the removed poles.
(4) The partial or complete removal of a pole at the origin does not affect a zero at infinity,
nor does the partial or complete removal of a pole at infinity affect a zero at the origin.
(S) There arc limits on the amount a given partial pole removal can shift a given zero.
However, by using several steps of zero shifting, some zero can be moved to a desired
location on the jro-axis.
X(m)
X(m)
Fig. 3 .17 Reactance diagram showing zero shifting by a finite nonzero partial pole removal.
Now we return to expressions (3.48) and (3.49). Since z 11 (s) has a private pole at s ➔ oo,
we can shift its zeros by weakening this pole with a series inductance Li satisfying
(3.57)
As expected, the remaining impedance
(3.58)
will be zero at s =jro 0 , and its reciprocal has a pole at s =jro 0 • To produce the transmission
zeros at s =±j2, we substitute s =±j2 in (3.57) and obtain
L, = Z11 ~jroo) 3 (3.59)

J(J)o 4
The remaining function becomes
z (s)=z (s)-.!s=s 4 +25s 2 +84 (s 2 +4)(s 2 +21) (3.60)

2 11 4 4s(s 2 +5) 4s(s2 +5)
Clearly, Z2 (s)has the required zeros at ± j2, and Y2 (s) = 1/Z2 (s) has poles there.
(3.61)
giving K 1 =4/17 and

Y, (s) = 4s(s 2 + 5) 4s 64s
(3.62)
3 (s 2 +4)(s 2 +21) 17(s 2 +4) -17(s 2 +21)
After removing the shunt L 2 C2 branch, we are left with the function
Z3 (s)=-l-=17s 2 +357 .!.2.s+-1- (3.63)

Y3(s) 64s 64 64
- s
357
The final realization is shown in Fig. 3.18.
It is important to note that the partial removal of the pole at s ➔ co corresponding to the
series inductance L1 in order to produce the transmission zeros at s = ±j2 will not create a
transmission zero at s ➔ co. To see this, consider the network of Fig. 3.18. As s ➔ co, the
voltage across 00' is found to be
(3.64)
fH 0
V,(s)
+
-1,__________lf_H- - - - -
l trF
I-ft,;F
1
0'
The partial fraction expansion of z 11 (s) assumes the general fonn

k(O) n k(I) S
zII (s) =kc"'>
II s +--
11
S
'°'
+ L.,2
/•I S
11
+ CJJ 1
2 (3.65)
showing that
(3.66)
Recallthatthevalueof L1 is determined by z 11 LJro 0 ) and in general L1 <k~. Therefore, Z 2 {s)

still possesses a pole at infinity with residue kt~> - L1 or
(3.67)
In other words, the partial removal of a pole does not create a transmission zero at the pole
frequency.
3.3 Darlington Synthesis for a Double-Terminated LC Network
In Section 3.2 we studied a non-terminated or singly terminated LC two-port network. In

his classic paper, Darlington [6] proposed an ingenious method for the synthesis of a doubly
terminated lossless two-port network. The method is of fundamental importance both in filter
theory and in the more general communications system.
3.3.1 Darlington's Procedure
Consider a doubly resistive terminated lossless two-port network of Fig. 3. 19, the input
current of which is given by
/ 1(s) /l(s)
+ Lossless two- +
V.(s) port network V2(s) R:
N
v,(s)
Fig. 3 .19 A two-port network together with its resistive terminations.
(3.68)
where Z 11 (s) is the input impedance of N, when the output port is terminated in R2 • The input
DARLINGTON SYNTHESIS FOR A DOUBLE-TERMINATED LC NElWORK 101
power is found to be
(3.69)
and the output power to R2 is
(3.70)
Since the two-port network is lossless, the input and output power must be equal, or
2
V2 Uro) =R ReZ Uro) (3.71)
I, (jro) 2 II
Using the above expressions, we obtain the voltage transmissionfimction as

2 2
V2 (jro) = /1(jro) V2 (jro) R2 ReZ11 (jro)
(3.72a)
V8 (jro) V8 (jro) / 1(jro) -IR, +Z11 Uro)l2
The algebraic operations required to reach our objective are simplified if both sides of (3.72a) are
multiplied by -4R1/ R2 and if unity is added to both sides. Then
(3.72b)
Another specification we often use is transducer power gain, which is related to the voltage
transmission function by
2
4R1 V2 Uro)
(3.73)
R2 Vs:Uro)
From (2.164) in Chapter 2, the input reflection coefficient normalized to R1 is found to be
(3.74)
Combine (3.73) and (3.74) in conjunction with (3.72) shows again that
(3.75)
With these preliminaries, Darlington procedure can be outlined as follows:

(1) Given a transducer power-gain characteristic G(ro ), or voltage transmission function

jV2 (s)/V~(sf together with values for R 1 and R2 , determine the squared reflection
coefficient IP, (jro)l 2 •
(2) From IP Uro)l2 =[p,(s)p (-s)1..,..,determine p (s).
1 1 1
(3) From p 1(s) and the value of R1, determine Z 11 (s).

(4) From Z 11 (s), synthesize a two-port terminated in a resistor, which may or may not
contain ideal transformers.
Example 3.7 We synthesize a network having a maximally flat voltage transmission

function
(3.76)
For convenience, we normalize the generator and load resistances by setting R1 = R2 = 1Q, and
we obtain the transducer power gain
(3.77)
The squared magnitude of the reflection coefficient becomes
2 ro 6 1
lp,Uro>I =t---=--
1+ro6 l+ro 6
(3.78)
Appealing to analytic continuation in the theory of analytic function of a complex variable, we

replace ro by s/j in (3.78) and obtain
(3.79)
By assigning the three LHS (left-half of the s-plane) poles of (3. 79) to p1 (s), we have
1
Pi (s) = ±-s- 2 _+_2_s_+_l
3 _+_2_s_ (3.80)
There are two possibilities for p 1(s). For the choice of the plus sign, the input impedance is
DARLINGTON SYNTHESIS FOR A DOUBLE-TERMINATED LC NETWORK 103
z (s)=R l-p,(s)= s3+ 2s 2 +2s (3.81a)

11 1 1 + p (s) s 3 + 2s 2 + 2s + 2
1
and for the choice of the minus sign, the input admittance is
(3.81 b)
3.3.2 Darlington Synthesis
When we obtain the input impedance or admittance from the voltage transmission function
or transducer power gain, the problem of designing a doubly terminated network becomes that of
synthesizing a lossless two-port terminating in a resistor.
Consider the two-port network of Fig. 3.19, the input impedance of which is expressed in
terms of the z-parameters as
(3.82)
where
(3.83)
and z12 (s) =z 21 (s) for a reciprocal two-port network. Express Z(s) in terms of the even and odd
parts ofits numerator and denominator polynomials as
Z(s) = m, (s) + n, (s)

(3.84)
m2 (s) + n2 (s)
Two cases are distinguished:
(3.85a)
(3.85b)
Assume that Z(s) given in (3.84) is positive real, it implies that the new impedance
function Z(s) = [m, (s) +n 2 (s)Y[n1 2 (s)+ n,(s)] is also positive realt. Then the polynomials
m1(s) + n1(s), m2 (s) + n2 (s), m, (s) +n2 (s), and m2 {s) + n1(s) are all Hurwitz. The ratio of the
'The proofcnn be found in M. E. Vnn Vnlkenburg. (1964) Introduction to Modem NttworkS)'nt/iesls, New York: John Wiley,
Chnptcr 14.
even part to the odd part, or odd part to even part
(3.86)
are all reactance functions, yielding a continued fraction expansion with real and positive
coefficients, which can be identified as the input immittance of a lossless one-port network.
Rationalization of z 12 (s). For z 12 (s) to be physically realizable, it must be rational.

Furthennore, we must demonstrate that a consistent rational function can be always founded.
Define
(3.87)
Observe that of (3.85) the even or odd character of the numerator of distinguishes the two
cases of z 12 (s): For even .Jr(s), Case A applies, and for odd .J-T(s), Case B applies. To
make z12 (s) rational, it is necessary that T(s) for Case A or [-T(s)] for Case B be a complete
square, but even for a positive real impedance Z(s), this is not always true. Fortunately, it is
possible to remedy this situation by multiplying the polynomial T(s) or [-T(s)] by an even
polynomial
W(s) = [m 0 (s)+n0 (s)][m0 (s)-n0 (s)] (3.88)
composed of all the first order factors occurring in T(s) of odd multiplicity. That this is always
possible follows from the fact that the zeros of T(s) have quadrantal symmetry, being symmetric
with respect to both axes. For our purposes, let m0 (s) + n0 (s) be the azLtiliary Hunvilz
polynomial fonned by the LHS zeros of (3 .88), so that m0 (s) - n0 (s) has all the zeros at the
mirror-image points in the right-half of the s-plane.
It remains to be shown that this manipulation does not affect the given Z(s); it merely
alters the two-port parameters z 11 (s). To see this, we multiple the numerator and denominator of
Z(s) by the common auxiliary Hurwitz polynomial m0 (s) + n0 (s) and obtain
Z(s) = m1(s)+n 1(s). m0 (s)+n 0 (s)

m2 (s)+n 2 (s) m0 (s)+n0 (s)
_ [m 0 (s)m 1(s) +n0 (s)n 1(s)]+[m 0 (s)n1(s) +n0 (s)m 1(s)]
- [m0 (s)m 2 (s) + n0 (s)n 2 (s)]+ [n 0 (s)m 2 (s) + m0 (s)n 2 (s)]
(3.89)
- m,(s)+fi,(s)
= 1n2(s)+fi2(s)
From the new even and odd parts, we calculate
showing that by multiplying T(s) by m~ (s)- n~ (s) to make it a complete square, the operation
does not affect the given impedance Z(s). It merely alters the associated two-port parameters.
By comparing (3.85) with (3.82), we can make following identifications:
Case A: CaseB:
n1(s)
z11 (S) =m1
-(s)
- z11 ( s ) = -
n 2(s) m2(s)
m2(s) z22(s)= n2(s)
Z22(s)=--
n 2(s) m2(s)
,JT(s) Z12 (s) = ,J-T(s)
z12 (s)=--
n2(s) m2(S)
Table 3. I The z-parameters determined by Darlington procedure.
The residue condition. We must show that the z-parameters z11 (s), z22 (s), and z12 (s)
obtained by the above process are always compatible in representing a reactance two-port. We do
this by demonstrating that the residue condition is always satisfied at each their poles. To this
end, we expand the z-parameters of Case A in Table 3. I in partial fractions as follows:
( ) k,., ku(O) "n'

m1 s
k(/)
11 s
zJJ ( s) = - = JJ s+-+ .L., 2 2 , j=l,2 (3.91)
n2(s) s 1• 1 s +ro1
T( s) kl•I k12(O) "n ' k(I)

s2
Z12 S
( ) =--= 12 s+-+ .L., 2
12
(3.92)
n2 (s) s ,.. s +ro,
where the residues at pole s,(s) are
kM - m1(s") k<•>-.Jf[iJ (3.93)
JJ - dn 2 (s.) ' 12 - dn2(s.,)
ds ds
since z11 (s) and z22 (s) are reactance functions, their residues at the jro-axis poles must be real
and positive and more
=0 (3.94)
is satisfied with the equality sign. This follows from the facts that sr, being a pole of zlJ (s), is a
zero of n 2 (s) or n 2 (s.)=0, and that dn 2 (s.)/ds¢.O. In a similar manner, the same conclusion
can be reached for Case B. A pole possessing this property is termed a compact pole. In other
words, all the finite nonzero poles of the z-parameters obtained by Darlington procedure are
compact.
Example 3.8 Consider the input impedance
s +.!
Z(s)=--3 (3.95)
s+3
We determine the associate two-port parameters zlJ (s). For this we first compute the quantity
(3.96)
showing that T(s) has simple zeros at s = ±1. The auxiliary Hurwitz polynomial is found to be
(3.97)
Now we multiply the numerator and denominator polynomials of (3.95) by (3.97), obtaining
s+½ s+l
Z(s)=--·--=-,- - -
s 2 +ts+½
(3.98)
s+3 s+I s- + 4s + 3
Since ~11 1(s),n 2 - ,i1(s)n 2 (s)J12 is even, Case A applies, and from Table 3.1 we have
(3.99)
3.3.3 Program for Computing Mid-Series and Mid-Shunt Element Values
The realization ~fa set of z-parameters is easier, if all zeros and poles of z11 (s), z22 (s) and
the transmission zeros of z 12 (s) are located at infinity or the origin, like Butterworth or
Chebyshev low-pass response will be discussed in Chapter 4. When the transmission zeros of
z12 (s) are located at any finite nonzero point on the jro-axis, the realization can be achieved by
a mid-series or mid-shunt structure. In this section, we present a computer program for the
calculation of the element values of a low pass LC ladder of Fig. 3.20 in accordance with the
Darlington realization, using the forms given by Lin and Tokad [8].
Consider the input admittance
(3.100)
of a reactance two-port terminated in a resistor. Note that the order of numerator polynomial is
higher than that of denominator. Assume that n is odd. If not we can rewrite (3.100) as
(3.101)
The zeros of T(s) defined in (3.86) are also called the attenuation poles, all of which are distinct
and located on the jro-axis in a sequence like (roa, ro 2 ,. .. , ro,).
c, tn
(a)
Hl
(b) co ••, ➔ co and c••2 = 0

Fig. 3.20 Mid-shunt ladder networks.
Write
-
Y( s) -Yu ( s)l+l/z 22 (s)
--'--':::..;..~ (3.102)
Yn(s)+l
where
(3.103a)
(3.103b)
and the attenuation poles are given by
(3.104)
First expand the function y 11 (s)/s in a continued fraction:
Yu(s) = C, + - - - - - - - - - 1________ (3.105)

s £is 2 1
-----,--+-------,,---------
s +1
1 '[ 2 ' s 1 2
~ I C +-.ui-------::--+-------
2 £,r2s 2 +I •. _ _ _1_ __
L s2
. +I-
L.r.s2 + 1 cv+I
Following the notation used by Darlington [2,6]
(3.106)
with ~,=~. i=l,2,··,V (3.107)

co,
we obtain
c1 =F(~ 1)
(3.108)
£ 1 =-1/F'('s 1)
where
(3.109a)
(3.109b)
Ifwe let
(3.110)
It can be shown [8] that C, and £, (i = 1,2,··, v.) can be generated by the following algorithm:
For i = 1(the first column)

For k = 1,2,-••, v
ck, = F(~k> (3.111)

Lk, =-1/F'<sk>
I
For i = 2,3,- ••, v
For j = i,i + 1,- •·, v
(3.112)
(3.113)
Based on the above algorithm, we give the following program to calculate element values
of a mid-series or mid-shunt low pass ladder network.
Program P303: Realization of a Mid-Shunt Low-Pass Ladder Network
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate element values of a mid-series or mid-shunt low
pass ladder network by Darlington method.
2. Usage.
Input: N: is an odd integer, being the order of the numerator polynomial of Y{s) of
(3.100), where the order of numerator polynomial is not less than that of
denominator. If not, we use Z(s) instead.
A(i): are real numbers, being the coefficients of the numerator polynomial of
(3.100), reading in sequence of an,an-l ,··•,a1,a0•
BG): are real numbers, being the coefficients of the denominator polynomial,
reading in sequence of bn-i , bn-J; • ·, b2 , b0 •
W(k): are real numbers, being the transmission zeros given by (3.104).
Program Midshu
Dimension A(0:20),B(0:20),W(l0),C(l0,10),L(l0,10),PP(l0,10),&
& BB(l0,10),DD(l0,10),X(l0)
Double Precision A,B,C,L,X,W,P,Q,O1,DP,DQ,PP,DD,BB,CC,LL
Write(*,*) 'Input Order of numerator polynomial, n is odd'
Read(*,*) N
Write(*,*) 'Input Coefficients of numerator polynomial A(n),&
& A(n-1), ••• ,A(l) ,A(0)'
Do 200 I .. N,0,-1
Read ( *, *) A (I)
200 Write(*,202) I,A(I)
202 Format(2X,'A(',I2,')•',F20.12)
Write(*,*) 'Input Coefficients of denominator polynomial &
& B(n-l),B(n-3), ... ,8(2),B(0)'
Do 210 J•N-1,0,-2
Read(*,*) B(J)
210 Write(*,212) J,B(J)
212 Format (2X, 'B (', I2, ') •', F20 .12)
Write(*,*) 'Input attenuation poles: W(l),W(2), .•. ,W(n/2)'
Do 220 k•l,N/2
Read ( *, *) W( k)
220 Write(*,225) k,W(k)
225 Format(2X,'W(',I2,')""',F20.12)
Do 10 kal,N/2
X(k)•l.0/(W(k)*W(k))
Q•B(0)
Ql--A(0)
P•A(l)
DQ--N/2*8(0)
DP--N/2*A(l)
Do 3 I--1,N/2
Q•-X(k)*Q+B(2*I)
Ql•-X(k)*Ql+A(2*I)
3 P•-X(k)*P+A(2*I+l)
Do 4 I•l, N/2-1
DQaX(k)*DQ+(-l)**I*(N/2-I)*B(2*I)
4 DP•X(k)*DP+(-l)**I*(N/2-I)*A(2*I+l)
L(k,1)•-1,0/((DP*Q-DQ*P)/(Q*Q))
C(k,l)•P/Q
10 Continue
Do 11 I•2, N/2
Do 12 J•I,N/2
PP(j,i)--X(j)-X(i-1)
BB(j,i)•C(j,i-1)-C(i-l,i-1)
DD(j,i)•PP(j,i)+BB(j,i)*L(i-l,i-1)
C(j,i)•PP(j,i)*BB(j,i)/DD(j,i)
L(j,i)•PP(j,i)**2/L(j,i-1)-BB(j,i)**2*L(i-l,i-l)
L(j,i)•DD(j,i)**2/L(j,i)
12 Continue
11 Continue
Do 40 I•l,N/2
CC•C(i, i)
LL•L(i,i)
Ge•X(i)/LL
Write(*,38) I,CC,I,LL,I,Ge
38 Format ( lX, 'C (', I2, ') •', Fl0. 7, 2X, 'L (', I2, ') •', Fl0. 7, 2X, &
& 'Gamma(',I2,')•",Fl0.7)
40 Continue
IF(N.EQ.2*(N/2)) Goto 140

C(N/2+1,l)•P/Ql
Write(*,138) N/2+1,C(N/2+1,l)
138 Format(lX, 'C(',I2, 'l•",Fl0.6)
140 End
Example 3.9 The coefficients for the admittance of (3.100) are listed.below with n = 5:
a5 = 1.8247628237
a 4 = 2.1206039322
b4 = 2.1203501496
a3 = 4.826393102
b2 =3.8163312348 (3.114)
a 2 = 3.8165688371
b0 = 1.000000000
a 1 = 2.9782899350
a0 = 1.0000000000
The transmission zeros are located at

ro1 =3.250870351618
(3.115)
002 = 2.089263590296
Running Program P303 gives
Input Order of numerator polynomial, n is odd
5
Input Coefficients of numerator polynomial A(n),A(n-1), ..• ,A(l),A(0)
A( 5)a 1,824762823700
A( 4)a 2.120603932200
A( 3)= 4.826393102000
A( 2)= 3.816568837100
A( l)a 2.978289935000
A( 0)= 1.000000000000
Input Coefficients of denominator polynomial B(n-l),B(n-3), .•• ,8(2),B(0)
B( 4)• 2,120350149600
B( 2)= 3.816331234800
Bl 0)= 1.000000000000
Input attenuation poles: W(l),W(2), •.• ,W(n/2)
W( l)• 3.250870351618
W( 2)a 2.089263590296
C( l)= 0.7887949 L( l)= 1.2614293 Gamma( l)• 0.0750132

C( 3)= 1.5153707 L( 2)= 1.0839548 Gamma( 2)• 0.2113501
C( 5)= 0.674024
The realization is shown in Fig. 3.21.

1.2624 H 1.0840H
0.07501 F 0.2113SF
.... "'0.78879F 1.51S4F 0.67402F

Example 3.10 Consider the admittance function
Y(s) = 205s 4 + 205s 3 + 59s 2 + 9s + 1

(3.116)
25s 3 + 25s 2 + 6s + 1
which is rewritten in accordance with (3.99)
Y(s) = Os' +205s" +205s 3 +59s 2 +9s+1

(3.117)
Os 4 +25s3 +25s 2 +6s+l
The transmission zeros are found to be
T(s) = (205s4 + 59s 2 + 1)(25s 2 + 1)- (205s 3 + 9s)(25s 3 + 6s) = 225(s 2 + n->2 (3.118)
2
(s)- 15(s +-h) (3.119)
y 21 - 25s 3 + 6s
To realize the transmission zero at s ➔ oo, we use Fig. 3.21 (b ). The corresponding input date are
given by
05 =0.0
04 =205.0
b4 =0.0
03 = 205.0 ro 1 = 0.2581988897472
b2 =25.0 I (3.120)
02 =59.0 CO2 =9999.0
b0 =1.0
o 1 =9.0
00 =1.0
Running program P303 gives

Input Order of numerator polynomial, n is odd
5
Input Coefficients of numerator polynomial A(n),A(n-1), •.• ,A(l),A(0)
A( 5)= 0.000000000000
A( 4)= 205.000000000000
A( 3)• 205.000000000000
A( 2)• 59.000000000000
A( l)= 9.000000000000
A( 0)= l.000000000000
Input Coefficients of denominator polynomial B(n-1),B(n-3), .•. ,8(2),B(0)
B( 4)• 0.000000000000
B( 2)• 25.000000000000
B( 0)m 1.000000000000
Input attenuation poles: W(l),W(2), •.. ,W(n/2)
W( l)= 0.258198889747
W( 2)• 9999.000000000000
C( l)a 7.0000000 L( l)= 5.0000000 Gamma( 1)= 3.0000000

C( 3)= 2.0000000 L( 2)•********** Gamma( 2)• 0.0000000
C( 5)• 0.000000
The realization is shown in Fig. 3.22, where L~ is the residue of J/Yn (s) evaluated at infinity.
SH
IH
JF
10
7F 2F
3.4 Cascade Synthesis

In the present section, we use the cascade synthesis technique to realize a rational positive-
real impedance according to Darlington theory. Our approach is based primarily on the work of
Hazony [7] and Youla [13].
The technique is to realize a positive real function as the input impedance of a lossless two-
port network terminated in a resistor. Like the Brune and Bott and Duffin realizations, cascade
synthesis is an one-port RLC realization. In two-port insertion synthesis, it is often required to
realize a prescribed transducer power-gain characteristic of a lossless two-port terminated a
resistor by its input impedance, thereby making it important in two-port synthesis. An impedance
function with no poles on the imaginary axis is known as a minimum reactance function. An
admittance function having this property is called a minimum susceptancefimction. Similarly, an
impedance function whose real part vanishes at some real frequency is known as a minimum
resistance function and an admittance function whose real part vanishes at some real frequency is
known as a minimum conductance. A function, which is simultaneously minimum reactance,
susceptance, resistance and conductance, is simply referred to as a minimumjimction.
For a given positive rational impedance Z(s), we can first extract all of the jro -axis poles
(including those at the origin and infinity) from Z(s) and its reciprocal Y(s). The resulting
impedance Z(s) is minimum rcactance and its reciprocal Y(s) = 1/Z(s) is minimum
susceptance. Since Z(s) is devoid of poles and zeros at the origin and infinity, the degrees of its
numerator and denominator polynomials are equal. Suppose that we extract a subnetwork Ni
from Z(s) and leave a rational positive-real impedance W. (s), as depicted in Fig. 3.23. Let
T(s) be the chain parameters characterizing N1•
(3.121)
where E(s), A1(s), B1(s), C1(s), and D1(s) are polynomials. If N1 is lossless, A1(s) and D 1(s)
are even and B1(s) and C1(s) odd, or vice versa. The input impedance can be expressed as
Z(s) = A1(s)W1(s) + B1(s)

(3.122)
C1 (s)JV. (s) + D1(s)
Z(s ) ~ Ni IY.(s)
Fig. 3.23 Extracting a subnetworkN1 from a given impedance Z(s).
Define the even part of (3.122) as

r(s) =Ev Z(s) =.!.[z(s) + Z(-s)] (3.123)
2
() 1 [A1(s)D1 (s)-B1 (s)C1 (s)][W,(s)+JV.(-s)]

(3.124)
rs = 2 [C1(s)W1(s)+D1(s)](-C1(s)JV.(-s)+D1(s)]
If the subnetwork N 1 realizes one pair of real axis zeros, one pair of jro -axis zeros, or one set of
quadruplet of zeros of r(s), which are the zeros of A, (s)D, (s)- B1(s)D, (s), and leaves behind
a rational positive-real impedance
w; (s) = D, (s)Z(s)- B, (s)

(3.125)
- C1(s)Z(s) + A1(s)
oflower degreet, whose even part r1(s) is devoid of these zeros but contains all other zeros of
r(s), after a finite q steps, we arrive at a rational positive-real impedance Z q(s) whose even part
rq (s) is devoid of zeros in the entire complex-frequency plane, meaning that the even part of
Zq (s) must be a nonnegative constant c or
1The degree ofa rational function is defined as the sum of the degrees of its relatively prime numerator nnd denominator
polynomials (2).
CASCADE SYNTHESIS 115
It is straightforward to show that Zq (s) must be of the form
(3.127)
where Z,.c (s) is a reactance function. Z9 (s) can be realized as a lossless two-port terminated in
a c-ohm resistor as shown in Fig. 3.24.
- I
I
I -
ZLC(s) ,c>
~ en
>
Fig. 3.24 A lossless two-port network terminated in a c-ohm resistor.

3.4.1 Main Theorem
For a given positive-real function Z(s), let s0 be any point in the open RHS or any finite
nonzero point on the jro-axis where Z(s) is analytic. Write
(3.128)
The set of four real numbers

(3.129a)
(3.129b)
(3.129c)
(3.129d)
is called the index set assigned to the point s 0 by the positive-realfanction Z(s), in which
(3.130)
In the case ro 0 =0, then X O/ ro O must be replaced by Z'(er O) :
(3.131)
For cr0 = 0 and R0 = 0, Ro/cr0 must be replaced by X'(ro 0 ):
(3.132)
Since the index set is crucial in cascade synthesis, a program is provided for its calculations.
Program P304: Find the Index Set Assigned to the Point s0 by a Positive-Real
Function Z(s)
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the index set assigned to a point s0 by a
positive-real function Z(s).
2. Usage.
Input: M: is an integer, being the order of numerator polynomial.
A(i): are real numbers, being the coefficients of numerator polynomial of
Z(s) in a sequence of (a., ,a.,_1 , .. •,a, ,a0 ).
N: is an integer, being the order of denominator polynomial.
B(i): arc real numbers, being the coefficients of numerator polynomial of
Z(s) in a sequence of (bn,bn_,,··,b,,b0 ).
s: is a complex number s0 , to which the index set is assigned by Z(s).
q 1, q2, q3, q4: are complex numbers, stored as the output.
Subroutine pindex(A,M,B,N,Z,S,ql,q2,q3,q4)
Dimension A(M+l),B(N+l)
Complex S,Z,Pn,Pd,X,Ansl,Ans2
Complex ql,q2,q3,q4
Ep=0.le-04
Pn=A ( 1)
Do 10 I=2,M+l
Pn•Pn*S+A(I)
10 Continue
Pd•B(ll
Do 20 I•2,N+l
Pd•Pd*S+B(I)
20 Continue
d0=Real(S)
w0=Aimag(S)
Z=Pn/Pd
Write(•,•) 'Z•",Z
R0aReal(Z)
X0aAimag(Z)
If(ABS(w0)<=Ep) Go to 100
If(ABS(d0)<•Ep.And.ABS(R0)<•Ep) Go to 200
ql•(R0/d0-X0/w0)/(R0/d0+X0/w0)
q2=2*CABS(Z)**2/(R0/d0+X0/w0)
q3•2,0/(R0/d0-X0/w0)
q4c:1. 0/ql
Write(*,*) 'CABS(Z)"'',CABS(Z)
Go to 300
100 X•Cmplx(d0,0.0)
Call Plydif(A,M+l,X,Ansl)
Call Plydif(B,N+l,X,Ans2)
dZ•(Ansl*Pd-Pn*Ans2)/Pd**2
Write(*,*) 'dZ•',dZ
qlm(R0/d0-dZ)/(R0/d0+dZ)
q2•2*CABS(Z)**2/(R0/d0+dZ)
q3•2.0/(R0/d0-dZ)
q4•1. 0/ql
Write(*,*) 'CABS(Z)•',CABS(Z)
Go to 300
200 X•Cmplx(0.0,W0)
Call Plydif(A,M+l,X,Ansl)
Call Plydif(B,N+l,X,Ans2)
dX=(Ansl*Pd-Pn*Ans2)/Pd**2
Write(*,*) 'dX=',dX
qla(dX-X0/w0)/(dX+X0/w0)
q2•2*CABS(Z)**2/(dX+X0/w0)
q3m2,0/(dX-X0/w0)
q4 .. l. 0/ql
Write(*,*) 'CABS(Z)m',CABS(Z)
300 Return
End
Subroutine Plydif(A,N,X,Ans)
Complex X,Ans
Dimension A(N)
Pwr•N-1
Ans•A(l)*Pwr
IF(N.LE.l) Return
Do 10 I--2,N-l
Pwr=Pwr-1
Ans•Ans*X+Pwr*A(I)
10 Continue
Return
End
Example 3.11 Determine the index set assigned to the point s 0 = jl by the positive-real
function
Z(s) = 4s 2 +s+ 2 (3,133)

2s 2 +4s+4
Running the program

Program P304
Dimension A(30),B(30)
Complex S,Z,ql,q2,q3,q4
Write(*,*) 'Input order of numerator polynomial M'
Read(*,*) M
Write(*,*) 'Coefficients of numerator polynomial:&
& A(m) ,A(m-1), ••• ,A(l) ,A(0)'
Do 2 I=l,!Hl
2 Read(*,*) A(I)
Write(*,*) 'Input order of denominator polynomial N'
Read(*,*) N
Write(*,*) 'Coefficients of denominator polynomial:&
& B (,n) , B (n-1) , ... , B ( 1) , B ( 0) •
Do 4 I•l,N+l
4 Read(*,*) B(I)
Write(*,*) 's(x,y), complex number, at which index is defined'
Read(*,*) s
Call pindex(A,M,B,N,Z,S,ql,q2,q3,q4)
Write(*,*) 'ql•',Real(ql)
Write(*,*) 'q2Q',Real(q2)
Write(*,*) 'q3•',Real(q3)
Write(*,*) 'q4•',Real(q4)
End Program
Gives
Input order of numerator polynomial M

2
Coefficients of numerator polynomial:A(m),A(m-1),.,.,A(l),A(0)
4.0
1.0
2.0
Input order of denominator polynomial N
2
Coefficients of denominator polynomial:B(n),B(n-1), ••• ,B(l),B(O)
2.0
4.0
4.0
s(x,y), complex number, at which index is defined
(0.0,1.0)
Za ( 0.0000000E+00, 0.5000000)
dX• 1,5000000
CABS(Z)• 0.5000000
ql• 0.5000000
q2a 0,2500000
q3- 2.0000000
q4• 2.0000000
With these preliminaries, we now proceed to state the main theorem of this section, which
fonns the cornerstone of the cascade synthesis of a rational positive-real impedance according to
Darlington theory.
Theorem 3.2 Let Z(s) be a positive-real function, which is neither of the fonn Ls nor 1/Cs,
L and C being real nonnegative constants. Let s0 = e1 0 + jro0 be a finite nonzero point in the
closed RHS where Z(s) is analytic. Then the function
W. (s) = D1 (s)Z(s) - B1(s)

(3.134)
-C,(s)Z(s)+ A1(s)
is positive real, where
A1(s)=q 4 s2 +Isl
B1(s)=q 2s
C,(s)=q 3 s (3.135)
D, (s) = q 1s 2 + Isl
with {qpq 2 ,q 3 ,q4 } being the index set assigned to the point s 0 by Z(s). Furthennore,
W. (s) possesses the following properties:
(1) If Z(s) is rational, JJ~(s) is rational whose degree is not greater than that of Z(s), i.e.
degree W, (s) s degree Z(s) (3.136a)
(2) If Z(s) is rational and if s0 is a zero of its even part r(s), then
degree W. (s) S degree Z(s) -4, ro 0 ¢ 0 (3.137b)

degree Wi (s) S degree Z(s) - 2, ro 0 = 0 (3.137c)
(3) If s0 = a 0 > 0 is a real zero of r(s) of at least multiplicity 2 and if Z(s) is rational, then
degree JV.(s) S degree Z(s) -4 (3.137d)
We remark that since Z(s) is positive real, all the points in the open RHS are admissible.
Any point on the real-frequency axis, exclusive of the origin and infinity, where Z(s) is analytic
is admissible as s 0 •
3.4.2 The Zero Producing Sections
Depending on the locations of the transmission zeros in the s-plane, five types of zero-
producing sections are needed. The first type is to realize a pair of double order zeros on the real
axis, the second is to realize a pair of conjugate jro-axis double order zeros, and the third a
complex conjugate quadruplet of double order zeros, the fourth a complex conjugate quadruplet
of simple order zeros, and the last a pair of simple order zeros on the real axis.
The Darlington typc-C section
Consider the lossless two-port of Fig. 3.25, the transmission matrix T(s) of which is found
to be
!:L,s2 +-1 (Li +£i-2M)s]
T0 (s)= l [M MC MC (3.138)
2 1 s L2 2 1
s +- - -s +--
MC M MMC
where M =±.JL.Li. Comparing (3.138) with (3.135) gives
La =q4/q3 =1/(qaqJ) (3,139)

L2 =q./ql (3.140)
C=q3 ~sol2 (3.141)
M=-lfq3 (3.142)
From (3.138), we also have
(3.143)
showing that when M < 0, the network of Fig. 3.25 can yield a pair of zeros on the real axis, and
is called the Darlington type-C section.
jm
•
(a) The Darlington typc-C (b) A realization of the Darlington
section realizing a pair of typc-C section, where M < o.
double order real
transmission zeros.
Fig. 3.25 The Darlington type-C section.
The Brune section
From Fig. 3.25 and (3.143), we have
(3.144)
for M > 0. The resulting realization is known as the Brune Section, first given by Brune1. Brune
section realize a pair of transmission zeros of double order at any finite nonzero point on the jro-
axis, as shown Fig.3.26. In explicit form, its element values are given by
Li =~=-1-= ro 0 X'(ro 0 )+X(ro 0 ) (3.145)

qJ q1q3 2roo
L2 = !ll. = [rooX'(roo)-X(roo)l2 (3.146)

q3 2ro 0 [ro 0 X'(ro 0 ) + X(ro 0 )]
(3.147)
M =-1 = ro 0X'(ro 0 )-X{ro0) (3.148)

q3 2roo
jlJl
0 a
•
• •
(a) Brune section realizing a (b) A realization of Brune
pair of double order section, where Al> o.
imaginary finite non-zero
transmission zeros.
Fig. 3.26 The Brune section.
'Brune, 0. (1931) "Synthesis ofa finite two-terminal network whose driving-point Impedance Is a prescribed function of
frequency," J. Mat/,. Phys.. Vol. 10, pp.191-236.
In particular, if X(ro 0 ) = 0 or Z(jro 0 ) = 0, the Brune section of Fig. 3.26 degenerates into
the network of Fig. 3.27, whose element values are given by
L =½X'(ro 0 ) (3.149)
C= 2 (3.150)
ro~X'(ro 0 )
In the limit as ro 0 approaches zero, the degenerate Brune section of Fig. 3.27 goes into the
network of Fig. 3.28(a), known as the Darlington type-A section. The inductance is determined
by the formula
L =½Z'(O) (3.151)
As ro 0 approaches infinity, Fig. 3.27 collapses into the network of Fig. 3.28(b), which is
known as the Darlington type-B section. Its capacitance is given by
2
C=--- (3.152)
limsZ(s)
S ➔ co
• •
Fig. 3.27 The degeneration of the Brune section for X(ro 0 ) = 0 or Z(jro 0 ) = 0 .
(a) The Darlington type-A section (b) The Darlington type-8 section
Fig. 3.28 Degenerate of the Brune sections.

Program P305: Realization of the Darlington Type-C Section, Brune Section, and
the Darlington Type-E Section.
1. Purpose. This program is used to realize the Darlington type-C section, Brune section, and
the Darlington type-E Section.
2. Usage. Given a rational positive real functionZ(s)
(3.153)
which is devoid of jro-axis poles and zeros including the origin and infinity,
and the zeros ofits even part Ev Z(s).
Input: M: is an integer, the order of the numerator polynomial.
A(i): are real numbers, being the coefficients of the numerator polynomial
(3.154)
N: is an integer, the order of the denominator polynomial.

BG): are real numbers, being the coefficients of the denominator polynomial
(3.155)
s: are complex numbers, being the RHS zeros of Ev Z(s) .

Yield: the element values I.,., L,_, M and C of the Darlington type-C section and Brune
section, and the element values I.,.,Li,M, C and;, of the Darlington type-E
section.
3. Remarks. Subroutine Pindex is used to calculate the index set assigned to the point s1 by
the positive real function Z(s), and is obtained by Program P304.
Program Sections
Implicit Real (L)
Complex S,Z,ql,q2,q3,q4
Write(*,*) 'This is to realize The Darlington type-C &
& Section,Brune Section,'
Write(*,*) 'and The Darlington type-E Section'
Write(*,*) 'To obtain Darlington type-D section,&
& run Program P306'
Write(*,*)
Write(*,*) 'Input order of numerator polynomial M'
Read(*,*) M
& A(m) ,A(m-1), ••• ,A(O)'
Do 2 I-1,M+l
2 Read(*,*) A(I)

Read(*,*) N
Write(*,*) 'Coefficients of denominator polynomial:&
& B(n),B(n-1), ••• ,B(O)'
Do 4 I•l,N+l
Read ( *, *) B (I)
Write(*,*) 's(x,y), complex number, &
& at which index is defined'
Read(*,*) s
dO•real(s)
WO•Aimag(s)
Write(*,*)
If(d0/•0.and.WO==O) Write(*,*) 'Z(s) is to be &
& realized as Darlington type-C Section'
If(dO••O.and.W0/•0) Write(*,*) 'Z(s) is to be &
& realized as Brune Section'
If(dO/•O.and.W0/•0) Write(*,*) 'Z(s) is to be &
& realized as Darlington type-E section'
Call pindex(A,M,B,N,Z,S,ql,q2,q3,q4)
el•real(ql)
e2•real(q2)
e3•real(q3)
e4•real(q4)
Ll•l. 0/ (el*e3)
L2•el/e3
Cae3/CABS(s)**2
Lm=l.0/e3
If(d0/•0.and.WO==O) Lm•-1.0/e3
Write(*,*) 'Ll•',Ll
Write(*,*) 'L2•',L2
Write(*,*) •c -•,c
Write(*,*) 'M •',Lm
If(d0/=0.and.W0/•0) Write(*,*) 'Zeta=+-',2*d0/e3
End
Subroutine pindex(A,M,B,N,Z,S,ql,q2,q3,q4) (See Program P304)
Example 3.12 We wish to realize the positive-real impedance
Z(s)= s 2 +9s+8 (3.156)

s 2 +2s+2
whose even part is given by

(s2 -4)2
r(s)=..a....4-..a..... (3.157)
s +4
Thus, s0 = cr0 =2 is an double order zero of r(s) on the real axis. The element values of the
Darlington type-C section are calculated by program P305:
2
Coefficients of numerator polynomial:A(m),A(m-1), ••• ,A(0)

1.0
9.0
8.0
2
Coefficients of denominator polynomial:B(n),B(n-1), •.• ,B(0)
1.0
2.0
2.0
(2.0,0.0)
Z(s) is to be realized as Darlington type-C Section
Z= ( 3.0000000, 0.0000000E+00)
dZ=- -0.5000000
CABS(Z)a 3.0000000
Ll• 0.5000000
L2• 2,0000000
C.. 0.2500000
M .. -1. 0000000
O.SH 2H
Z{s)• .Ji +9.s+S _.. 40
.J1+2.J+2
T 0.25F
= =
Fig. 3.29 A Darlington type-C realization of Example 12.
Example 3.13 Consider the positive-real impedance
Z(s)= 4s 2 +s+2 (3.158)

2s 2 +4s+4
The zeros of its even part are found to be s0 = jl. Running the program P305 gives
2
Coefficients of numerator polynomial:A(m),A(m-1), ••• ,A(0)
4.0
1.0
2.0
2
Coefficients of denominator polynomial:B(n),B(n-1), ••• ,B(0)
2.0
4.0
4.0

(0.0,1.0)
Z(s) is to be realized as Brune Section
Z= ( 0.0000000E+00, 0.5000000)
dX• 1.5000000
CABS(Z)a 0.5000000
Ll- 1.0000000
L2• 0.2500000
C • 2.0000000
M• 0.5000000
A realization is shown in Fig. 3.30.
O.SH
I.OH 0.25H
o.sn
2.0F
Fig. 3.30 A Brune section realization of Example 3.13.
The Darlington type-D section
The Darlington type-D section is shown in Fig. 3.31. It can be used to realize a quadruplet
oftransmissionzerosat s0 =±(cr 0 + jro 0 ) [I]. Write
Z(cr0 + jro 0 ) = r + jx (3.159)

Z'(cr0 + jro 0 )=r' + jx' (3.160)
where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to s, and define the quantities
(3.161a)
(3.161b)
(3.161c)
(3.161d)
(3.16le)
From these we obtain

(3.162a)
(3.162b)
(3.162c)
(3.162d)
jm
0 a
(a) The Darlington type-D section

• •
realizing a quadruplet of double (b) A realization of the Darlington
order transmission zeros at type-D section.
So = ±(<ro + i 00 o) •
Fig. 3.31 The Darlington type-D SectioIL
The element values are given by
(3.163a)
(3.163b)
L2 =M12 /L 1 (3.163c)
M 2 =-[k; -2(ro~ -o-~)k5k6 +Isl kl] /{k;k6 ) (3.163d)
(3.163e)
(3. 1631)
(3.163g)
(3.163h)
Program P306: The Realization of a Darlington Type-D Section
1. Purpose. This program is used to realize the Darlington type-D section.
2. Usage. Given a rational positive real function Z(s) of (3.153), which is devoid of jro-
axis poles and zeros including the origin and infinity, and a quadruplet of
transmission zeros at s 0 =±(cr 0 + jro0 ).
Input: M: is an integer, the order of the numerator polynomial.
A(i): are real numbers, being the coefficients of the numerator polynomial
(3.164)
N: is an integer, the order of the denominator polynomial.

BG): are real numbers, being the coefficients of the denominator polynomial
(3.165)
s: are complex numbers, being the RHS zeros of Ev Z(s).

Yield: the element values £i,Li,,M1,½,LuM2 ,C1 and C2 of the Darlington type-D
section defined in Fig.3.31.
3. Remarks. Subroutine Plydif(A,N,X,Ans) is used to calculate the derivative of a polynomial

f(s) with respect to s.
Program DSection
Implicit Real(L)
Complex S,Z,Pn,Pd,Ansl,Ans2,dZ
Write(*,*) 'This is to realize The Darlington type-D Section'
Write("",*)
Write(•,•) 'Input order of numerator polynomial M'
Read(•,•) M
& A(m),A(m-1), •.. ,A(O)'
Do 2 I--1,M+l
Read(*,*) A(I)
Read(*,*) N
Write(•,•) 'Coefficients of denominator polynomial:&
& B (n), B (n-1) , ••• , B (0) •

Do 4 I•l,N+l
4 Read(*,*) B(I)
Write(*,*) 's(x,y), complex number, at which index is defined'
Read(*,*) s
Pn•A(l)
Do 10 I•2,M+l
Pn•Pn*S+A(I)
10 Continue
Pd•B(l)
Do 20 I•2,N+l
Pd=Pd*S+B(I)
20 Continue
d,.Real(S)
w•Aimag(S)
Z•Pn/Pd
RaReal(Z)
X""Aimag(Z)
Call Plydif(A,M+l,s,Ansl)
Call Plydif(B,N+l,s,Ans2)
dZ•(Ansl*Pd-Pn*Ans2)/Pd**2
u.. Real (dZ)
V•Aimag (dZ)
el•x*d**3-U*d*w*(d**2+w**2)+r*w**3
e2•-x*d**3+U*d*w*(d**2-w**2)-2*V*d*d*w*w+r*w**3
e3=V*(d*d+w*w)+3*w*r-3*d*x
e4•-V*(d*d-w*w)-2*d*w*U+w*r+d*x
hl•e2*(x*d*(3*w*w-d*d)+r*w*(3*d*d-w*w))
hl .. hl+el*(d*d+w*w)*(r*w-x*d)
h2•1.0/(e2*e3-el*e4)
gla2*(w*w-d*d)+4*hl*h2
g2=1+4*h2*(el*(x*d+r*w)+e2*(x*d-r*w))
g5 .. 8*d*w*(d*d+w*w)*e2*h2
g6=8*d*w*el*h2
Lml•l.0/g6
Ll•g2/g6
L2•Lml **2/Ll
Lm2•g5*g5-2*(w*w-d*d)•g5*g6+CABS(s)**4*g6•*2
Lm2 .. -Lm2/(g5**2*g6)
L3=(gl*g5*g6-g2*g5**2-CABS(s)**4*g6**2)/(g5**2*g6)
Write(*,*) 'Ml•', Lml
Write(*,*) 'Ll•',Ll
Write(*,*) 'L2•',L2
Write(*,*) 'M2•',Lm2
Write(",*) 'L3•', L3
Write(*,*) 'L4m',Lm2**2/L3
Write(*,*) 'Cl•',g6/(g5*L3)
Write(*,*) 'C2•',g5/CABS(s)**4
End
Subroutine Plydif(A,N,X,Ans)
Complex X,Ans
Dimension A(N)
PwraN-1
Ans ..A(l) *Pwr
IF(N.LE.l) Return
Do 10 Im2,N-l
PwrmPwr-1
Ans•Ans*X+Pwr*A(I)
10 Continue
Return
End
Example 3.14 Consider the positive-real impedance
Z(s) = 6s 2 + Ss + 6 (3.166)
2s 2 +4s+4
whose even part r(s) has a zero at s 0 = 0.61139 + jl.02005. Running program P306 gives
This is to realize The Darlington type-D Section

2
Coefficients of numerator polynomial:A(m),A(m-1), •.• ,A(0)
6.0
5.0
6.0
2
Coefficients of denominator polynomial:B(n),B(n-1), •.• ,B(0)
2.0
4.0
4.0
(0.61139,1.02005)
Ml .. 0.6582187
Ll .. 0.9308618
L2 .. 0.4654309
M2• -0.6134947
L3a 0.5304413
L4a 0.7095521
Cl• 1. 1519263
C2• 1.2430390
The Darlington type-E section
In the foregoing, we have presented the Darlington type-C section, Brune section and the
Darlington type-D section, where the zeros s0 of r(s) are assumed to be of even multiplicity,
and the realizations are all reciprocal. If the zeros of r(s) are of odd multiplicity, the realization
will be nonreciprocal. Now we study such a nonreciprocal realization known as the Darlington
type-E section and the Richards section.
Consider the lossless nonreciprocal two-port network of Fig.3.32, which is referred to as
the Darlington type-E section. We first compute its impedance matrix as
Z [ L1s+1/Cs Ms+l/Cs+r;] (3.168)

e(s)= Ms+J/Cs-<; L2s+1/Cs
where M 2 = L,L,,. From the impedance matrix Ze(s), the transmission matrix Ts(s) of the
Darlington type-E section is obtained as
(3.169)
}rtl
• •
0 a
• •
•
(a) The Darlington type-E section
realizing a quadruplet of simple (b) A realization of the Darlington
order transmission zeros at type-E section.
So= ±(<10 + 100 0) •
Fig. 3.32 The Darlington type-E Section.
From (3.169), we see that the Darlington type-E section is used to realize a quadruplet of
transmission zeros at s0 = ±(cr 0 + jro 0 ). The element values of the Darlington type-E section are
found to be
L. =q4/q3 =1/q,ql (3.170a)

L,, =q,/q3 (3.170b)
C=q3/lsol2 (3.170c)
M=J/q3 (3.170d)
<;=±2cro/q3 (3. l 70e)
Example 3.15 We wish to realize the impedance
Z(s)= 6s 2 +5s+6 (3.171)

2s 2 +4s+4
by means of the Darlington type-E section, whose even part r(s) possesses a zero at
s0 = 0.61139 + jl.02005. Running Program P305 gives
2
Coefficients of numerator polynomial:A(ml,A(m-1), ••• ,A(Ol
6.0
5.0
6.0
2
Coefficients of denominator polynomial:B(n),B(n-1), ••• ,B(O)
2.0
4.0
4.0
(0.6639,1.02005)
Z(s) is to be realized as Darlington type-E section

z- ( 1.5655278, 0.4481496)
CABS(Z) 0 1.6284088
Ll= 1. 4 999726
L2a 0.7499735
C • 0.6666438
M • 1.0606318
Zeta•+- 1.2969192
The Richards section
Let Z(s) be a positive-real function that is neither of the fonn Ls nor 1/Cs. Let k be an
arbitrary positive-real constant. Then the Richards function [9]
W(s) =Z(k) kZ(s)-sZ(k) (3.172)

kZ(k)-sZ(s)
is also positive real, whose degree is not greater than that of Z(s). The proof can be found by
[3], and is omitted. If k = a O is a RHS zero of r( s),
degree W(s) S degree Z(s)-2 (3.173a)
Substituting cr 0 in (3.172) and solving for Z(s) give
Z(s)= aa1V(s)+sZ(a0 ) (3.173b)

sW(s)/Z(a 0 ) + a 0
It is straightforward to show that this impedance can be realized by a Richards section tenninated
in W(s) as depicted in Fig. 3.32:
(3.174a)
(3.174b)
----, ~
,;
-----...
Z(s)-----.. IV(s)
Fig. 3.33 The Richards section with its termination.

Example 3.16 Consider the positive real impedance
Z(s)= 12s+l (3.175)

3s+1
the even part of which is found to be

1-36s 2
r()
s=-- (3.176)
1-9s2
Substituting cr0 = 1/6 in (3.175) and the result in (3.174) give
C=3, ~=±2 (3.177)
Since W(cr 0 )=1,wehavea lQ terminatingresistor.
3.4.3 Illustrative Examples
So far, we have presented five types of zero producing sections. Now we present in some
details how these sections can be employed to complete the cascade synthesis of a positive real
impedance.
(I) The given positive real rational impedance Z(s) is assumed to be minimum-reactance
and minimum susceptance. If not, we first remove its jm-axis zeros or poles of Z(s).
Then Z(s) is to be realized as a cascade of lossless reciprocal or nonreciprocal
subnetworks terminating in a resistor.
(2) Evaluate the even part of Z(s), the zeros of which arc the transmission zeros of a lossless
two-port network N. If the zeros are of even multiplicity, the realization is reciprocal.
Otherwise, it is nonreciprocal.
(3) Compute the index set assigned to the point s0 by the positive real impedance Z(s).
Each double-order CJ -axis transmission zeros is to be realized by a Darlington type-C
section, each double-order jro-axis transmission zeros by a Brune section, each double-
order quadruplet of transmission zeros at s0 = ±(CJ 0 + jro 0 ) by a Darlington type-D
section; each simple-order quadruplet of transmission zeros at s0 = ±(CJ 0 + jro 0 ) by a
Darlington typc-E section and each simple-order CJ -axis transmission zeros by a Richards
section.
(4) The element values of an extracted zero producing section are computed by Programs
P305-P306. We next calculate the entries of the transmission matrix of this zero
producing section. The results are substituted in (3.134) to yield the remainder impedance
fV. (s) of the network after realizing the section. JV.(s) is positive real and is of lower
degree than that of the original impedance.
(5) The process of extracting a zero producing section is repeated until all the transmission
zeros arc realized, finally resulting in a constant impedance whose value equals to the
terminating resistance.
Example 3.17 Realize the following positive real impedance as a resistor terminated
lossless two-port network:
Z(s) = 4s.c +l 7s 3 + lls 2 + l0s+4

(3.178)
2s 4 +6s3 +24s 2 +12s+8
First note that Z(s) is devoid of jro-axis poles and zeros including the origin and infinity.
Hence, Z(s) is minimum reactance and minimum susceptance. Next write
Z(s)= 4s .. +lls 2 +4 + 17s 3 +10s = m1(s)+n 1(s) (3.179)

2s.. +24s 2 +8 + 6s 3 +12s m2 (s)+n 2 (s)
Evaluate the zeros of Ev Z(s) gives
(3.180)
There are double jro-axis zeros at s = ±jl, which can be realized by a Brune section. On the
other hand, the conjugate quadruplet at s = ±1 +{±11) corresponding to the simple factor
(s.c + 4) can be realized either by a Darlington type-E section, or after augmentation, by a
Darlington type-D section.
Running Program P305 gives the element values of a Brune section as follows:
Za ( -l.7984160E-09, 0.5000000)
.dX= 1. 5000000
CABS(Z)= 0.5000000
Ll• 1.0000000
L2a 0.2500000
C = 2.0000000
Lrn=- 0.5000000
The remainder impedance after extracting a Brune section can be calculate by (3.134), where the
transmission parameters of the Brune section are found to be
A(s)=4s 2 +2 B(s)=s
(3.181)
C(s)=4s B(s)=2s 2 +4
Substituting (3.178) and (3.181) in (3.134) and canceling a common factor give
W(s) = s 2 +4s+ 2 (3.182)

s 2 +s+2
Running Program P306 yields clement values of a Darlington type-D section as
Ml• 0.3333334
Ll• 0.3333334
L2• 0.3333334
t-12= -0.6666666
L3 .. 1.3333333
L4• 0.3333333
Cl• 0.3750000
C2 .. 1.5000001
0.5 H OJ333H
0.333311
0.25H
Z(s) .. 4s4 + I 7s 3 + I ls2 + I Or+ 4 I.OH
2s 4 +6s1 +24s 2 +12s+8 0.375F 0.3333H o.sn
2.0F
I.SF
Mz •-0.6667H L, = IJJJJH
Fig. 3.34 A reciprocal realization of Example 3.17.

Likewise, to realize (3.182), running program P305 gives element values of a Darlington type-E
section as
Za ( 2. 0000000, 0. 0000000E+00)
CABS(Z)= 2,0000000
Ll• 1,0000000
L2= 1.0000000
C = 0.5000001
Lma 1,0000000
Zeta=+- 2.0000000
0.S II
------- ..... ---------.
20
0.2SH
Z(s)a 4s4 + 17sJ +1 ls 2 +10s+4 I.OH
2s 4 +6sJ +24s2 +12s+8 Ill o.sn
2.0F
O.SF
Fig. 3.35 A nonreciprocal realization of Example 3.17.
References
1. Baher, H. (1981) Synthesis ofElectrical Networks, Chichester: John Wiley.
2. Cauer, W. (1958) Synthesis ofLinear Communication Networks. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Chen, W. K. (1986) Passive and Active Filters, Theory and Implementations, New York:
John Wiley.
4. Chin, F. Y and Steigliz, K. (1977) "An 0( N 2 ) algorithm for partial fraction expansion,"
IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., Vol. CAS-24, pp. 42-45.
5. Cuthbert, Jr., T. R, (1983) Circuit Design Using Personal Computers, New York, John
Wiley.
6. Darlington, S. (1939) "Synthesis of reactance 4-poles which produce prescribed insertion
loss characteristics," J. Math. Phys., Vol. 18, pp. 257-353.
7. Hazony, D. (1961) "Zero cancellation synthesis using impedance operators," IRE Trans.
Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-8,pp. 114-120.
8. Lin C. C. and Tokad, Y. (1968) "On the element values of mid-series and mid-shunt low-
pass LC ladder networks," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-15, pp. 349-353.
REFERENCES 137
9. Richards, P. I. (1948) "General impedance-function theory," Quart. Appl. Math., Vol. 6, pp.
21-29.
10. Ternes, G. C and LaPatra, J. W. (1977) Introduction to Circuit Synthesis and Design, New
York: McGraw-Hill.
11. Van Valkenburg, M. E. (1964) Introduction to Modern Network Synthesis, New York: John
Wiley.
12. Vlach, J. (1969) Computerized Approximation and Synthesis ofLinear Networks, New York:
John Wiley.
13. Youla, D. C. (1961) "A new theory of cascade synthesis," IRE Trans. Circuit Theory, Vol.
CT-8, pp. 244-260.
Chapter4
Filter Approximation and

Realization
Electric filters play a major role in shaping the overall response of a communication
system. For this reason, familiarity with its fundamental aspects is not only a must for the filter
designer, but is also advantageous for the system designer and those who specify and use filters.
In this chapter, we introduce four basic filter types: The Butterworth filter, the Chebyshev filter,
the elliptic filter and the Bessel-Thomson filter. We begin our discussion by introducing the
transducer power-gain characteristic for each. Then from the specifications, we determine its
order, nonnalization frequency and other important parameters. Finally we either give fonnulas
to compute its element values or use simple computer programs given in this text to realize its
network.
4.1 The Low-Pass Butterworth Response
The low-pass Butterworth filter is widely used due to its simplicity and good phase
characteristic. Its response is defined by
(4.1)
where OS H0 S 1 is the de value with IHUO)l2 = H 0 , and 00 0 is the nonnalization frequency. The
general fonn of the Butterworth response of several orders is shown in Fig. 4.1 in comparison
with the ideal brick-wall type of response. From (4.1) we can make the following three
observations:
( 1) oo S oo O• If (4.1) is expanded by the binomial series, we obtain
(4.2)
Observe that the first 2n-1 derivatives are zero at the origin, showing that function possesses a
maximally flat response at the zero frequency.
)l
(2) oo =00 0 • The magnitude IH(joo0 2 =0.5 for all n.
(3) For frequencies far above 00 0 , the response becomes
IHUrof ::,Ho(~)2n (4.3)
In tenns of decibels, we have

139
140 FILTER APPROXIMATION AND REALIZATION
cx(co)= 10lo~HUco)l2 101ogH0 -20nlo{:) ~ (4.4)
meaning that the attenuation cx(co) drops off at a rate of 20n dB per decade.
1.2----------------------.
C
ia
Cl idea brick-wall
t 0.8 ···response·····················
~
~ 0.6
m
u
::,
°g 0.4
C
l= 0.2
0 -1---......-~-~~~:::::......._.:;:::;=;=!
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 . 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
frequency
Fig. 4.1 The Butterworth response of several orders.
Apart from the de value H0 , the Butterworth response can be specified by two parameters n
and co 0 , which are in tum determined by filter requirements as illustrated in Fig. 4.2. In the pass
band from O to co P, the attenuation should not .exceed a preassigned value cxmu dB. In the stop
band from co .. to co, the attenuation should not be less than ex min dB. The· frequency band from
co P to co .. is called the transitional band. From these, we can determine n and co 0.
a(m)dB
Stop band
a .... -----------------------------
,( :,•;,•.-.-:t
~ ..
........... \,:-..:.;.~~;;t;
!-' .-..,;~~ ... ,. ......
.L,.......... ,...~
Transition band
~ ;•-:,~\-h':· .•·, ~J;-~~~:~-~~-
. rw, .. '"_...-;_~J;,-"""·->"'·'•', •
f .:.. • ' , ••
I). ..
'/:~·?~ti::~ ... •: ;:~.=:--;~~-::",:~-~\·:: ~ .. ~
..(.\i,1,.1._..\ ......
a_
0 0:,,, 0:,
Fig. 4.2 Filter requirements.

THE LOW-PASS BUTTERWORTH RESPONSE 141
Example 4.1 Suppose that we are required to realize a low-pass Butterworth response
having the following specifications:
(i) Suppose that the de value H0 = 1.

(ii) For the pass band extending from ro = 0 to ro P = 3400x21t rad/s, the attenuation should
not exceed 0.25 dB.
(iii) For the stop band extending from ro_, = l0000x21t rad/s to ro = co, the attenuation
should not be less than 50 dB.
Expressing (4.1) in logarithm, the pass band requirement becomes
3400 X 27t 2nl

10 log [ 1 + ( roo ) s am•x = 0.25 (4.5)
and the stop band specification can be written as
(4.6)
Solving ( 4.5) and ( 4.6) for n gives
(4.7)
and for ro O we have
(4.8)
or
21t x 4160.47 S ro 0 S 21t x 4393.97 (4.9)
The problem can be solved by using Program P401:
Program P401: Determine the Order n and the Normalization Frequency ro 0 for the
Low-pass Butterworth Filter
I. Purpose. The program is used to determine the order n and the normalization frequency ro 0
for the low-pass Butterworth filter, whose attenuation is less than ama• dB in the
pass band and larger than amin in the stop band.
2. Usage.
Input: Amax is the maximum pass-band attenuation in dB.
Aminis is the minimum stop-band attenuation in dB.
Fp is the pass band frequency in Hz.
Fs is the stop band frequency in Hz.

Yield: N is the order of the filter.
FO is the normalization frequency in Hz.
Program P401
Write(•,•)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(*,•) 'Program P401 is to determine order n and &
& normalized frequency F0'
Write(•,•) 'for the Butterworth filter, whose attenuation'
Write(•,•) 'A(w)<•Amax in passband, A(w)>=Amin in stop band'
Write(•,•)' Amax---is the maximum pass band attenuation in dB'
Write(*,•)' Amin---is the minimum stop band attenuation in dB'
Write(•,•)' Fp ---is the pass band frequency in Hz'
Write(•,•)' Fs ---is the stop band frequency in Hz'
Write(•,•)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•)
Write(•,•) 'Input Amax, Amin, Fp and Fs'
Read(•,•) Amax,Amin,Fp,Fs
A=l0•*(0.l*Amax)-1.0
B=l0*•(0.l•Amin)-1.0
CaFs/Fp
N=INT(LOG(B/A)/(2•LOG(C)))+l
Write(•,•) 'N=',N
FlaFp/(l0•*(0.l•Amax)-l.0)**(l.0/(2*N))
F2•Fs/(l0••(0.l•Amin)-l.0)•*(l.0/(2*N))
Write(*,*) 'F0 should be larger than',Fl,'Hz'
Write(•,•) 'F0 should be less than',F2,'Hz'
F0•Sqrt(Fl*F2)
Write(*,*) 'We choose F0 be',F0, 'Hz'
End
Using Program P401 yields the solution of Example 4.1:
Input Amax, Amin, Fp and Fs

0.25
50.0
3400
10000
N= 7
F0 should be larger than 4.1604673E+03 Hz
F0 should be less than 4.3939736E+03 Hz
We choose F0 be 4.2756265E+03 Hz
4.2 Realization of a Low-Pass Buttenvorth Filter
Once the degree of the Butterworth filter n and the normalization frequency ro 0 have been
determined, our next task is to synthesize the filter. If the filter is terminated at both sides, the
synthesis should be carried out from the input reflection coefficient. For the singly terminated
case, the reader is referred to Matthaei et al. (10] and Herrero and Willoner (8].
REALIZATION OF A LOW-PASS BUTTERWORTH FILTER 143
Input Reflection Coefficient p(s)
The squared magnitude of the input reflection coefficient is related to the transducer power
gain by the equation
I(p JOO. )l2-l-lH("
- JOO
)l2=l-H +(00/00 )2''
1+ (00/000 r
0 0 (4.10)
Appealing to the theorem of analytic continuation by substituting oo by - js in (4.10) gives
( s) (-s)=o2" l+(-l)"x2n (4.11)

p p 1+ (-1)" y2n
where (4.12a)
s s
y=-, x=- (4.12b)
OOo 0000
To identify the input reflection coefficient p(s), the zeros and poles of (4.11) are
determined by solving the following equations:
1+(-l)"x2n = 0 (4.13a)
1+(-l)"y2" =0 (4.13b)
the roots of which are located on a unit circle in the s-plane defined by
.(2k+n-1)1t)
Yk = exp( J----------
2n
, k = 1,2,·•,2n (4.14)
For n = 4 and n = 5, the pole locations as shown in Fig. 4.3. Since p(s) is devoid of poles in the
right half of the s-plane (RHS), we must assign all the left half of the s-plane (LHS) roots Y1: to
p(s), resulting in a unique decomposition of the denominator polynomial of ( 4.11). Since zeros
may lie in the RHS, several different numerators are possible [13]t. Choosing only the LHS
zeros defines a minimum-phase reflection coefficient as
p(s) = ± [l(x-x,) = ±o" x" + an_,x"·:+··•+a,x + a0 ( 4.lS)
(y- Y,) IT y" + 0n-ly"- + ·+aiY + Oo

where i = 1,2,·•,n. In fact, the coefficient a,, can be calculated explicitly by the following
recurrence formula [2]:
t Also sec Weinberg, L. ( 1957) •Explicit formulas for TsehebysehefT and Butterwonh ladder networks,• J. Appl. PhyJ., Vol. 28,
pp. 1155-1160.
.!!!....- cos[(k-lpt/2n] k = 1,2,. •·,n (4.16)

ai.1 - sin(/m/211) '
with an = l.
Joo Joo
0 a 3 0 8 a
6
J
n=S
n=4
Fig. 4.3. The pole locations of the 4th- and 5th-order low-pass Butterworth filters.
Example 4.2 Consider the fifth-order low-pass Butterworth response. Suppose that
ro 0 =1 and H 0 = 0.8. We wish to determine the input reflection coefficient. From (4.12), we
have
O = (l-H0 ) 112n = 0.8513399225 (4.17)
Write the minimum-phase input reflection coefficient as

S 4 3 2
p{s) = ±On 05X + a,x + QlX + a2x + a1x + a0
asY 5 + a4y4 + aJY3 + av12 + Oi)' + a0
= ± b5i +b,s◄ +bls3 +b2s2 +b,s+a0
S 4 3 2 (4.18)
~s+~s+~s+a~ +~s+~
where the coefficients ak can be computed by the recurrence formula (4.16). A program to
calculate a's and h's is given as follows:
Program P402: Determine the coefficients of (4.15)
1. Purpose. This Program is used to determine the coefficients of (4.15), when n and H0 are
given.
2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of a Butterworth filter.

HO is the de gain.
Yield: A(k) is the coefficient of s., in the numerator polynomial of (4.15).
B(k) is the coefficient of s" in the denominator polynomial of (4.15).
Program p402
Dimension A(0:20),B(0:20)
Double Precision A,Alpha
Write(•,•)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•) 'Program P~02 yields reflection coefficient of &
& Butterworth filter'
Write(•,•) 'N---is the order of Butterworth filter'
Write(•,•) 'H0---dc gain'
Write(•,•)'Numerator polynomial B(N)•s••N+B(n-l)•s••(n-&
& l)+ ••• +B(l)•S+B(0)'
Write(•,•) 'Denominator polynomial A(N)•s••N+A(N-l)•s••(N-&
&l)+ ••• +A(l)*S+A(0) I
Write(•,•)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•) 'Input N,H0'
Read(*,•) N,H0
Do 10 k•0,N
Call Co (N, K, A)
10 Continue
IF(H0.EQ.l.0) Then
Alpha•0.0
Do 20 I-=0,N-l
20 B(I)•0.0
B(N) .. 1.0
Else
Alpha•(l.0D0-H0)••(l.0D0/(2•N))
Do 30 ka0,N
30 B(k)aA(k)•Alpha••k
Endif
Do 40 I•0,N
40 Write(•,50) N-I,A(I),N-I,B(I)
50 Format(3X, 'a ( ', I2, ')•', Fl4.8, 6X, 'b( ', I2, ')""', Fl4 .8)
End
Subroutine Co(N,k,A)
Dimension A(0:N)
Double Precision A,Pi
Pi•3.l4l5926535D0
A(0)•l.0D0
Do 100 I•l,k
100 A(I)aA(I-l)•DCOS((I-l)*Pi/(2*N))/DSIN(I•Pi/(2*N))
End
Run Program P402 with N =5, we obtain the solution of Example 4.2 as follows:
Input N,H0
5
0.8
A( 5)• l.00000000 b( 5)• l.00000000
A( 4)• 3.23606798 b( 4)• 2.75499392
A( 3) • 5.23606798 b( 3)• 3. 79499555

A( 2) .. 5.23606798 b( 2)• 3.23083115
A ( l)• 3.23606798 b( l)= l. 69992447
A( O)= 1.00000000 b( 0) .. 0.44721359
H0 and Terminating Resistors
In Example 4.2, H0 is preassigned. In fact, H0 is uniquely detennined by the tennination of

the filter, if the ideal transfonner is not involved in its realization. It will be shown later that a
minimum-phase low-pass Butterworth filter always possesses a ladder realization of Figs. 4.4
and 4.6, from which we calculate
(4.19)
Also from termination, we ascertain the sign of the input reflection coefficient of (4.15). When
Ri ~ R1, we choose the plus sign in (4.15) and obtain
(4.20)
where Zin (s) is the impedance looking into the input port of the network of Fig. 4.4 with the
output tenninating in R2 • When R2 ~ R1 , we choose the minus sign and obtain an equation
similar to that of (4.20).
L,,_l L,,
CJ R:
V.(s)
n odd
Li Li L,,_1
R1
Y,(s)
r1 c,,_z c,, R:
n even
Fig. 4.4 Network realization of Butterworth response for R2 :?! R,.

Buttcnvorth Networks
Case 1. R2 > R1• With the choice of the plus sign in (4.15), we have
Z 1 )-R l+p(s) (4.21)

in \S - I
1-p(s)
which can be expanded in a continued fraction about infinity. The first element Li is given by
(4.22)
The values of other elements can be computed by the recurrence fonnulas
(4.23)
4siny 4.,_1 sin y4 .,,.1

(4.24)
roHI-26cosy 411 +62 )
for m = 1,2, ••, [n/2), where

rmt
Y,., =~ (4.25)
and [n/2] denotes the largest integer not greater than n/2 . The final element is
for n odd, and

(4.27)
forn even.
Example 4.3 Given

R, = 600 n, R2 = 1000 n
ro 0 = 105 rad/s, n = 5
we wish to obtain a low-pass Butterworth LC ladder network to meet these specifications.

Since R2 > R1, we choose the plus sign in (4.15), and obtain H0 =0.9375 from (4.19) and 6
= 0.757858 from (4.12). Thus, from (4.22) we compute
Li = 2 x 600 x sinl8" = 153142 mH (4.28)
(1-0.757858) X 10 5
Using (4.23) with m = 1 in conjunction with (4.28) gives
C _ 4xsin18" x sin54"
2 -10 10 X (1-1.515717x COS36" + 0.575349 )x 15.3143 X 10-J
= 0.0187582 µF (4.29)
Applying (4.24) with m = 1 and (4.29) yields
4 x sin54 • x sin90"
½ = 10 x(l-1.515717xcos72"+0.575349)x0.0187582xl0-6
10
= 15.5986 mH (4.30)
Repeating the above process form = 2 yields
C _ 4xsin90" xsinl26"
4 - 1010 X (1 -1.515717 X COS36" + 0.575349)x 15.5986 X 1o-J
= 10155.99 pF (4.31)
Finally, Ls can be computed directly from (4.26) as

L = 2 x 1000 x sinl8° = 3_5158 mH (4.32)
S (1 +0.757858) X 10 5
The ladder realization is presented in Fig. 4.5.

15.314 mH 15.598 mH 3.5158 mH
0.01875µF I0.155nF 1000n
A program to calculate the element values is given as follows:
Program P403: Calculate the Element Values of a Low-pass Butterworth Filter
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the element values of a low-pass Butterworth
filter.
2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of a low-pass Butterworth filter.
RI is the source resistance in ohms.

R2 is the load resistance in ohms.
WO is nonnalization frequency in rad/s.
Yield: L(k) is the series inductance 4. in henrys.

C(k) is the shunt capacitance C1c in farads.
L(K) and C(K) are defined in Fig. 4.4 for R2 > R1or Fig. 4.6 for R2 < R1•
Program p403
!To calculate the element values of the Butterworth Filter
Implicit Real (L)
Dimension C(20),L(21)
Write(*,*) 'Input N,Rl,R2,W0'
Read(*,*) N,Rl,R2,W0
Pi ... 3.1415926
GammaaPi/(2.0*N)
H0•4*Rl*R2/(Rl+R2)**2
Alpha•(l.0-H0)**(l.0/(2.0*N))
IF(Rl.GT.R2) Goto 200
L(l)•2*Rl*SIN(Gamma)/((l.0-Alpha)*W0)
Write(*,28) L(l)
28 Format(28X,'L( l)•',El4.9)
Do 10 I•l,N/2
C(2*I)•4*Sin((4*I-3)•Gamma)*Sin((4*I-l)*Gamma)
C(2*I)•C(2*I)/(W0*W0*(l.0-2*Alpha*Cos((4*I-2)*Gamma)+Alpha**2))
C(2*I)aC(2*I)/L(2*I-l)
L(2*I+l)•4*SIN((4*I-l)*Gamma)*SIN((4*I+l)*Gamma)
L(2*I+l)aL(2*I+l)/(W0**2*(1-2*Alpha*COS(4*I*Gamma)+Alpha**2))
L(2*I+l)•L(2*I+l)/C(2*I)
IF (2*I+l.GT.N) goto 99
Write(*,38) 2*I,C(2*I),2*I+l,L(2*I+l)
38 Format (2X, 'C(',I2, ')•',El4.9,6X, 'L(',12, ')•',E14.9)
10 Continue
Goto 100
99 Write(*,48) 2*I,C(2*I)
48 Format (2X,'C(',I2,')""',E14.9)
goto 100
200 C(l)•2*SIN(Gamma)/(Rl*(l.0-Alpha)*W0)
Write(*,128) C(l)
128 Format(28X, 'C( l)•',El4.9)
Do 110 I•l, N/2
L(2*I)•4*Sin((4*I-3)*Gamma)*Sin((4*I-l)*Gamma)
L(2*I)-L(2*I)/(W0*W0*(l.0-2*Alpha*Cos((4*I-2)*Gamma)+Alpha**2))
L(2*I)•L(2*I)/C(2*I-l)
C(2*I+l)•4*SIN((4*I-l)*Gamma)*SIN((4*I+l)*Gamma)
C(2*I+l)•C(2*I+l)/(W0**2*(1-2*Alpha*COS(4*I*Gamma)+Alpha**2))
C(2*I+l)•C(2*I+l)/L(2*I)
Write(*,138) 2*I,L(2*I),2*I+l,C(2*I+l)
138 Format (2X, 'L(',I2, ')•',El4.9,6X, 'C(',12, ')""',El4.9)
110 Continue
Goto 100
199 Write(*,148) 2*I,L(2*I)
148 Format (2X,'L(',I2,')""',El4.9)

100 End
Using Program P403 with N = S, the solution of Example 4.3 is given by

Input N,Rl,R2,W0
5
600
1000
l.0e0S
L( l)•.153141869E-01
C( 2)•.187582003E-07 L( 3)•.155985523E-0l
C( 4)•.101559881E-07 L( 5)s,351583655E-02
Case 2: R1 > R2 • With the choice of the minus in (4.15), the input admittance Yin(s) with
the output port terminating in ~ can be written as
y (s) =G l+p(s) (4.33)

Ill I 1-p(S)
where G1 = 1/ R1• Comparing (4.33) with (4.21), a dual network of Fig. 4.4 is obtained as shown
in Fig. 4.6, where the first element is a parallel capacitor, and the second one is a series inductor,
and so forth. The formulas for computing element values are similar to those given in (4.22)-
(4.27). We only need to replace the inductance by capacitance, capacitance by inductance, and
Rk by Gk, where Gk= 1/ Rk,k =1,2.
L,._,
c, CJ C,._l C,. R2
V.(s)
n odd
L2 L~ Ln-2 L,.
R,
c, CJ R1
v.(s)
n even
Fig. 4.6 Network realization for a low-pass Butterworth response for R1 ~ R2 •

THE LOW-PASS CHEBYSHEV RESPONSE 151
Example 4.4 Given

R1 =10000, R2 =6000
ro 0 =105 rad/s ' n=S
we wish to design a low-pass Butterworth LC ladder network to meet these specifications.

Running Program P403 shows
Input N,Rl,R2,WO
5
1000.0
600,0
l.OeS
C( 1)•,255236454E-07
L( 2)a.112549206E-01 C( 3)•,259975863E-07
L( 4)m.609359285E-02 C( 5)=.585972781E-08
And a realization is given by Fig. 4. 7.

11.255 mH 6.094mH
25.52nF 26.00nF
Fig. 4. 7 A realization of Example 4.4.
4.3 The Low-Pass Chebyshev Response
The low-pass Chebyshev response utilizes an equal ripple approximation having a

maximum distortion a.ma in dB in the pass-band from 0 to ro P. In the stop-band, it exhibits a
monotonously increasing loss characteristic. The Chebyshev response is defined by the equation
(4.34)
where H0 is a constant and Cn(ro/ ro 0 ) is the nth-order Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind,
in which the nonnalization frequency ro O is conveniently defined as
(4.35)
and e 2 < 1. It is related to the pass-band ripple by
e = ✓10°- 110 -1 (4.36)

Without loss of generality, in the following discussion let co 0 = I. The Chebyshev polynomial of
order n can be expressed as
= cos (n cos- 1co),

= cosh (n cosh- 1co}, (4.37)
Observe that Cn(co) is either an even or odd polynomial in co depending on whether n is even or
odd. For example, by expanding (4.37) for n = 1, 2, 3, •··, we obtain
C1(co)=co
Ci(co) = 2co 2 -1
C3 (co) = 4co 3 - 3co
C,.(co) = 8co 4 -8co 2 + 1 (4.38)
Cs(co)=16cos-20co 3 +5co
A program to calculate the coefficients of (4.38) is given below.
Program P404: Compute the Coefficients of the Low-pass Chebyshev Polynomial
1. Purpose. This program is used to compute the coefficients of the low-pass Chcbyshcv
polynomial of fonn
Cn(co) = T(n)con + T(n-2)con-2 + ··· (4.39)

According to Daniels [SJ,
C (co)=!!~(-l)'{n-i-1)!(2cot-2' (4.40)
n 2 1-o i!(n-2i)!
where [x] denotes the largest integer not greater than x .
2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of a low-pass Chebyshev polynomial.
Yield: the coefficients T(N).
Program p404
Dimension T(0:20)
Write(•,•)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••*•••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•) 'This program computes the coefficients of Chebyshev &
& polynomial of form'
Write(•,•) 'Cn(w)mT(N)•w••N+T(N-2)•w••(N-2)+ ••• •
Write(•,•)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(*,*) 'Input N'
Read (*,*) N
T(0)•l.0
Do 10 I•0,Int(N/2)
T(I) .. 1.0
Do 2 0 Jal, N-I-1
20 T(I)cT(I)*J
Do 30 J=l,I
30 T(I)aT(I)/J
Do 40 J•l,N-2*I
40 T(I)=T(I)/J
T(I)m2**(N-2*I)*(-l)**I*T(I)*N/2
Write(*,50) N-2*I,T(I)
50 Format (1X,'T(',I3,')a',Fl6.6)
10 Continue
End
To obtain, for example, the coefficients of the 12th-order Chebyshev polynomial, we use
Program P404 to calculate and obtain
Input N
12
T ( 12) • 2048.000000
T ( 10) • -6144.000000
T ( 8)= 6912.000000
T( 6)= -3584.000000
T( 4)a 840.000000
T ( 2)• -72.000000
T( 0) • 1.000000
Showing that
C12 (oo) = 204800 12 -614400 10 +691200 8 -358400 6 +84000 4 -7200 2 + 1
The plots of the Chebyshev responses for n = 5 and n = 6 are presented in Fig. 4.8. We now
make a few important observations, as follows:
...
Cl
0.6
u
:i
-0
Ill
C
0.4
~ 0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Nonnallzed frequency
Fig. 4.8(a} The 5th-order Chebyshev response.

C 1.--........,c-----.--...------i
ii
Cl
t 0.8 +.c:----___,,,_.C..-_ ____;...,._-4--_ _ _ _- l
~
~
o
0.6----------i------
u
::I
'g 0.4 ,t-----------t----~
C
e
I- 0.2---------------
0+---~..-----.----::.P..----1
0.01 0.21 0.41 0.61 0.81 1.01 1.21 1.41
Fig. 4.8(b) The 6th-order Chebyshev response.
(1) For OS ro S 1, (4.39) shows that the Chebyshev polynomial possesses the equal ripple
property, varying between a 1 and -1. The critical frequencies are found to be
(2i + l)1t .
Cn(ro,)=0, ro,=cos---, 1=0,1,2, ... (4.41a)
2n
I I iit
Cn(ro)=l, ro,=cos-, i=0,1,2, ... (4.41b)
n
Thus, !HUro}l2 has the maximum value of H0 and the minimum value of H0 /(l+e 2 ) in the
pass-band.
(2) For CJ)= t,ICn(l)I = 1 and IHU1)12 = Ho /(1 +E 2 ). Let (J)p be the pass-band radian cutoff
frequency. From Oto ro P the attenuation varies from Oto allll.'( dB.
(3) For frequencies ro far above 1, Cn(ro) "'=2n·lron and the transducer power gain
characteristic becomes
(4.42a)
a( ro) = 1Olo~H (ro)12 ::::: 1OlogliO - 20log(e2n-t )- 20nlogro (4.42b)
showing a rate of20n dB per decade drop off.

Beside the real constant H0 , the Chebyshev response is determined by two parameters: the
ripple factor E and the order of the polynomial n, where E is determined by (4.34). If the
minimum attenuation in the stop band is required to be amim dB at the frequencies ro ~ ro,
Solving E from (4.36) and substituting the result in (4.43) gives
n=--........__________
cosh •1 10°- 110 -1 12 / 10°-110 -1..__,._
12
(4.44)
cosh •1 ro s I ro fl
Example 4.5 Determine the order of a low-pass Chebyshev response that will meet the
following specifications:
(i) The pass band is from 0 to ro fl = 3400 x 21t rad/s.

(ii) The attenuation within the pass band should not exceed 0.1 dB.
(iii) The response must give at least 40 dB attenuation at the frequency ro, = 10000 x21t
rad/s.
From the above specifications, we can make the following identifications:
ro fl = 3400x 27t, <Xmu= 0.1 dB (4.45a)

00 6 =10000x21t, <Xmim =40dB (4.45b)
Substituting these in {4.44) gives
(4.46)
which is rounded to n = 5. The desired magnitude function becomes
IHUro)l2 = Ho (4.47)
1+0.0232930(16&5 - 20&3 + 5&)
where ro = ro/rofl is the normalized frequency. To calculate n given in (4.46), we can also use the
following program:
Program P405: Determine the Order of a Low-pass Chebyshev Filter
1. Purpose. The program is used to determine the order of a low-pass Chebyshev filter, whose
response satisfies
a(ro) s <Xmu: dB, when 0 S co ~ cofl
a(ro) ~ amil'I dB, when co~ ro,
2. Usage.
Input: Amax is a.mu dB, the maximum pass band attenuation.

Amin is a.min dB, the minimum stop band attenuation.
Fp is the ripple frequency in Hz.
Fs is the frequency in Hz, where Amin is first attained.
Yield: the order N.
Program P405
Write(•,•)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•)• Determine the order of Chebyshev Filter•
Write(•,•)••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(*,*) •rnput Amax,Amin,Fp and Fs'
Read(*,•) Amax, Amin,Fp,Fs
E•l0**(0.l•Amax)-1.0
Fal0**(0.l•Amin)-1.0
XaSqrt(F/E)
XaLOG(X+Sqrt(X•X-1.0))
Y•Fs/Fp
YmLOG(Y+Sqrt(Y*Y-1.0))
N=Int(X/Y)+l
Write(•,10) N
10 Format(lX,•The Order Needed is•,I3)
End
For example, to ascertain the order of the filter meeting the specifications of Example 4.5,
we use Program P405 and obtain
Input Amax,Arnin,Fp and Fs
0.1
40.0
3400
10000
The Order Needed is 5
4.4 Realization of a Low-Pass Chebyshev Filter
To realize a doubly terminated low-pass Chebyshev filter, the squared magnitude of the
input reflection coefficient is first derived from (4.34) as
(4.48)
We again appeal to the theory of analytic continuation by replacing co by - js in (4.34) and

obtain
(4.49)
where
(4.50)
REALIZATION OF A LOW-PASS CHEBYSHEV FILTER 157
To factor p(s) from p(s)p(-s), we must first find the zeros and poles of (4.49), which are
given by solution of the equation
1+ E:2C;(- js) = 0 (4.51)
The 2n distinct roots of (4.51) are found to be
. (2k- l)n . h
st =-s1'nh asm---+ (2k-1)1t
JCOS acos------ (4.52a)
2n 2n
1 'nh•' -1
a=-s1 (4.52b)
n &
In the same way, we obtain the zeros as
.. . h ... (2k-1)1t . h.. (2k-1)1t

sk =-sm asm------+ JCOS acos------ (4.53a)
2n 2n
.. 1 'nh·' .J1 - Ha
a=-s1 (4.53b)
n &
The poles lie on an ellipse with major semi-axis to be cosha and the minor semi-axis
sinha. The zeros also lie on an ellipse with cosho as the major semi-axis and sinha as the
minor-axis. For n = 4 and n = 5, the pole locations are presented in Fig. 4.9. Observe that these
poles also possess quadrant symmetry. Hence, by assigning all LHS poles to p(s) we can make a
unique decomposition of the denominator polynomial of (4.49).
(4.54a)
n
p(s)= IJ(s-sk) (4.54b)
A:•I
Likewise, the numerator polynomial can be factored as
(4.SSa)
n
p(s) = IT(s-sk) (4.SSb)
.t•I
As in the Butterworth response, only choosing LHS zeros gives a minimum-phase solution of the
input reflection coefficient as
(4.56)
Jm
3 0 8
(1 (1
3 6
4
n=4 n .. s
Fig. 4.9 The pole locations of the 4th and 5th-order low-pass Chebyshev filters.
Terminations R1 and R2 , de gain H Oand e
The terminating resistances are related to the de value of the power gain by the relation
(4.57)
for n odd, and

(4.58)
for n even, if the ideal transformer is not used in the realization. Like the Butterworth response,
the terminating resistances also determine the sign of (4.56). Finally, the input admittance of the
Chebyshev filter terminated R2 is given by
(4.59)
yin (s) = G1 p(s) + ~(s)' (4.60)

p(s)-p(s)
Realization of the Chebyshev Filters
Case 1. R2 ~ R1• Expand Z1n (s) in a continued fraction and the corresponding LC ladder
network has the configuration as indicated in Fig. 4.4. The first element is recognized as an
inductance of value
2R1siny1
(4.61)
Li = ro 0{sinh a - si.nho)
where y 1= 7t / 2n. The other element values can be computed by the recurrence fonnulas
, C _ 4siny 4,,,_3 sin Y4.,_1

~m-1 2m - 2 /" {, 'nha =-'-~)
(4.62)
0)0J2 .1\SI
111 ,Smuu
, C _ 4sin y4111 _, siny 4.,.1

~111+1 2111 - ro 02, r2,., \Sill
f • h "nh Q·) (4.63)
a,SI
for m = 1,2, .. •,[n/2], where
/.,{sinha,sinha)=sinh 2a+sinh 2a+sin 2Y2111 -2sinhasinhacOSY2.. (4.64)
and y m = m1t 12n. In addition, the values of the last elements are related to R2 by the equations
L = 2R2siny1 n odd (4.65)

n roo(sinha+sinha)'
n even (4.66)
Example 4.6 Given
R1 = 600 n, R2 = 1000 n, ro 0 = 34OOx 21t rad/s, n = 4
find a low-pass Chebyshev network to meet these specifications with peak-to-peak ripple in the
pass band not exceeding 1 dB.
Since the peak-to-peak ripple is a.max, we obtain
e = ✓10°-•' 10 -1 = 0.50884714 (4.67)
Substituting & in (4.58) gives the real constant H0
H. =(l+e 2 ) 4 RiRi = 1.1802425 (4.68)

0 (Ri + Ri)2
which is too large for the network to be physically realizable. Thus, let H0 = 1 and obtain & =
0.258199, corresponding amax = 0.28 dB. With this, we next compute the following quantities:
(4.69a)
a=.!..sinh"1 1 =0.51585927 (4.69b)

4 0.258199
From (4.61) the value of the first inductance is given by
2 x 600 x sin.!:
£i = 3400x21t x sinh0.51585927
8 =39.878mH (4.70)
According to (4.64), we have
f. (sin ha, sinha) =0. 7905694 (4.71)
Using (4.62) with m = 1 in conjunction with (4. 70) gives
. 1t . 31t
4sm-sm-
C2 = 8 8 =0.09829245 µF (4 72)
(3400x21tf x0.7905694x39.878xl0-3 •
From (4.63) with m = 1 and (4.72), we obtain
. 31t . 51t
4sm-sm-
L3 = 2
8 8 =58.975 mH (4.73)
(3400 X 21t) X 12905694 X 0.09829245 X 10-6
The last capacitance can be computed directly from (4.66) as
2s.m-
1t
e,= 3400 X 21t X 10008X 0.5390449} 0.06646392 µF (4.74)
39.87mH 58.98mH
0.09829µF
The element values of the Chebyshev filter can also be obtained by the following program:
Program P406: Calculate the Element Values of a Low-pass Chebyshev Filter
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the element values of a low-pass Chebyshev filter.
2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of the Chebyshev filter.
RI is the source resistance in ohms.
R2 is the load resistance in ohms.
WO is normalization frequency in rad/s.
Yield: L(k) is the series inductance L1:. in henrys.

C(k) is the shunt capacitance C 1: in farads.
L(K) and C(K) are defined in Fig. 4.4 for R2 > R1or Fig. 4.6 for R2 < R1•
Program P406
!To calculate the element values of the Chebyshev Filter
Implicit Real (L)
Write(*,*) 'Input N,Rl,R2,WO,J\max'
Read(*,*) N,Rl,R2,WO,J\max
Pi•3.1415926
Gamma•Pi/(2.0*N)
EaSqrt(lO**(O.l*J\max)-1.0)
H0•4*Rl*R2/(Rl+R2)•*2
M•2*INT(N/2)
IF (N.GT.M) Goto 77
HO•HO*(l.O+E*E)
IF (HO.GT.1.0) Then
HOal.O
E•ABS(R2-Rl)/(2*Sqrt(Rl*R2))
Write(•,•) 'Amax=', lO*LOGlO ( l+E*-E)
Else
HO=HO
E•E
End If
77 E•l.0/E
a=l.0/N*(LOG(E+Sqrt(E*E+l.O)))
x..sqrt(l.0-HO)*E
b•l.0/N*LOG(X+Sqrt(X*X+l.O))
IF(Rl.GT.R2) goto 200
L(1)•2*Rl*SIN(Gamma)/((Sinh(a)-Sinh(b))*WO)
Write(•,28) L(l)
28 Format(28X, 'L( l)•",El4.9)
Do 10 I•l,N/2
C(2*I)a4*Sin((4*I-3)*Gamma)*Sin((4*I-l)*Gamma)
C(2*I)•C(2*I)/(WO*WO*F(gamma,2*I-1,a,b))
C(2*I) .. C(2*I)/L(2*I-1)
L(2*I+l)•4*SIN((4*I-l)*Gamma)*SIN((4*I+l)*Gamma)
L(2*I+l)•L(2*I+l)/(W0**2*F(Gamma,2*I,a,b))
L(2*I+l)•L(2*I+l)/C(2*I)
Write(*,38) 2*I,C(2*I),2*I+l,L(2*I+l)
38 Format (2X, 'C(',I2, ')a',El4.9,6X, 'L(',I2, 1 )•',El4.9)
10 Continue
Goto 100
99 Write(*,48) 2•I,C(2*I)
48 Format (2X,'C(',I2,')•",El4.9)
Goto 100
200 C(l)•2*sin(Gamma)/((Sinh(a)-Sinh(b))*WO*Rl)
Write(*,128) C(l)
128 Format(28X,'C( l)•',El4.9)
Do 110 I•l, N/2
L(2*I)aL(2*I)/(WO*WO*F(gamma,2*I-l,a,b))
L(2*I)•L(2*I)/C(2*I-l)
C(2*I+l)•C(2*I+l)/(W0**2*F(Gamma,2*I,a,b))
C(2*I+l)•C(2*I+l)/L(2*I)
Write(*,138) 2*I,L(2*I),2*I+l,C(2*I+l)
138 Format (2X, 'L(',I2, ') .. ',El4.9,6X, 'C(',I2, ')•',El4.9)
110 Continue
Goto 100
199 Write(*,148) 2*I,L(2*I)
148 Format (2X,'L(',I2,')•',El4.9)
100 End
Function F(Gamma,m,a,b)
FaSinh(a)**2+Sinh(b)**2+Sin(2*m*Gamma)**2
F•F-2*Sinh(a)*Sinh(b)*Cos(2*m*Gamma)
End
Using Program 406, the solution for Example 4.6 is found to be

Input N,Rl,R2,WO,Amax
4
600
1000
21362.83
1
L( l)=.398783500E-Ol C( 2)•,982924600E-07
L( 3)=.589754900E-Ol C( 4)a,664639200E-07
Case 2. R1 > R2 • With the choice of the minus sign in (4.56), the input admittance I:, (s)
with the output port terminating in R2 is given by
y; (s) = G l+p(s) (4.75)

on I 1-p(S)
where G1 = l / R1• This admittance can be realized by the LC ladder network of Fig. 4.6, being the
dual network of Fig. 4.4, where the first element is a parallel capacitor, and the second one is a
series inductor, and so on. The element values can be computed by formulas (4.61H4.66) and
THE LOW-PASS ELLIPTIC RESPONSE 163
Program P406 simply by replacing the inductance by capacitance, capacitance by inductance,

and R1: by G1:, where G" =1/ R1:,k=l,2.
Example 4.7 Given
R1 =10000, R2 =6000, ro 0 =3400x21t rad/s, n=S
we wish to find a low-pass Chebyshev network to meet these specifications with peak-to-peak
ripple in the pass band not exceeding 1 dB.

Input N,Rl,R2,W0,Amax
5
1000
600
21362.83
1.0
C( 1)-.148614319E-06
L( 2)a,374339931E-0l C( 3)a,193222093E-06
L( 4)a,361816622E-01 C( 5)a,125461412E-06
And the realization is shown in Fig. 4.11.
37.43mH 36.lBmH
148.61 nF 193.22nF 125.46 nF 6000
4.5 The Low-Pass Elliptic Response
The Butterworth and Chebyshev low-pass filters are known as the all-pole networks. They
exhibit infinite attenuation only at infinite frequency. The elliptic filter, on the other hand, has
zeros and poles at the finite frequencies and exhibits an equiripple characteristic both in the pass
band and in the stop band. Because of a very narrow transitional band, it is very discriminatory
during the transition. Fig. 4.12 is a typical equiripple low-pass response. Write
(4.76)
where the nonnalization frequency ro 0 is conveniently defined to be equal to the ripple frequency
ro P. Without loss of generality, in the following discussion we assume that ro 0 = 1. The general
behavior of the required function F,,(ro) is shown in Fig. 4.13, the main features of which are
discussed below [l]:
100
75
m
'g
.5 50
C
;;
C)
25
0
0.02 1.02 2.02 3.02 4.02 5.02
Nonnallzad frequency
Fig. 4.12 A typical low-pass elliptic filter response.
'If_-- ,--------- ---------- ---11

F.(ro)
I I I
I I I
: I : :
1-- ---- --------- .. .!,_. ______ ------ ~ I
k, k,
(I)
k k
f\t\.' r-------- _...!,_-----r-- I\ r:

LLL\.J _________ --~------l--'--\1.:
Fig. 4.13 F,,(ro) plotted as a function of ro.
(a) Fn(ro) has all its n zeros lying in the interval lrol < 1 and all its poles outside, and n is
referred to as the order of the elliptic filter.
(b) F,, (ro) oscillates between the values ±1 in the interval lrol < 1.
(c) F,, (1) = 1.
(d) 1/ F,, (ro) oscillates between ::1:k1 in the interval lrol > ro. , where
k
I
=( 10
a_,10_ 1
1Oa.,.II0 -l
)t (4.77)
is called the discrimination parameter, and
(4.78)
From the above requirements, we find that
(4.79a)
except at jcoj = 1, and

(4.79b)
except at lcol = co 1 • Hence F',. (co) satisfies the differential equation
(4.80)
where A is a constant, and

(4.81)
is called the selectivity factor. The solution of (4.80) can be obtained in tenns of the elliptic
integrals and Jacobian elliptic functions.
4.5.1 Jacobian Elliptic Functions
In this section we fist introduce the Jacobian elliptic integral, and then detennine the order
of the filter by means of the complete elliptic integral of the first kind of modulus k. Consider the
integral
(4.82)
where OS k S 1 and the function u(k,~) is called the Legendre standard fomi of the elliptic
integral of the first kind of modules k, whose values can be found by Simpson's rule. A program
written in accordance with the Simpson's rule is given as follows:
Program P407: Calculate the Elliptic Integral of the First Kind
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the elliptic integral of the first kind of modulus k
by Simpson's rule.
2. Usage.
Input: k is a real number, being the modulus.
Yield: U(k, phi) is the elliptic integral of the first kind of modulus k.
Program P407
real k
Write(•,•) 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Write(•,•) 'This program calculates elliptic integral of the &
& first kind'
Write(•,•) 'modules k by Simpson rule.'
Write(•,•) 'k--- the modules and O<k<l'
Write(•,•)•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
PI•3.1415926535
Write(•,•) 'Input k'
Read(•,•) k
Do 68 I .. 0,900
Phi•O.l•I•PI/180
Call simp2(0.0,Phi,0.1E-3,S,k)
Write (•,8) k, Phi,S
8 Format (lX, 'U(',Fl0.6, ', ',Fl0,6, ')•',F20.10)
68 Continue
End
Subroutine simp2 (A,B,EPS,SUM,mok)
Dimension F(2,30),FM(2,30),E(2,30),KRTN(30)
real mok
SUM•O.O
T•l.O
ABSA•l.O
EST•l,O
DA•B-A
FA•FCT(A,mok)
FB•FCT (B,mok)
FP.. 4.0•FCT(O.S•(A+B),mok)
X•A
L•O
1 K•l
L•L+l
T•T•l.7
DX,..DA/3.0
SX•DX/6.0
FM1•4.0•FCT((X+O,S•DX),mok)
Fl•FCT ( (X+DX) , mok)
FM(l,L)•FP
F(l,L)•FCT((X+2.o•ox),mok)
FM(2,L)a4,0•FCT((X+2.S•DX),mok)
F(2,L)•FB
El•SX*(FA+FMl+Fl)
E(l,L)•SX•(Fl+FP+F(l,L))
E(2,L)aSX•(F(l,L)+FM(2,L)+FB)
S•El+E(l,L)+E(2,L)
ABSAmABSA-ABS(EST)+ABS(El)+ABS(E(l,L))+ABS(E(2,L))
IF (EST.EQ.1.0) GO TO 5
IF (T*ABS(EST-S).LE.EPS*ABSA) GO TO 2
IF (L.LT.30) GO TO 5
2 SUM•SUM+S
3 LaL-1
T•T/1.7
K•KRTN(L)
DX•DX*3.0
IF (K.EQ.3) IF(L-1) 6,6,3
EST•E(K,L)
FP=FM(K,L)
FA•FB
FB•E'(K, L)
K•K+l
XaX+DA
4 DA•DX
KRTN(L)=K
GO TO 1
5 EST•El
FP•FMl
FB•Fl
Go To 4
6 Return
END
Function E'CT(X,k)
real k
FCT•l.0/(1.0-SIN(X)*SIN(X)*k*k)**0.5
Return
End
A plot of u(k,~) as a function of~ for various values of k is given by Program P407 and shown
in Fig. 4.14. When~= 1t/2, we write
K(k)={k,;) (4.83)
K(k) is called the complete elliptic integral oft he first kind ofmodulus k
Landen Transformation
To detennine the order of the elliptic filter and the pole and zero locations of its transducer
power-gain characteristic, we need to calculate K(k). The particular values of interest are those
where the modulus k approaches unity (for example, k = 0.9999995). In this case, Program P407
may have some problems. To circumvent this difficulty, a Landen transformation [4] is
introduced. First, we give an alternative expression of (4.82) as
K= r.Ja; cos 2
d~
~+b; sin2 ~
(4.84)
~
Q.
31---------------J4
.,z
ir'
}2--------------'--~
.E
u
a
m1+--------~'""""=--r::~--~
o+a=::;...-------------~
0.01 0.32 0.64 0.95 1.26
Phi In Radian
Fig. 4.14 The elliptic integral F(k,~) of the first kind of modulus k.
Set
(4.85)
(4.86)
K-r
- .J2 2dr+ n•ISID l
~n•I COS /
b2,2
(4.87)
If this transformation is applied repeatedly, the sequences {an} and {bn} tend rapidly to the same
limit so that, in the limit,
(4.88)
A program using the Landen transformation to calculate the complete elliptic integration is
given as
Program P408:Calculate the Elliptic Integration by Landen Transformation
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the complete elliptic integration by means of the
Landen transfonnation.
2. Usage.
Input: k is a double precision number being the modulus k.
Yield: K is the complete elliptic integration K(k).
Program P408
dimension a(40),b(40)
Double Precision a,b,K,KK,PI
Pim3.1415926535D0
Write(*,•) 'Input the Double Precision number k'
Read(•,*) k
I•l
a(l)•l.0D0
b(l)•DSQRT(l-K"'K)
7 a(I+l)•0.5•(a(I)+b(I))
b(I+l)=DSQRT(a(I)"'b(I))
IF(ABS(A(I+l)-b(I+l)).LT.0,lD-10) Goto 200
Write(*,17) I,a(I),I,b(I)
17 Format ( lX, 'a ( ', I 3, ') •', F20 .10, 6X, 'b (', I3, ' ) .. ', F20 .10)
I•I+l
go to 7
200 KK•PI/2/a(I+l)
Write(*,•) 'After',I,' iterations'
Write (*,9) K,KK
9 Format (lX, 'K(',F20.10, ')•',F20.10)
End
r
As an example, we evaluate
d~
(4.89)
.J1-0.999999854sin2 ~
Input the Double Precision number k

0.9999999270d0
a( l)• 1.0000000000 b( 1)• 0.0003820995
a( 2)• 0.5001910497 b( 2)• 0.0195473644
a( 3)• 0.2598692071 b( 3) ,a 0.0988808209
a( 4 )-= 0.1793750140 b( 4)• 0.1602999704
a( 5)- 0.1698374922 b( 5)- 0.1695694826
After 6 iterations
K( 0.9999999270)• 9.2561242878
showing
K (0.9999999270) = 9.2561242878 (4.90)
Now we can detennine the order of the filter. First, according to the specification of Fig.
4.2, we first calculate the selectivity factor k from (4.81) and the discrimination parameters k 1
from (4. 77), and then define the complementary moduli ofk and k1, respectively, as
k' = ~Jt-k 2 (4.91)
(4.92)
Denote the complete elliptic integrals of moduli k, It, k1 and k: by K, Jr, K, and K:,
respectively. For example, the degree n of the elliptic function filter satisfying the specifications
of Fig. 4.2 is determined by [3]
KK'
n=--' (4.93)
K'K,
Example 4.8 We wish to design a low-pass elliptic filter, the specifications of which are
shown as Fig. 4.2, where
roP = l0000x21t rad.ls, am~,= 0.02 dB (4.94a)
ro.r =20000x21t rad/s, amin =45 dB (4.94b)
Using these specifications in (4.81) and (4.77) gives the selectivity factor k and the
discrimination parameter k1 as
CJ)
k =...L =0.5 (4.95)
CJ).r
k,
lOa-/10
=( 10 ...
11 /10
-l)J =0.0003820585
l
(4.96)
-1
We next compute their complementary moduli It and k::
k' =✓l-k 2 =0.8660254038 (4.97)
k{ =.Jt-k12 =0. 9999999270 (4.98)
The complete elliptic integrals of moduli k and It are found by Program P407 or Program P408
to be
K= r; d~
.J1 -k 2sin2 cj>
=1.68570355 (4.99)
K' = r.J d~ 2.1565156475 (4.100)

1-k' 2sin 2cj>
Finally, we compute the complete elliptic integral of moduli k1 and k'i as
K 1 = 1.5707963838 (4.101a)
K: = 9.2561242874 (4.101b)
The degree n of an elliptic filter satisfying the specifications is detennined by
KK.'
1 =4.60
n=-- (4.102)
K'K1
We choose n = 5. The result can also be obtained by the following program
Program P409: Determine the Order of a Low-pass Elliptic FIiter
1. Purpose. The program is used to determine the order of a low-pass elliptic filter.
2. Usage.
Input: Amax is etamdB, the maximum pass-band attenuation.
Amin is et mill dB, the minimum stop-band attenuation.
Fp is the ripple frequency in hertz,
Fs is the frequency in hertz, where Amin is first attained.
Yield: N is the order of the elliptic filter.
Program P409
Real*B kl,KK1,k2,KK2,k3,KK3,k4,KK4
Write(•,•) 'Input Amax, Amin, Fp and Fs'
Read (•,•) Amax, Amin, Fp,Fs
Emax•l0••(0.l*Amax)-1.0
Emin•l0**(0.l*Amin)-1.0
kl•Sqrt(Emax/Emin)
Call Eintg(kl,KKl)
Write(*,50) kl,KKl
50 Format(lX,'kl •',Fl6,10,6X,'K( kl)•',Fl6.10)
k2=Sqrt(l.0-kl*kl)
Call Eintg(k2,KK2)
Write(*,100) k2,KK2
100 Format(lX,4Hkl'=,Fl6,10,6X,7HK(kl')•,Fl6.10)
k3=Fp/Fs
Call Eintg (k3,KK3)
Write(*,200) k3,KK3
200 Format(lX,'k •',Fl6,10,6X, 'K( k )•',Fl6,10)
k4=Sqrt(l.0-k3*k3)
Call Eintg(k4,KK4)
Write(*,300) k4,KK4
300 Format(lX,4Hk' •,Fl6.10,6X,7HK( k')•,Fl6.10)
N•Int(KK2/KKl*KK3/KK4)+1
Write(*,480) N
480 Format(6X,'N•',I3)
End
Subroutine Eintg(K,KK)
Parameter (M•30)
Real*8 A(0:M),O(0:M),K,KK,Pi,P,X,Y,E
Pi•3.1415926535D0
A(0)•ATAN2(K,SQRT(l-K*K))
O(0) .. Pi/2.0
P•l.0
I•0
100 X•2.0/(l.0+SIN(A(I)))-l.0
Y•SIN(A(I))*SIN(O(I))
A(I+l)•ATAN2(SQRT(l-X*X),X)
O(I+l)=0.5*(O(I)+ATAN2(Y,SQRT(l-Y*Y)))
E.. l-A(I+l)*2/Pi
I•I+l
IF (E.GT.0.lE-7) Goto 100
Do 10 J•l, I
P•P*(l+COS(A(J)))
10 Continue
X=Pi/4+O(I) /2
KK•LOG(ABS(SIN(X)/COS(X)))*P
Return
End
As an illustration, we use Program P409 to solve Example 4.6.

Input Amax, Amin, Fp and Fs
0.02
45.0
10000
20000
kl• 0.0003820585 K( kl)• 1.5707963838
kl'• 0.9999999270 K (kl I) - 9.2562310174
k • 0.5000000000 K ( k ) .. 1.6857503546 (4.103)
k' • 0.8660254038 K( k')= 2.1565156472
N= 5
4.5.2 The Design Parameters of an Elliptic Filter
As suggested by Abel in 1823, we study the upper limit~ and k as a function of u(k,~). To
this end, Jacobi introduced the notation
~ =am(u,k) (4.104)
which reads that ~ is the amplitude of u with modulus k. The Jacobian elliptic sine jimction of
modulus k is defined as
x =sin~= sin am(u,k) = sn (u,k) (4.105)
Returning now to the solution of the differential equation (4.80), it can be shown that
F,,(co) takes one of the following ~orms in accordance with whether n is even or odd:
where
2mK ) m=1,2, .. ,q. q=t(n-1)
com = COoSn( -n-,k ' (4.107)
(4.108)
for n odd; and
(4.109)
where
(2m-l}K )
com = COoSn( n ,k ' m =1,2, .. ,q. q =½n (4.110)
(4.111)
for n even. In the expressions (4.108) and (4.111 ), h0 and h~ are constants, meeting the
requirement F,,(1) = 1.
Jacobian Elliptic Sine Function
It is more inconvenient, if we use Program P407 to find~ and compute sin(~) from u(k;~).
There are two approximations given t
sn(2Ku ,k) = 21t {.Jq sin u + [rl si~ 3u + .Jl s~ Su+.. ·} (4.112)
1t kK 1-q 1-q 1-q
or
( k) _ 21t.Jq ~ q•-• . (2m - l}m,
sn u, - LJ lm-1 sm (4.113)
kK m. 1 1-q 2K
where
q=e 2K (4.114)
The importance of (4.112) to (4.114) can be seen from following example
Example 4.9 To detennine the transducer power-gain characteristic of an 5th-order elliptic

filter, where k =cop/co,= 0.5 and aawc = 0.02 dB, write
t Sec Harris Hnncock.: Theory ofElliptic Functions, Dover Publishing Inc. New York., Page 261.
(4.115)
in which
(4.116)
(4.117)
e = ✓10·:- -1 = 0.0679396076 (4.118)
(4.119)
To determine ro 1 and ro 2 , we provide Program P410 in accordance with (4.112).
Program P410: Determine the Zeros of Fn(ro)

1. Purpose. This program is used to determine the zeros of F,, (ro) •
2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of a low-pass elliptic filter decided by (4.94) or Program P409.
Fp is the ripple frequency in hertz.
Fs is the frequency in hertz, where Amin is first attained.
Yield: W(I) is the zeros of Fn(ro) normalized to 21tFp.
Program PUO
Dimension Z(40),P(40)
Double Precision k,kp,KK,KKp,U,Sn,Z,P,Pi,Fp,Fs
Pi=3,1415926535DO
Write(*,*) 'Input N, Fp and Fs'
Read(*,*) N,Fp,Fs
k.. Fp/Fs
Call Landen(k,KK)
Write(*,53) "k•",k," K(k)•",KK
53 Format(2X,A,Fl6.10,6X,A,Fl6.10)
kp=DSqrt(l-k*k)
Call Landen(kp,KKp)
Write(*,55) "k'•",kp,"K(k')•",KKp
55 Format(2X,A,Fl6,10,6X,A,Fl6.10)
Do 12 I•l,N/2
U•(2*I)*KK/N
IF(N.EQ,2*(N/2)) U•(2*I-l)*KK/N
Call SSN(U,k,KK,KKp,Sn)
Z(I)•SN
P(I)•l/(k*SN)
Write(•,20) I,Z(I),I,P(I)
20 Format(lX, 'Omega(',I3,')•',F20.12,6X,&
& 'l/(k•Omega(',I3, '))•',F20.12)
12 Continue
End
Subroutine Landen(k,KK)
dimension a(40),b(40)
Double Precision a,b,K,KK,PI
PI=3.1415926535D0
I•l
a (l) •l.0D0
b(l)•DSQRT(l-K*K)
7 a(I+l)•0.5•(a(I)+b(I))
b(I+l)•DSQRT(a(I)•b(I))
IF(ABS(A(I+l)-b(I+l)) .LT.0.lD-20) Goto 200
I•I+l
go to 7
200 KK•PI/2/a(I+l)
Return
End
Subroutine SSN(U,k,KK,KKp,Sn)
Double Precision k,KK,KKp,U,Sn,Pi,O,V,W
Pi•3.1415926535D0
Q=DExp(-Pi•KKp/KK)
V•Pi/2.0•U/KK
SN•0
m... l
33 W•Q••(m-l)/(l.0-Q••(2•m-l))
SN•SN+W*DSin((2•m-l)*V)
m=m+l
IF(W.GT.0.lD-20) Goto 33
SN•SN•2•Pi•Dsqrt(Q)/k/KK
Return
End
Running Program P4 l 0 yields

Input N, Fp and Fs
5
10000
20000
k• 0.5000000000 K(k)• 1. 6857503548
k"• 0.8660254038 K(k')• 2.1565156474
Omega( 1)- 0.615232250818 1/(k•Omega( l))• 3.250804874651
Omega( 2)• 0.957282923721 1/(k•Omega( 2))• 2.089246502199
Giving
ro 1 = 0.615232250818
(4.120)
(1)2 = 0.957282923721
4.6 The Elliptic Nehvork
Having obtained the transducer power-gain characteristic, we now proceed to design a

lossless two-port network. Let p (s) be the input reflection coefficient and H0 = 1. Then we have
(4.121)
As an example, we choose an 5th-order elliptic filter to illustrate the synthesis procedure.

Substituting (4.106) in ( 4.121) gives
(4.122)
To factor p(s) from p(s)p(-s), we first find the roots of the denominator polynomial of (4.122).
Instead of computing the poles analytically [3,11], we use a nonlinear equation program, as
given by Program A206 in the Appendix, to compute the roots:
p 12 = ±0.5750113178D+ 00+ j 0.8062412171D+ 00

p 3_4 = ±0.5750113178D + 00 - j 0.8062412171D + 00
Ps,6 = ±0.1795362779D + 00 + j 0.1157298038D + 01 (4.123)
P7,s = ±0.1795362779D+00 - j0.1157298038D+0l
p 9,10 = ±0.8147063525D + 00 + j0.0000000000D + 00
When the zeros of the denominator polynomial of (4.122) are obtained, the reflection coefficient
is detennined as
(4.124)
r. r=
where p 1 is poles on the LHS of (4.123) and
,p;: =(•• 0.9125581045 (4.125)
The coefficients of denominator polynomial of (4.124) are found to be

THE ELLIPTIC NETWORK 177
a( 5)• 0.9125580, a( 4)• 2.1206040

a( 3)• 3.6453460, a( 2)• 3.8165680
a( 1)• 2.6619320, a( 0)• 0.9999995
giving
D(s) = 0.912558s' + 2.120604s4 + 3.645346s3 + 3.8 l 6568s2 + 2.661932s+ 1.0 (4.126)
N(s) = 0.9125581045s' + 1.1816726927s3 +0.316533250ls (4.127)
One of the input impedance is obtained as
(4.128)
in which
a, = 1.8251162090
b◄ = 2.1206039322 a=◄
2.1206039322
bJ = 2.4636738401 a=
3 4.8270192255
(4.129)
b2 = 3.8165688371 02 = 3.8165688371
bl = 2.3453984383 a=I 2.9784649384
h0 = 1.0000000000 ao = 1.0000000000
In applying the Darlington procedure, we compute the open-circuit impedance parameters

of the elliptic function filter as
(4.130)
(4.131)
(4.132)
which can be realized by running Program P303. The result arc given by
C( l)• 0.7887949 L( 2)• 1.2614292 C( 2)• 0.0750132

C( 3)~ 1.5153704 L( 4)= 1.0839547 C( 4)• 0.2113500
C( 5)• 0.674024

1.2614 H 1.0840H
V,(.r) 1n
0.6742 F
Fig. 4.15 A realization of a low-pass elliptic filter.
In the design of low-pass LC ladder filters, If no attenuation pole of multiplicity higher

than 2, and if we use a simpler elliptic approximation than that given by the Jacobi's functions,
Amstutzt gave two compact programs for the design of elliptic filters. Program P4 l l can be used
to design an odd order elliptic low-pass filter of Fig. 4.16(a) and a high-pass filter of Fig. 4.16(b)
and Program P413 for an even order elliptic filter.
•
Fig. 4.16(a) The symmetrical low-pass ladder filter calculated by Program P41 l.
c. c, c, c. C2
-1( I I( I I( I IE I I( •
•
']~ "]~ ,.l ~ ']~ •
Fig. 4.16(b) The symmetrical high-pass ladder filter calculated by Program P41 l.
Program P411: Calculate the Element Values of an Elliptic Symmetrical Filter
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the element values of an elliptic symmetrical
ladder filter.
2. Usage.
'Amstuts, P. (1978) .Elliptic approximation and elliptic filter design on small computers," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., Vol. CAS-
25, no. 12, pp. 1001-1011.
THE ELLIPTIC NElWORK 179
Input: Fs is stop-band edge frequency in kHz.

Fp is pass-band edge frequency in kHz.
N is number of peaks, n = (m-1)/2 and m is the order of the filter.
S is a min dB, also known as the stop-band rejection.
R is the nonnalized resistance in ohms, where R1 =R2 =R .
Yield: p is amax pass-band ripple in dB.
Element values: Capacitance in farads and inductance in henrys.
Double Precision B(l6),C(l6),D(l6),E(l5),F(30),W,X,Y,Z
DBN•0,23025851D0
PI•3.1415926535D0
Write(*,*) 'Symmetrical Elliptic Filters'
20 Write(*,*) 'Stopband edge (KHz) ?'
Read(*,*) Fs
Write(*,*) 'Passband edge (KHz) ?'
Read(*,*) Fp
If(ABS(Fs-Fp).LE.0.0) Goto 20
21 Write(*,*) 'Number of Peaks (1-15) ?'
Read(*,*) N
IF(N.LE,0) Goto 20
M•2*N+l
FC•SQRT (Fs*Fp)
R=Fc+Fc
Do 24 K•l,2
S•Fs+Fp
Do 22 J•l,6
P=Sqrt (S*R)
Sa (S+R) /2
IF(l.e08*(S-P),LT,S) Goto 23
22 RaP
23 IF(K.GE.2) Goto 25
Q,.M/S
24 R=ABS(Fs-Fp)
25 Q•Q*S
S=Exp(-Pi/Q)
Y•DBLE(S)
Write(*,*) 'Critical Q', Q/(4*(1-s)*S**N)
Write(*,*) 'Stopband rejection (dB) ?'

Read(*,*) S
If(S.LE.0.0) goto 20
S=Exp(S*DBN/2)
R•Exp(Pi•Q)
Pa(ALOG(l+(S*S-l)/(R/4+1/R)**2))/DBN
Write(*,*) 'Passband ripple (dB) ',p
R•R/(2*(S+Sqrt(S*S-l)))
R•ALOG(R+Sqrt(R*R+l))/(2*Q)
R•SIN (R) /COS (R)
W•DBLE(R)
Write(*,*) '3 dB About (KHz) ', Fp+(Fs-Fp)/(l+Fc/(Fp*R*R))
Write(*,*) 'Nominal Resistance (Ohm) ?'
Read(*,*) R
If (R.LE.0.0) Goto 21
Z•i'
E(N)aW
W•W*W
Do 26 J=l,M-1
26 F(J)=l
K=l
Do 28 J=l, 1024
F(K)•F(K)*(l-Z)/(l+Z)
IF(K.LT.M-1) Goto 27
z.,.z•y
X•((l-Z)/(l+Z))**2
E(N)•E(N)*(W+X)/(l+W*X)
K•O
27 Z=Z*i'
IF(Z.LT.0.250D-18) Goto 29
28 K=K+l
29 Do 30 J•l,N
F(J)•F(J)*F(M-J)
30 F(M-J)•F(J)
Do 31 J•l,N
D(J)=F(2*J)*(l-F(J)**4)/F(J)
31 B(J)•E(N)*F(J)
C(l)=l/B(N)
Do 32 J•l,N-1
C(J+l)•(C(J)-B(N-J))/(l+C(J)*B(N-J))
32 E(N-J)•E(N+l-J)+E(N)*D(J)/(l+B(J)*B(J))
Do 40 J•l,N
B(J)•((l+C(J)*C(J))*E(J)/D(J)-C(J)/F(J))/2
C(J)•C(J)*F(J)
40 D(J) .. F(J)*F(J)
B(N+l)=B(N)
C(N+l)=C(N)
D(N+l)=D(N)
IF(N.EQ.1) Goto 60
Do 50 L=l,2
Do 50 K•L+2,N+l,2
Do 5 0 JaL, K-2, 2
i'=C(J)-C(k)
Z•l/(Y/(B(J)*(D(K)-D(J)))-1)
B(K) .. (B(K)-B(J))*Z*Z-B(J)*(l+Z+Z)
50 C(K)•i'*Z
S•SNGL(B(N)/B(N+l)-1)
60 Qa0.0005/(Pi*Fc)
PaQ*R
Q=Q/R
IF(Fs.LT.Fp) Goto 62
Write(*,*) ' *** Low-Pass Filter••••
Do 61 J=l,N
C(J)=Q*C(J)
D(J)=Q*B(J)*D(J)
B(J)=p/B(J)
61 F(J)•Fc/F(J)
C(N+l)•Q*C(N+l)
Goto 64
62 Write(*,*) ' ••• High-Pass Filter***'

Do 63 J•l,N
C(J)•Q/C(J)
D(J)aQ/(B(J)•D(J))
B(J)aP*B(J)
63 F(J)•Fc*F(J)
C(N+l)aQ/C(N+l)
64 Write(*,*) 'Kilohertz Farad Henry'
Do 65 J•l,N,2
Write(*,71) C(J)
65 Write(*,72) F(J),J,D(J),B(J)
Write(*,71) C(N+l)
IF(N.EQ.l) Goto 70
La ( (N+l) /2) *2
K•M-1-L
Do 66 J•L+2,M-1,2
Write(*,72) F(K),K,D(K),B(K)
Write(*,71) C(k)
66 K•K-2
Write(*,*) 'Precision Test',S
70 Write(*,*)
71 Format(20X,Dl7.8)
72 Format(1X,Dl5.8,I4,2Dl7.8)
End
Example 4.10 We wish to design an 7th order elliptic filter, where
roP =2nJP =2nxl000rad/s, ro.r =2nxl788.291650rad/st

amill ~ 85. 7 dB , R1 = R2 = 1000 Q
Running Program P4 l l gives
Symmetrical Elliptic Filters
Stopband edge (KHz) ?
1.788291650
Passband edge (KHz) ?
1.0
Nwnber of Peaks (1-15) ?
3
Critical O 18.8468037
Stopband rejection (dB) ?
85.7
Passband ripple (dB) 9.8617271E-02
3 dB About (KHz) 1.0558556
Nominal Resistance (Ohm) ?
1000.0
••• Low-Pass Filter•••
Kilohertz Farad Henry
0.18082096D-06
0.38290157D+Ol 1 0.79389272D-08 0.21762268D+OO
' Sec Saal, R. ( 1979) Handbook ofFilter Design, Berlin und Frankfurt am Main: Allgcmcinc Elclctricitats-gcscllschaft, p. 21 S.
0.29728297D-06
0.18263513D+Ol 3 0.36938941D-07 0.20558300D+OO
0.28444353D-06
0.22096246D+Ol 2 0.26569677D-07 0.19526168D+OO
0.16405626D-06
Precision Test -3.9279760E-12

217.6mH 20S.6mH 19S.J mH
7.939nF 0.0369-lµF 26.S7nF

1000n
O.JSOSµF 0.2973µF 0.2844µF 0.164lµF
Frequency Transformations
An even-order elliptic filter has the property that at higher frequencies the loss approaches
a constant value. In other words, an even-order elliptic filter does not have an attenuation pole at
infinity. However, any practical passive ladder filter requires an attenuation pole there. We now
present a transfonnation that will produce a loss peak at infinity. The general fonn of the
transfonnation is
s2 =ex s2 +n2o
s2+n2 (4.133)
C
Consider Fig. 4.18(a), which has its highest attenuation pole at S = jQc. Observe from
(4.133) that when S=j!lc we have s=oo. Thus, the transfonnation (4.133) shifts the
attenuation pole at S =jQ c to s =co as indicated in Fig. 4. l 8(b). We prefer the transformation
(4.133) to leave the pass-band edge unaltered. This is equivalent to saying that, we want s= jQP
when S = jQP. This can be accomplished by requiring that
(4.134)
where nP is the pass-band edge, and nc is the highest attenuation pole in the original filter.
From Fig. 4.l 8(b), it follows that the parameter Q 0 detennines the location of the origin in the s
plane.
2 n C2 - 0 2p 2 ) 8 2 + n02
( (4.135)
s = o2 -02 op s2 + o2
p O C
These results are summarized as follows:
1. Transfonn S = j0 0 to s = 0.
2. Transfonn S =jOP to s= jOP.
3. Transfonn S=jOc to s=oo.
V\/1~
n
(a) A sixth degree elliptic filter
a(w)
v~
co
(b) Illustration of transformation (4.135).
Fig. 4.18 Frequency transfonnation of even order elliptic filters.
Example 4.11 We wish to design a elliptic filter to satisfy the following specifications:
/p =1.0, ii= l.390163591047485

amu =1.7728767-00ldB, arnin =108.0dB
Program P409 detennines n = 10 and Program P4 l 0 gives the zero and pole locations of a 10th"
order filter:
Input N, Fp and Fs
10
1.0
1.390163591047485
k • 0.7193398003 K( k )a 1.8691475460
k"• 0.6946583705 K( k')• 1.8395667211
Omega( 1)• 0.185279212358 1/(k*Omega( 1))= 7.503073730462
Omega( 2)• 0.519745617297 1/(k*Omega( 2))• 2.674699977804
Omega( 3)• 0.768172789697 1/(k*Omega( 3))• 1.809701683908
Omega( 4)• 0.921121123223 1/(k*Omega( 4))a 1,509208241999
Omega( 5)• 0.991531772791 1/(k*Omega( 5))= 1.402036353444
As an illustration, we use the frequency transformation to produce an attenuation pole at

s=c,:;,,
Program P412: Transform Zero and Pole Locations of an Even Order Elliptic Filter
1. Purpose. This program is used to transform zero and pole locations of an even order elliptic
filter by means of(4.135).
2. Usage.
Input: N is an even integer, the order of the elliptic filter.
k is the selectivity factor.
Xz(I) N/2 dimensional real numbers, the zeros of Fn (ro) .
Yield: Z(I) transformed zeros of Fn (ro) .

P(I) transformed poles of F,, (ro) .
3. Remark: Assume Q 0 =Xz(l), Qc: =1.0/Xz(l), and QP =!lH/!ls =1/k
Program Transform
Dimension Xz(20),Xp(20),Z(20),P(20)
Double Precision Xz,Xp,Z,P,A,O,B,k
Open (Unita3,Filea'412.dat',Status='Old',Access•"Sequential')
Read(3,*) N,k
Do 10 Ial,N/2
Read(3,*) Xz(I)
10 Write(*,*) 'Xz(',I,')•",Xz(I)
Write(*,*)
Close(3)
Do 20 Ial, N/2
Xp(I)al,0/(k*Xz(I))
20 Write(*,*) 'Xp(',I,')a',Xp(I)
Write(*,*)
A•Xp(l) **2-1. 0
A•A/(1.0-Xz(l)**2)
Do 100 Ial,N/2
Z(I)•A*(Xz(I)**2-Xz(1)**2)/(Xz(I)**2-Xp(1)**2)
Z(I)•DSqrt(ABS(Z(I)))
If(I••l) Goto 11
P(I)aA*(Xp(I)**2-Xz(1)**2)/(Xp(I)**2-Xp(1)**2)
P(I)•DSqrt(ABS(P(I)))
11 P(l)•9999.99E+10
Write(*,12) I,Z(I),I,P(I)
12 Format ( lX, 'z ( ', I2, ') •', D20 .14, 3X, 'P ( ', 12, ') •', D20 .14)
100 Continue
End
Running Program gives:
Xz( 1 )• 0.1852792123580000
Xz( 2 )- 0.5197456172970000
Xz( 3 )• 0.7681727896970000
Xz(
Xz(
Xp(
5
1
,,-..
4 )• 0.9211211232230000
0.9915317727910000
7.5030737307176905
Xp(
Xp(
Xp(
3 ,..
2 )•
4 )-
2.6746999778874296
1.8097016839658091
1.5092082420466009
Xp ( 5 ) .. l.4020363534879883
Z( l)•0.00000000000000D+00 P( l)•0.99999899713536D+l4
Z( 2)•0.49092630750015D+00 P( 2)•0.28802907775105D+0l
Z( 3)•0.75583246606817D+00 P( 3)•0.18707988600776D+0l
Z( 4)•0.91693681708637D+00 P( 4)--0.154210245415070+01
Z( 5)•0.99107828378445D+00 P( 5)•0.14267394806902D+0l
Using different frequency transfonnations, we can obtain different realiz.ations. Basically,

there are two major realiz.ations for an even order elliptic filter, as shown in Fig. 4.19. One is
called the elliptic type-C realization, which gives OdB attenuation at de. The other is the elliptic
*
type-B realization, the attenuation of which is not zero for f = 0, implying R1 R2 •
~ ¼ ~
*
Fig. 4. l 9(a) A network realized by Program P413, where f. = oo, and R 1is for an elliptic
type-B realiz.ation, and R = 1 for an elliptic type-C realization.
Fig. 4.19(b) A network realized by Program P413, where f. = oo, and R ':t- 1 for an elliptic type-
B realiz.ation, and R = 1for an elliptic type-C realiz.ation.
Program P413: Generate the Elliptic Type-8 and Type-C Realizations for an Even
Order Elliptic Filter as Shown in Fig. 4.19
1. Purpose. This program is used to generate the elliptic type-B and type-C realizations for an
even order elliptic filter as shown in Fig. 4.19.
2. Usage.
Input: As is a.min dB, the stop-band rejection.
Ap is a.mn dB, the pass-band ripple.
R is the nonnalized resistance in ohms, where R1 = R2 = R .
M is the number of peaks, n = 2m and n is the order of the filter.
T is a character variable, where B stands for the type-B realization, and C the
type-C realization. Both B and C must be capital letters.
Yield: R2: nonnalized load resistance.

Element values: capacitance in farads and inductance in hcnrys.
Program Ellipe
Character *l T
Double Precision u,v,w,x,Y,Z,A0,E0,EB,Fp,Fs,Sr,Tq,T0,B(l6),&
& C(l6),D(l6),E(30),F(l6),R(l5),S(l5),Db(l6),Tb(l6)
DBNa0,23025851
Pi=3.1415927
10 Write(*,*) 'Reflection(dB),Ripple(dB),Half-Degree(2-15),&
& Type(A,B or Cl'
Read(*,*) As,Ap,M,T
If(As.LE.Ap) Stop
N•2*M
Eas•Exp(DBN*As)-1
EapmExp(DBN*Ap)-1
V=Sqrt(Eas/Eap)+Sqrt(Eas/Eap-1)
U=Pi*Pi/(2*DLOG(V+V))
V•V/(Sqrt(Eas)+Sqrt(Eas+l))
W•U*DLOG(V+Sqrt(V*V+l))/Pi
W•Sin(W)/Cos(W)
AO=W
W=W*W
Y-=DEXP(-U)
Z=Y
K•M-1
Do 20 J•l,N
20 E (j) •l
Do 22 J•l,1024
IF(K.NE.M) Goto 21
X•((l-Z)/(l+Z))**2
A0•A0*(W+X)/(l+W*X)
21 E(k)=E(k)*(l-Z)/(l+Z)
Z•Z*Y
If(Z.LT.0.25D-18) Goto 23
K•K-1
22 If (K.EQ.0) K•N
23 E(M)•0
E(N)•E(N)*E(N)
Write(*,*) •u-•,u, 'A0•',A0, 'Ep•',E(N)
Do 24 J•l, M-1
E(j)a-E(j)*E(N-j)
Write(*,*) 'E•',-E(j)
24 E(N-j)a-E(j)
X•DSQRT(A0*A0+l.0/(A0*A0)+E(N)*E(N)+l/(E(N)*E(N)))
Do 25 J•l,M-1,2
K•(J+l)/2
Y--AO•E(J)
Y•Y+l/Y
Z•E(N)*E(j)
R(k)•E(M-j)*(l/Z-Z)/Y
S(k)•-X/Y
Write(*,*) 'Re•',R(k),'Se•',S(k)
R(M-k+l)=R(k)
25 S(M-k+l)•-S(k)
If(K+K.EQ,M) Goto 30
R(K+l)a-AO
S(K+l)•0
Write(*,•) 'Re=",-A0
!++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
30 Write(*,*)
It=2
If(T,EQ,'A') Ital
ES•-E(l)
If(T.EQ.'A') ES=E(N)
E0•E(N)
If(T,EQ,'C') E0=-E(l)
Fp•Dsqrt((E(N)+E0)/(l+E(N)*ES))
Fs=DSqrt((l+E(N)*E0)/(E(N)+ES))
D(l)•0
Do 31 J•It,M
D(j)•(E(2*J-l)+E8)/(l+E(2*j-l)*E0)
31 F(j)•Dsqrt(l/D(j))
!++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Sr•0
Tq•0
T0•0
B(l)•0
I•l
Do 32 J•l,M
W•(A0**2+E(2*J-1)**2)/(l+(A0*E(2*j-1))**2)
X•(l+E0*E8)*S(j)+E0+E8*W
Y•E0**2+2*E0*S(j)+W
Z•l+2*E8*S(j)+E8**2*W
UaDSqrt(Y/Z)
V•X/Z
R(j)•DSqrt((U-V)/2)
S(j)•DSqrt((U+V)/2)
Write(*,*) 'Rf=', -R(j) /Fp, 'Sf=', S (j) /Fp
Sr•Sr+R(j)/U
I•-I
W•I*R(j) /S (j)
Tq•(Tq+W)/(1-Tq*W)
If (T,NE.'A') Goto 32
U=(F(2)-S(j))/R(j)
V•(F(2)+S(j))/R(j)
W=I*(V-U)/(l+U*V)
T0•(T0+W)/(1-T0*W)
32 B(l)•B(l)+R(j)
!++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
IF(T.EQ,'A') T0=T0/(l+DSqrt(l+T0*T0))
Do 40 K=It,M
DB(k)•0
TB(K)•T0
I=l
Do 40 Jal,M
DB(k)•DB(k)+l/(R(j)+(F(k)-S(j))**2/R(j))+ 1/(R(j)+&
&(F(k)+S(j))**2/R(j))
I•-I
W•(F(k)-I*S(j))/R(j)
40 TB(k)•(TB(k)+W)/(1-TB(k)*W)
!++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
D(M+l)aD(M)
F(M+l)=F(M)
DB(M+l)=DB(M)
TB (M+l) •TB (Ml
C(l)=0
Do 50 J=l,M+l-It,2
50 TB(M+l-J)=-1/TB(M+l-J)
Do 51 J•It,M+l
B(j)•(l+TB(j)**2)*DB(j)/(4*D(j))-TB(j)*F(j)/2
51 C(j)•TB(j)/F(J)
Do 60 L=l, 2
Do 60 K•L+2,M+l,2
Do 60 J=L, K-2, 2
U=C (j l -C (kl
V=l/(U/(B(j)*(D(k)-D(j)))-1)
B(k)•(B(k)-B(j))*V*V-B(J)*(V+V+l)
60 C(k)•U*V
!++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Wal
IF(T.NE.'C') W•((l-Tq*T0)/(Tq+T0))**2
Do 70 J•l,M+l,2
B(j)•B(j)*W
70 C(j)•C(j)*W
Write(*,*) 'Load Resistance=', SNGL (W), ' (', SNGL (1/W), ') '
Write(*,*) ' L(or Cl C(or L) Peak'
IF(T,NE.'A') Write(*,*) '1 ',SNGL(Fp/B(l))
v-o
Do 71 J•It,M
V•V+C(j)
71 Write(*,72) j, SNGL(Fp*C(j)),SNGL(Fp/B(j)),SNGL(F(j)/Fp)
72 Fortnat(lX,I2,3X,3(F10.6,5X))
Write(*,73) M+l,SNGL(Fp*C(M+l)),SNGL(Fs/Fp)
73 Fortnat(lX,I2,3X,Fl0.6,3X,/,23X,'Stopband Edge=',Fl0.6)
Write(*,*) 'Tests',SNGL(B(M)/B(M+l)-1),SNGL((W+l)*Sr-V-C(M+l))
End
Example 4.12 We wish to design a 6th-order elliptic filter to satisfy the following the
specifications:
amu =0.0988 dB, allllll =86.2 dB
Ruming Program P413 gives
Reflection,Ripple(dB),Half-Degree(2-15),Type(A,B or Cl
86.2
0.0988
3
'B'
U= 0.3739522816940496 AO• 0.2157676851551545 Epa
0.2216744784813977
E• 0.1920047287154960
E• 0.1108874821285384
Re• -0.1075526248638441 Se• 0.2677891157841803
Re• -0.2157676851551545
Rf= -0.1039237222993140 Sf= l.0534789433366167

Rf• -0.3045090552934083 Sf= 0.7963028836930773
Rf= -0.4463715369708104 Sf= 0.3013038693949502
Load Resistance• 1.3528740 ( 0.7391671)
L(or C) C(or L) Peak
1 0.8647208
2 1.110298 1.330462 3.499631
3 1.801453 1. 371399 2.526727
4 1.913385
Stopband Edge= 2,442097
Tests 2.0792680E-12 5.5767457E-14
Lz = l.330SH L,,. 1.3714 H

l, •0.8647H
U'l~ Tr
j" Ic, ..
Fj • ..,
_., 0.73920
. -
2 =I.IIOJF
-
uo1sF
.
F2 = 3.499631 rad/s F; = 2.526727 rad/s
Fig. 4.20 An elliptic type-B realization of Example 4.12
An elliptic type-B realization is shown in Fig. 4.20.
Reflection(dB),Ripple(dB),Half-Degree(2-15),Type(A,B or C)
86.2
0.0988
3
'C'
U= 0.3739522816940496 AO• 0.2157676851551545
Ep• 0.2216744784813977
E• 0.1920047287154960
E• 0.1108874821285384
Re• -0.1075526248638441 Se• 0.2677891157841803
Re• -0.2157676851551545
Rf• -0.1115694663679386 Sf• l.0579218368914276

Rf• -0.3329649250137507 Sf• 0.7851242615944325
Rf- -0.5217806877818290 Sf• 0.2778891473864884
LoadResistance- 1.0000000 ( 1.0000000)
L(or C) C(or L) Peak
1 1. 0348592
2 0.983541 1. 441252 3.622958
3 1. 442075 1.622769 2.608612
4 1.673264
Stopband Edge• 2.520220
Tests 8.8403833E-12 3.1175063E-13
An elliptic type-C realization is shown in Fig. 4.21.
~ al.4413H ~ •l.6228H
'1 = 1.0349H
Fi
ICl~ ~•n
}·····"" Jc,-1.,nH J,•J.4421F

• •
F2 =3.6229S8rad/s F; =2.608612md/s
Fig. 4.21 An elliptic type-C realization of Example 4.12.
4. 7 The Bessel-Thomson Response
Often, a two-port network is required to pass a signal v1{t) without distortion, its output
v2 (t) is a delayed replica of v1{t). Mathematically, this requires that
(4.136)
Taking Laplace transform on both sides gives
(4.137)
where V.(s) and p;(s) denote the Laplace transforms of v1(1) and v2 (1), respectively. The
transfer function is found to be
THE BESSEL-THOMSON RESPONSE 191
When s = jro, the magnitude and phase characteristics become
ITUro)I =1 (4.139a)
Arg T(jro) = -rot (4.139b)
A system satisfying (4.139) is called the ideal transmission system. Observe that the
magnitude of its transfer function is•constant, being equal to unity for all ro, whereas the phase is
a linear function of ro. If we define the delay to be the negative of the derivative of the phase,
Delay= dargT{jro) (4.140)

dro
The delay sometimes is known as the group delay or envelope delay. In our discussion, we will
simply refer to as delay. Substituting (4.139) into (4.140) shows that the delay of the idea system
is a constant. These are sketched in Fig. 4.22.
4.7.l Maximally-Flat Delay Characteristic
Arg T(jro) Delay
'ti-----
0
0 ro 0 ro
(a) Phase characteristic (b) Magnitude characteristic (c) Group delay characteristic
Fig. 4.22 The ideal transmission system.
Since the transfer function (4.138) cannot be realized by a finite number of lumped
elements, and a rational function is needed to approximate it. The transfer function can be
expressed as
(4.141)
lfwe truncate the Taylor series 1 +st+s 2t 2 +s 3t 3 +··· at then term, we obtain a non-Hurwitz
polynomial, when n ~ 5 . We shall describe a special method due to Storcht to solve this
problem. We first normalize the frequency by letting t = 1 and then rearrange (4.141) as
b0
T(s)= (4.142)
m(s)+n(s)
where m(s) and n(s) denote the even and odd parts of the denominator polynomial and b0 is a
constant to be chosen such that T(O) is unity. Let
s2 s4 s6
m(s) = cosh s = 1+-+-+-+··· (4.143)
2! 4! 6!
. s3 s5 s1
n(s) =smh s = s+-+-+-+··· (4.144)
3! 5! 7!
If (4.142) is realizable, T(s) must be Hurwitz and m(s)ln(s) must be a reactance function.
From (4.143) and (4.144) we may compute coshs/sinhs in the form of an infinite continued
fraction:
coshs 1 1
coths=--=-+----- (4.145)
sinhs s 3 1
;+s 1
-+--
s 7 1
-+-;-
s •
If this function is truncated at the N term, we obtain
m(s) coshs 1
--=--~-+------- (4.146)
n(s) sinhs s ~+ 1
s 5 1
-+----
s . 2N-1
·.+--
s
Since all the coefficients in the continued-fraction expansion are positive, m(s)/n(s) is a reactance
function, and T(s) will be Hurwitz, as desired.
Example 4.13 Approximate es by Storch method with n =4. Form (4.146), we have
'Storch, L. (1954) "Synthesis of constant-time delay ladder networks using Bessel polynomials," Proc. IRE, Vol. 42, pp. 1666-
1675.
m(s) =.!+ 1 105+45s2 +s4

(4.147)
n(s) s ~+_l_ 105s+10s3
s ~+.!.
s 1
s
and the transfer function found to be
T(s)= 105 (4.148)

s 4 +10s 3 +45s 2 +105s+105
Its phase is given by
Ar TUm)=-tan·' 105ro-10rol (4.149)

g 105-45ro2 +ro"
Differentiating this with respect to ro gives the delay function as
D ro _ 11025+1575ro2 +135ro 4 +10ro6

(4.150)
( )-11025+1575ro2 +135ro 4 +10ro6 +ro•
~ 251--------------"7'1
c
~
g
20-------------,,,,...--1
C
~ 15~----------r-----l
IO
-8
.a 10~--------,,c;.------1
cm
i 5-----------------1
1.225 2.475 3.725 4.975 6.225

Fig. 4.23 The magnitude attenuation characteristic ofa 4th-order Bessel-Thomson filter.
~ 0.8.--------_,.,.._ _ _ _ _ _ _-I
i1a'
'.g 0.61-------------"",c,-----~
Q.
::,
5 0.4 " t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ' ~ : - - - - - i
0..----,---"""1"'----------...,
0.025 1.275 2.525 3.n5 5.025 6.275
Normalized frequency
Fig. 4.24 The group delay characteristic of a 4th-order Bessel-Thomson filter.
The plots of ITUco)I and D(co) are presented in Fig. 4.23 and Fig. 4.24, respectively. Observe that
D( co) ~ 1 second for small co, since we have normalized the frequency by letting 't = 1. Because
the first n derivatives of the delay function are zero at co = 0, the Bessel-Thomson response is
also known as the maximally-:flat delay response. If we wish the group delay to be 'to seconds at
de instead of 't = 1 , the normalization radian frequency is set as
(4.151)
Replacing 't=l by 't='t 0 in (4.149), (4.150) becomes
D(co) ='to. 11025+ 1575(co/co0 ) 2 + 135(co/co0 ) 4 + 10(co/co0 ) 6 (4.152)

11025+ 1575(co/co0 )2 + 135(co/co0 )4 + lO(co/co 0 )6 + (co/co 0 ) 5
Using (4.146) we generate the denominator polynomials as follows:
B0 (s) = 1
B1(s) =s+l
B2 (s) = s2 +3s+3
B3 (s) = s3 +6s2 + 15s+ 15 (4.153)
. B4 (s) = s4 + 10s3 +45s 2 + 105s+ 105
B5 (s) = s' + 15s4 + 105s3 +420s 2 +945s+945
These polynomials of higher order may be found from the following recurrence formula [2]:
where the initial values are B0 =1 and Bi =s + 1.

A computer program to calculate these coefficients is given below:
Program P414: Compute the coefficients of Bessel-Thomson polynomial
1. Purpose. Let the nth order Bessel-Thomson polynomial be
(4.155)
This program is used to compute the coefficients B(i) .by fonnula [2,5]
(2N-i)!
B( l') = ------------ ·-12 • • • N
1- (4.156)
2N•1 i!(N-i)t· ' ' '
2. Usage.
Input: the orderN.
Yield: the Bessel-Thomson polynomial coefficients B(i) computed by means of(4.156).
Program p414
Dimension B(0:100)
Write(•,•) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•) 'This program yields coefficients of Bessel-&
& Thomson polynomial'
Write(•,•) 'B(N)•s••N+B(N-l)•s••(N-1)+ ••• +B(l)•s+B(0)'
Write(•,•) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•)
Write(•,•) 'Input N'
Read(•,•) N
B (0) •l. 0
Do 10 I•0,N
B (I) •l. 0
Do 2 0 J•l, 2•N-I
20 B(I)•B(I)•J
Do 30 J•l,I
30 B(I)•B(I)/J
Do 40 J•l,N-I
40 B(I)•B(I)/J
B(I)•B(I)/2••(N-I)
Write(•,50) I,B(I)
50 Format(5X, 'B(',I3, ')•',F28.0)
10 Continue
End
For example, running Program P414 gives the coefficients of the 8th-order Bessel-Thomson
polynomial as
Input N 8
B( 0)• 2027025.
B( l)• 2027025.
B( 2)• 945945.
B( 3)"" 270270.
B( 4)• 51975.
B( 5)-- 6930.
B( 6)a 630.
B( 7)• 36.
B( S)a 1.
4.7.2 Design of Bessel-Thomson Filters
To design a Butterworth, Chebyshev or elliptic filter, we indicated how to obtain from the
specifications the attenuation a.ma:c and a.min, the order n of the filter response, and the
normalization frequency oo~. However, there is no such direct result available for the Bessel-
Thomson filters and there is no formula for n. To determine the order n, some guidelines are
outlined below:
(i) Compute the group delay response for every nth order Bessel-Thomson filters, we may
specify the percentage deviation from the normalized delay of 1 second at a specific
frequency 00 1•
(ii) Another specification that may be used in addition to delay deviation is the loss
introduced by the filter at some frequency 00 1•
(iii) In some cases the delay filter is used as a secondary function as a low-pass filter.
Therefore, it is appropriate to specify the loss required at some specified frequency in
the stop-band. Such a loss would be calculated from the equation
a.2(00) =20lo~TnUoo2)I =20log Bn~O) dB (4.157)

Bn(Joo2)
where 002 is the specified frequency in the stop band.
We illustrate the above by the following example.
Example 4.14 Determine the minimum order of a Bessel-Thomson response that meets
the following specifications:
(1) At zero frequency the delay is 0.1 ms.

(2) For oo S 25000 rad/s, the delay error should be less than 1 percent.
(3) For oo S 25000 rad/s, the maximum deviation in magnitude from its de value cannot
exceed 2 dB.
(4) R, = R1 = 100 Q.
We use following program to compute the attenuation responses and the group delay
characteristics for nth-order Bessel-Thomson filter, from which we choose the minimum order n
to satisfy the attenuation and delay specifications.
Program P415: Determines the Order of a Bessel-Thomson Filter
1. Purpose. Given a group delay TO at de and T(co 1) at co 1, and attenuation a(co), this
program is used to determine the order of a Bessel-Thomson filter.
2. Usage.
Input: TO is T(O) , the group delay at de.

W is the given frequency in rad/s.
Yield: the group delay T(k) and the attenuation A(k) of the kth-order Bessel-Thomson
filter, where k = 2, 3, ... , 10 at the normalization frequency W*TO, from which
we can determine the order N.
Program P415
Dimension B(0:30),H(30),T(30)
Double precision B
Write(*,*) '*************************************************'
Write(*,*) 'This program gives attenuation response and &
& group delay response'
Write(*,*) 'of Bessel-Thomson filter, from which, &
& Order N can be determined'
Write(*,*) 'T0---delay at 0 frequency in second'
Write(*,*) 'W ---Interested frequency in rad/s'
Write(*,*) '*************************************************'
Write(*,*)
Write(*,*) 'Input TO and W'
Read(*,*) T0,W
w=w*T0
Write(*,8) w
8 Format (6X,'T0*W=',Fl4.8)
Do 3 N•2,10
Do 10 I•0, 10
B(I)•0.0
10 Continue
Call Bess (N, B)
Fe•-B(l0)*w**l0+B(8)*w**8-B(6)*w**6+B(4)*w**4-B(2)*w**2+B(0)
Fo•B(9)*w**9-B(7)*w**7+B(5)*w**5-B(3)*w**3+B(l)*w
H(N)•B(0)*B(0)/(Fe*Fe+Fo*Fo)
A•l0*LOGl0(H(N))
dFe•-l0*B(l0)*w**9+8*B(8)*w**7-6*B(6)*w**5+4*B(4)*w**3-2*B(2)*w
dFo•9*B(9)*w**8-7*B(7)*w**6+5*B(S)*w**4-3*B(3)*w**2+B(l)
T(N)•(dFo*Fe-Fo*dFe)/(Fe*Fe)
T(N)•T(N)/(l+(Fo/Fe)**2)
Write(*,64) N, A,T(N)
64 Forrnat(4X, 'N•',I3,3X,'A( T0•w )•',Fl4.8,' dB',6X,&
& 'T( T0*W )•',Fl4.8)
3 Continue
End
Subroutine Bess(N,B)
Dimension B(0:N)
Double Precision B
B (0) al. 0
Do 10 I•0,N
B(I)•l.O
Do 20 J•l,2*N-I
20 B(I)•B(I)*J
Do 30 J=l,I
30 B(I)•B(I)/J
Do 40 J•l,N-I
40 B(I)•B(I)/J
B(I)=B(I)/2**(N-I)
10 Continue
End
From the above specifications, we can identify -r0 = 0.1 ms, and obtain
ro 1 = ro-r0 = 10-4 x 25000 = 2.5
Using Program P415 results in
Input TO and W
TO*Wa 2.50000000
N= 2 A( TO*W )= -8.70615196 dB T( TO*W ) .. o. 41534144
Na 3 A( TO*W ) ... -6.41150379 dB T( TO*W )• 0.75208253
Na 4 A( TO*W )a -4.36324549 dB T( TO*W )• 0.94932228
N= 5 A( TO*W )= -3.20653701 dB T( TO*W )= 0.99489629
N• 6 A( TO*W )a -2.55642939 dB T( TO*W )a 0.99969387
N• 7 A(-TO*W )a -2.13734818 dB T( TO*W )• 0.99998754
N• 8 A( TO*W )• -1.84016514 dB T( TO*W )• 0.99999982
N• 9 A( TO*W )• -1. 61702514 dB T( TO*W l• 0.99999994
N• 10 A( TO*W )• -1. 44284737 dB T( TO*W )• 0.99999982
This result shows that a 5th"order Bessel-Thomson response meets requirement (i). However, it
has more than the allowed 2-dB variation in magnitude in the pass-band. An 8th -order response
will satisfy the magnitude requirement. Thus, we choose n = 8. The normalization frequency
becomes
ro 0 = 1/-r0 = 10000 rad/s (4.158)
The transfer function is determined as
T(s) = 2027025-r0
x 8 +36x1 +630x6 +6930s 5 +51975x 4 +270270x3 +945945x 2 +2027025x+2027025
(4.159)
where x = s/ro0 =0.000ls.
The Bessel-Thomson filter can be realized as a ladder network, if the source Vs(s) is
resistive. In this case, V.(s) of (4.138) is replaced by Vs(s), and the network is a doubly
terminated, as shown in Fig. 4.4. This network can be realized by the Darlington method, using
the first Cauercanonical form. Now we choose a 2nd-order Bessel-Thomson filter to illustrate the
synthesis procedure. From Program P414, we obtain
1 3
T(s)=2· s2 +3s+3 (4.160)
where the constant 1/2 is determined from Fig. 4.4 by setting s = 0 and R1 = R2 = 1Q. The
reflection coefficient is determined from
4R s 2 (s 2 -3)
p(s)p(-s)=l--1 T(s)T(-s)= 2 2 2 (4.161)
R2 (s +3) -9s
The minimum-phase solution of (4.161) and the input impedance are found to be
p(s) s2 + ✓3s (4.162)

s 2 +3s+3
Zin (s) = 2s2 +(3+ ✓3)s+3 (4.163)

(3- ✓3)s+3
The realization is presented in Fig. 4.25.
The clement values of the Bessel-Thomson filter are computed by Program P416 for odd
orders and by Program P417 for even orders, normalizing to 't = 1. The element values for other
terminations can be found in Zverev [16].
Ul 1.5774H
+ +
f-j(s) 0.4226F Y3(s) 1n
Fig. 4.25 A realization ofa 2nd-order Bessel Thomson filter.
Program P416: Compute the Element Values of an Odd Order Bessel-Thomson

Filter
1. Purpose. This program is used to compute the element values of an odd order Bessel-
Thomson filter of Fig. 4.26(a).
2. Usage.
Input: N is an odd integer, being the order of the Bessel-Thomson filter.

Yield: the element values of Fig. 4.26(a).
Program Bessel
Implicit Real(L)
Dimension A(0:40),B(0:40),C(0:40),D(0:40),X(20),Y(20),P(0:40),&
& Q(0:40),Px(40),Bx(40),Cx(40),Py(-10:40),Qy(-10:40),Pa(40), &
& Qa(40),T(0:40)
Complex*l6 Z(20),S(20)
Double precision A,B,C,O,X,Y,Px,Bx,Cx,Py,Qy,Pa,Qa,alpha,P,Q
Write(*,*)'****************************************************'
Write(*,*)'This program gives element values of Odd &
& order Bessel-Thomson'
Write(*,*)'filter, as shown in Fig.4.24(a)'
Write(*,*)'N---is an odd integer'
Write(*,*)'****************************************************'
Do 10 I•0,40
A(I)•O.O
B(I)•O.O
C(I)•O.O
D(I)•O.O
10 Continue
Read(*,*) N
Call Bess (N, P)
IF(N••l) Goto 190
Do 20 IaO, N, 2
A (I) •p (I)
B(I+l)•p(I+l)
20 Continue
Call Psqure(N-1,A,C)
Call Psqure(N-1,B,D)
Do 30 I•l, N-1
30 Px(I)•-C(2*(N-I))+D(2*(N-I))
alpha•Px(N-l)**(l.O/(N-1))
Do 40 I•l,N-1
40 Px(I)•Px(I)/alpha**I
IF(Na•3) Goto 55
ES•l. OD-12
ESD•l.Od-12
KT•lOOOO
Call srpe(N-1,Px,Bx,Cx,ES,ESD,KT,X,Y)
Do 50 I•l, N-1
X(I)•X(I)*Alpha
Y(I)•Y(I)*Alpha
50 Continue
Goto 60
55 X(l)a-Px(l)/2.0*Alpha
X(2)aX(l)
Y(l)•DSQRT(ABS(Px(1)**2-4*Px(2)))/2.0*Alpha
Y(2)a-Y(l)
60 Do 70 I•l,N-1
Z(I)•CMPLX(X(I),Y(I),Kind•2)
70 S(I)•SQRT(Z(I))
Do 80 I•O,N
A(I)•O.O
B(I)•O.O
C(I)•O,O
80 D(I)•O.O
Do 90 r--1,N-l
IF(ABS(Aimag(S(I))).LT.O.lE-5) Goto 88
A(I)•S(I)+CONJG(S(I))
B(I)•ABS(S(I))**2
Goto 90
88 J•I
A (J) •Real (S (3))
B(J)aO.O
90 Continue
Do 100 I•l,N-1,2
D(I/2+1)=B(I)
100 C(I/2+1)•A(I)
Do 110 r---10,20
Py(I)•O.O
110 Qy(I)•O.O
Py(O)•l.O
Do 120 I•l,N/2
Do 130 K•0,2*I
130 Qy(2*I-K)•Py(2*I-K-2)+Py(2*I-K-l)*C(I)+Py(2*I-K)*D(I)
Do 140 Ja0,2*I
140 Py(J)•Qy(J)
120 Continue
Do 150 I•O,N
150 Q(I+l)•Qy(I)
Q(O)•O.O
Do 160 I•O,N
A (I) .. p (I) +Q (I)
160 B(I)aP(I)-Q(I)
Do 170 I•l,N+l,2
Pa(I)aA(N+l-I)
170 Pa(I+l)=B(N-I)
Call Expand(N+l,Pa,Qa)
Goto 200
190 Write(*,*) 'Q(1)•2.00000000'
200 End
Subroutine Psqure(M,A,C)
Dimension A(0:40),C(0:40)
Double Precision A,C
Do 50 I=0,2*(M+l)
50 C(I)•O.O
Do 52 Ja0,M+2
Do 54 I•O,M+2
C(J+I)•C(J+I)+A(J)*A(I)
54 Continue
52 Continue
Return
End
Subroutine srpe(N,A,B,C,ES,ESD,KT,X,Y) (See Appendix A206)
Subroutine expand(N,A,Q)

Dimension A(N+l),Q(N)
Double Precision A,Q
K•N+l
A(K)=O.O
K=l
4 Q(k)=A(k)/A(k+l)
Write(*,477) k,Q(k)
477 Format(4X,'Q(',I3,')=',F20.10)
I=K+2
IF(I<=N) Goto 7
IF(I>N) Goto 8
7 Do 6 L=I,N,2
6 A(L)=A(L)-Q(k)*A(L+l)
k=k+l
Goto 4
8 Return
End
Subroutine Bess(N,B) (See Program P415)
n odd
Fig. 4.26(a) A network realization of an odd order Bessel-Thomson filter with R2 = R,.
Running Program P4 I 6 with n = 9 gives
Q( 1)= 0. 6677722422
Q( 2) = 0.3202779719
Q( 3)= 0.2547025516
Q( 4)= 0.2183962861
Q( 5)= 0.1859234044
Q( 6) = 0.1505969006
Q( 7)= 0.1111494101
Q( 8)= 0.0681921857
Q( 9)= 0.0229877352
q,,_2 q,, R
n even
Fig. 4.26(b) A network realization of an even order Bessel-Thomson filter with R2 = R1 •

Program P417: Compute the Element Values of an Even Order Bessel-Thomson

Filter
1. Purpose. This program is used to compute the element values of an even order Bessel-
Thomson filter of Fig. 4.24(b).
2. Usage.
Input: N is an even integer, being the order of the Bessel-Thomson filter.
Yield: the element values.
Program Bessele
Implicit Real(L)
Dimension A(0:40),B(0:40),C(0:40),D(0:40),X(20),Y(20),&
& P(0:40),Q(0:40),Px(40),Bx(40),Cx(40),Py(-10:40),&
& Qy(-10:40),Pa(40),Qa(40)
Complex(kinda2) Z(20),S(20)
Real(Kind=2) A,B,C,O,X,Y,Px,Bx,Cx,Py,Qy,Pa,Qa,alpha,P,Q,W
Write(•,•) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•) •This program gives element values of even &
& order Bessel-Thomson•
Write(•,•) 'filter, as shown in Fig.4.24(b)•
Write(•,•)•N---is an even integer•
Write(*,•) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(*,*)
Do 10 I•0,40
A(I)•O.O
B(I)•O.O
C(I).,.0.0
10 D(I)•O.O
Write(*,*) •Input N•
Read(*,*) N
Call Bess (N, P)
IF(N••2) goto 190
Do 20 I•O,N-2,2
A(I)=p(I)
B ( I+l) •p (I+l)
20 Continue
A(N)al.0
Call Psqure(N,A,C)
Call Psqure(N-1,B,D)
Do 30 I--1,N-l
30 Px(I)•C(2*(N-I))-D(2*(N-I))
alpha•(ABS(Px(N-1)))**(1.0/(N-1))
Do 40 I•l,N-1
40 Px(I)•Px(I)/alpha**I
ES•l.OD-14
ESO--l.Od-14
KT•lOOO
Call srpe(N-1,Px,Bx,Cx,ES,ESD,KT,X,Y)
Do 50 I•l, N-1
X(I)•X(I)*Alpha
Y(I) Y(I)*Alpha
0
50 Continue
Do 60 I•l,N-1
Z(I)•CMPLX(X(I),Y(I),Kind•2)
60 S(I)•SQRT(Z(I))
Do 70 I=0,N
A(I)=0.0
B(I)=0.0
C(I)=0.0
70 D(I)a0,0
Do 8 0 I•l, N-1
A(I)=S(I)+CONJG(S(I))
B(I)=ABS(S(I))**2
IF(ABS(Aimag(S(I))).LT.0.lE-5) w-s(I)+CONJG(S(I))
80 W•W/2. 0
Do 90 I•l,N-1,2
D(I/2+l)=B(I)
90 C(I/2+l)=A(I)
Do 100 I=-10,20
Py(I)=0.0
100 Oy(I)•0.0
Py (0) =-1. 0
Do 110 I•l, N/2
Do 120 K•0,2*I
120 Oy(2*I-K)•Py(2*I-K-2)+Py(2*I-K-l)*C(I)+Py(2*I-K)*D(I)
Do 130 J•0,2*I
130 Py(J)•Oy(J)
110 Continue
Do 140 l=0,N
140 O(I)•Oy(I)
O(N+l)•0.0
Do 150 I•N,1,-1
150 O(I)aO(I)-W*O(I+l)
O(0)•0.0
Do 160 Ia0,N
A(I)•P(I)+Q(I)
160 B(I)aP(I)-O(I)
Do 170 I=l, N, 2
Pa(I)•A(N+l-I)
170 Pa(I+l)=B(N-I)
Pa(N+l)=A(0)
Call Expand(N+l,Pa,Oa)
Goto 200
190 O(1)•2.0/(3.0-Sqrt(3.0))
O(2)a(3.0-Sqrt(3.0))/3.0
Write(*,*) 'O(1)=',O(l)
Write(*,*) '0(2)=',0(2)
200 End
Subroutine Psqure(M,A,C) (See Program P416)
Subroutine srpe(N,A,B,C,ES,ESD,KT,X,Y) (See Appendix A206)
Subroutine expand(N,A,O) (See Program P416)
Subroutine Bess(N,B) (See Program P415)
Running Program P419 with n = 8 gives

0( 1)-- .7125408400
REFERENCES 205
Q( 2)- .3445569617
Q( 3)- .2734607054
Q( 4)a .2296681013
Q( 5)- .1866805446
Q( 6)- .1386714534
Q( 7)- .0855168102
Q( 8)- .0289045938
A realization of an 8th-order Bessel-Thomson filter normalizing to IOOQ and co 0 = 104 rad/s is

presented in Fig. 4.27.
7.125 mH 2.73S mH 1.867 mH 0.SSSmH
0.1387pF 0.0230µF 100'1
Fig. 4.27 A realization of an 8th-order Bessel-Thomson filter.
References
1. Baher, H. (1984) Synthesis ofElectrical Networks, NewYork:John Wiley.

2. Chen, W. K. (1986) Passive and Active Filters; Theory and Implementations, New York:
John Wiley.
3. Chen, W. K. (1988) Broadband Matching-. Theory and Implementations, Singapore: World
Scientific.
4. Churchhouse, R. F. (1981)App/icable Mathematics, Vol. III. Numerical Methods, Chichester:
John Wiley.
5. Daniels, R. W. (1974) Approximation Methods for Electronic Filter Design, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
6. Guillemin, E. A. (1957) Synthesis ofPassive Networks, New York: John Wiley.
7. Hancock, H. ( 1958) Lectures on the Theory ofElliptic Functions, New York: Dover Publ.
8. Herrero J. L. and Willoner, G. (1966) Synthesis of Filters, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-
Hall.
9. Lin C. C. and Tokad, Y. (1968) "On the element values of a mid-series and mid-shunt low-
pass LC ladder networks," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-15, no. 4, pp.349-353.
10. Matthaei, G. L., Young, L. and Jones, E. M. T. (1964) Microwave Filters, Impedance-
Matching Networks, and Coupling Structures, N~w York: McGraw-Hill.
11. Rhodes, J. D. (1976) Theory ofElectrical Filters, London: John Wiley.
12. Williams, A. B. (1981) Electronic Filter Design Handbook, New York: McGraw-Hill.
13. Weinberg, L. (1957) "Explicit formulas for Tschebyschcff and Butterworth ladder
networks," J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 28, no.IO, pp. 1155-1160, Oct..
14. Youla, D. C. (1964) "A new theory of broad-band matching." IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory,
Vol. CT-11, no. 1, pp. 30-50.
15. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1990) "On the design of Butterworth of Chebyshev broad-band
impedance-matching ladder networks," Circuits, Systems, and Signal Processing, Vol. 9, no.
1, pp. 56- 73.
16. Zverev, A. I. (1967) Handbook ofFilter Synthesis, New York: John Wiley.
Chapter 5_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Circuit Optimization
5.1 Basic Concepts
We study a single terminated network of Fig 5.1. Our objective is to determine the element
values of a two-port network having the Butterworth response by circuit optimization approach.
From Fig. 5.1 we obtain the voltage transfer ratio function as
(5.1)
where
a, Xz +X4
Oz X1X4 +X3X4 +X1X2
a= = (5.2)
03 XzX3X4
_a4 X1XzX3X4
-+
+
V,(s) 1n
Fig. 5.1 A single terminated two-port network.
Define the specification vector as
r,['il [
r = r2 = 2.61312S93
1.0
3.414213S6
l (5.3)
r4 2.61312S93
207
208 CIRCUIT OPTIMIZATION
By setting a = r, we obtain a set of simultaneous nonlinear equations that will yield a 4ih_
order Butterworth response for IT(jro)I. This set of nonlinear equations can be solved by finding
the minimum value of the function
4
U(x) = LW;(a, -r;) 2 (5.4)
l•I
where w, > 0 is the weighting factor and U(x) is called the objective function. In general, r is
frequently given in terms of a desired frequency response curve r(ro). Similarly, a may be
another frequency response curve derived from x and is denoted by a(x,ro), (5.4) can be written
as
m
U(x) =~)11,[a(x,ro 1)-r(ro 1
,_, )f (5.5)
in which m is the number of sampling data and should be greater than or equal to the dimension
ofx. Generally, the circuit optimization problem may be stated as follows:
Minimize: U(x). XE En (5.6)
where x is an n-dimensional vector
(5.7)
representing n circuit elements, subject to a certain inequality constraints. For example,
(5.8)
Without the constraint of (5.8), the process is referred to as the unconstrained optimization.
There are many ways to convert a constrained optimization problem to an unconstrained onet.
The purpose of an optimization algorithm is to locate the lowest point x·, when x =x·, U(x ")
being minimum, is the solution of a= r and representing the element values of a desired circuit.
In order to find a minimum point x• in U(x), we first study the surface property of U(x) near
x•. Assuming that U(x) is continuous around x·, write
(5.9)
where /lx is a perturbation vector. Applying Taylor series expansion about the point x· gives
t Sec Cuthbert. Jr. T. R. (1983) Circuit Design Using Personal Computers, New York: John Wiley, Chapter 5, pp. 157-166.
BASIC CONCEPTS 209
where g( x•) denotes the first partial derivatives of the objective function called the gradient
vector
aucx·)
ax.
aucx·)
g(x") a (5.11)
°72
aucx·)
axn
and
a2U(x") a2U(x 0
) a2U(x 0
)
-
c3x2
I ax1ax2 ax,axn
a2U(x 0
) a2U(x") a2U(x")
H(x")a ax2_ax1 (5.12)
c3x2
.
.2 ax2.axn
.
a2U(x 0
) a2U(x 0
) a2U(x")
axnaxl axnax2 c3x2
n
-
denotes the second partial derivatives called the Hessian matrix. Since by assumption, U(x) is
continuous around x•, we have
(5.13)
Observe that H(x) is a symmetric N x N matrix.

Suppose that the perturbation is small, i.e., the individual elements llx, of the vector~ are
all small. We can neglect the higher-order terms and (5.10) can be written as an N-dimensional
quadratic function
(5.14)
In the following discussion, we provide our initial guess near a minimum point x• with
(5.14) replacing (5.10). We first study the properties of the N-dimensional quadratic function.
By assumption x• is a local minimumt, we have
U(x) > U(x") (5.15)
'Consider a real•wlued function U with domain D in R•. Then U is said to have a local minimum at a point x· e D. ifthcre
cxistsarealnumbcr &>Osuch that U(x)~U(x")forall xeDsatisfying lx-x"I<& [4].
Since Ill. may assume any small value, condition (5.15) can be guaranteed only if
g(x") =0 (5.16)
I
(L\x) H(x")L\x > 0 (5. 17)
From (5.14}, we sec that conditions (5.16) and (5.17) together arc sufficient to ensure that x· be
a local minimum point. Thus we reach following conclusion:
For an unconstrained circuit optimization, the necessary conditions for x· to be a local

minimum of the problem (5.14) are that
(1) U(x) be differentiable at x·.

(2) g(x) = 0, i.e., a stationary point exists at x·.
For sufficiency, in addition to conditions 1 and 2 above, we need the following:

(3) H(x) is positive definite.
The conditions of positive definiteness of H are given in Section 1.8. For our purposes,
they are repeated below: Given a matrix
hu h12 /Jin
H=
h21 hi2 h2n
(5.18)
/Jnl hn2 hM_
we evaluate all of its n leading principal minors D,, where
D1=h11 (5.19a)
D2 = 1h11 h, 21 (5.19b)
hi, '1i2
hu h,2 h1,
h21 h22 h2,
D-,- ... (5.19c)
h,1 h,2 h,,
(5. 19d)
BASIC CONCEPTS 211
Then His positive definite if and only if D, > 0 for all i.
Example 5.1 An optimization process yields a Hessian matrix given by
2 -3 1 2
-3 5 -2 -1
H=
1 -2 7 -5
2 -1 -5 16
Determine the nature o fits stationary point.

We first evaluate the principal minors
D1 =2, -315 = I,
-3 I
5 -2 = 6,
-2 7
2 -3 1 2
-3 5 -2 -1
D• = =20
1 -2 7 -5
2 -1 -5 16
D. is founded by Program AIOI given in Appendix. Since all four leading principal minors are
positive, it follows that H is positive definite. Hence the stationary point is a local minimum.
Example 5.2 Given an objective function
(5.20)
we wish to find the stationary point and decide the property of the function (5.20).
From (5.11) and (5.12) we find
(5.21)
(5.22)
Letting g(x) = 0 yields

x· = [3.0, 2.0 r (5.23)
Substituting (5.23) in (5.22), we obtain

6.0
H(x)= [ O (5.24)
which is positive definite. This shows that the stationary point x· of (5.23) is a local minimum
of (5.20).
5.2 Gradient Optimization Methods
The gradient method uses first- and/or higher order derivatives of an objective function to
determine a suitable search direction. We introduce three main strategies.
(1) The steepest descent only uses the first-order derivative to point towards a downhill
direction.
(2) Newton's method involves the use the second-order derivative, representing curvature
information, and approximates the surface by a quadratic function.
(3) The conjugacy method, which is a quasi-Newton method, avoids the explicit evaluation
of the Hessian matrix and its inversion.
5.2.1 Steepest Descent
Suppose that the objective function U(x) of (5.10) is continuous around a local minimum
x•. Let x< 0> be the initial point we have chosen to reach x•, and x<.t> be the kth iteration in order
to obtain next approximation x<,M>. Consider the next search
x<t+•> = x<.t> + l.tp<.t> (5.25a)

6x<*> = t.tp<*> (5.25b)
where t.t is a positive scalar called step length decided by an one-dimensional search, (see
Section 5.5) and p<*> a unit vector. Now the problem is how to choose p<*>. Substituting (5.25b)
in (5.10) gives
(5.26)
If t.t is small, we can neglect higher-order small o~V.tP<*>II) of (5.26). Making
(5.27)
shows
(5.28)
It suffices to note that, since the expression on the left-hand side of (5.28} is the inner product of
two vectors, this expression is minimized when p<t> is in a direction opposite to g(x<.t>), if
g(x<t>) * 0 . Choose
GRADIENT OPTIMIZATION METHODS 213
(5.29)
where
(5.30)
(5.31)
The step length t,,_ is determined by a one-dimensional search.
Example 5.3 Using the method of steepest descent to minimize
U(x) = x; + 20.0xi (5.32)
According to the above discussion, we compute the first partial derivatives of the objective
function:
~
v~.
au(x) _ 2
- X1,
aU(x) _ 40 0
---
ax2
,X2 (5.33)
Choosing x< 0> = [2.0 2.or and using (5.33) and (5.29) give
g(X(O)) = [4,Q 80,Qr

(5.34)
p(x<01 ) = [-0.049937 -0.99875f
Using x< 0>and p(x<0>) in (5.25) yields x<•>. Substituting x<•> in (5.32) we get
U(t) = 84.0-80.1 t + 19.95 12 (5.35)
The step length 10 is determined by finding the minimum value of U(t). Differentiating (5.35)
with respect to t gives
t0 = SO.I 2.0075 (5.36)
2 X 19.95
Repeating the above procedure is carried out by Program P501
Program P501: The Steepest Descent Method
1. Purpose. This program is used to solve Example 5.3 by the steepest descent method.
Program P501 includes a subroutine dscpow for the determination of an one
dimensional step length.
2. Usage. X(l) r.
are the unknowns, the initial guess of which is x< 0 > = [2.0 2.0
is the search direction and I is the step length determined by subroutine
s(I)
dscpow.
Program steep
Dimension X(2),Y(2),S(2),Delx(2)
X(l)=2.0
X(2)=2.0
IJK=l
133 Call obf(X,Fx)
IF(Fx.LT.0.lE-9) goto 999
Call Der(X,S)
GGmSQRT(S(l)*S(l)+S(2)*S(2))
S(l)a-S(l)/GG
S(2)=-S(2)/GG
Iobf•0
Iter•0
Call dscpow(X,Fx,Y,Fy,S,Delx,2,2,0.lE-3,1,Iter,Iobf)
Do 2 I=l,2
2 T•(Y(I)-X(I))/S(I)
Write (*,l) IJK, X(l),X(2),T,Fx
1 Format (1X,I5,4(F14.10))
X(l)•Y(l)
X(2)•Y(2)
IJK.. IJK+l
Goto 133
999 Stop
End
Subroutine dscpow(X,Fx,Y,Fy,S,Delx,N,Indic,Tol,Itol,Iter,Iex)
(See Appendix A402)
Subroutine OBF(X,Fx)
Dimension X(2)
Fx=X(l)**2+20.0*X(2)**2
Return
End
Subroutine DER(X,Gx)
Dimension X(2),Gx(2)
Gx(l) =2*X (1)
Gx(2)=40*X(2)
Return
End
Ruming the program gives

Step X (1) x(2) t U(X)
1 2.0000000000 2.0000000000 2.0072538853 84.0000000000
2 1.8997625113 -0.0047495463 1.8160821199 3.6095485687
3 0.0859464407 0.0859439299 0.0862556621 0 .1551139653
4 0.0816389099 -0.0002041056 0.0780428201 0.0066657448
5 0.0036934689 0.0036933257 0.0037067260 0.0002864548
6 0.0035083566 -0.0000087752 0.0033536809 0.0000123101

7 0.0001588641 0.0001587820 0.0001593554 0.0000005295
8 0.0001509022 -0.0000003744 0.0001443514 0.0000000228
9 0.0000067281 0.0000067796 0.0000068038 0.0000000010
obtaining the solution
(5.37)
If the N-dimensional objective function is quadratic, write
1
U(x)=-x'Ax+b'x+c (5.38)
2
where A is an N x N constant symmetric matrix, b is a constant vector with N components, and

c is a constant. Instead of a one-dimension search subroutine, /1: can directly be found by solving
d U(t)/dt = 0. Substituting (5.25) and (5.29) in (5.38) and expanding the function at x<t> give
where
(5.40)
Assume
dU(x(I:) +l1cP(k))
dtk
=[g(x(k))r p<•> + ~(k) r A~kP(k) ]= 0
yielding a relation for

1 __(.;. . Ax_.;:..k_+_b)'-'(.;. . A_x.;:..1c_+_b)'-- (5.42)
k - (Axk +b)'A(Axk + b)
where p<•> is given in (5.29) and

(5.43)
Using (5.42) and (5.43), we rewrite Program P502
Program P502: The Steepest Descent Method
1. Purpose. This program is used to solve Example 5.3 by the steepest descent method.
Instead of using subroutine dscpow, the program follows (5.42) to determine the
step length t.
2. Usage. X(I) are the unknowns, the initial guess of which is assumed to be
X(OJ = [2.0 2.0r.
S(J) is the search direction.
T is the step length determined by (5.42).
Program steep
Dimension X(2),G(2),S(2)
X(l)•2.0
X(2)•2.0
IJK•l
10 Call obf(X,Fx)
IF(Fx.LT.0.lE-10) goto 30
Call Der (X, G)
GG•Sqrt(G(l)*G(l)+G(2)*G(2))
S(l)a-G(l)/GG
S(2)•-G(2)/GG
T•G(l)*S(l)+G(2)*S(2)
T•-T/(2*5(1)**2+40*5(2)**2)
X(l)•X(l)+T*S(l)
X(2)•X(2)+T*S(2)
Write(*,22) IJK,X(l),X(2),T,Fx
22 Format (2X,I3,4X,4(Fl4.10,4X))
IJK•IJK+l
Goto 10
30 Write(*,32) IJK, X(l),X(2),T,Fx
32 Format (2X,I3,4X,4(Fl4.10,4X))
End
Dimension X(2)
Fx•X(l)••2+20.o•xc21••2
Return
End
Gx(l)a2*X(l)
Gx(2)a40*X(2)
Return
End
Running P502 gives
Step X(l) X(2) I U(x)
1 1.8997625 -0.0047495 2.0072539 84.0000000

2 0.0859464 0.0859439 1.8160820 3.6095486
3 0.0816389 -0.0002041 0.0862557 0.1551140
4 0.0036935 0.0036933 0.0780428 0.0066657
5 0.0035084 -0.0000088 0.0037067 0.0002865
6 0.0001587 0.0001587 0.0033538 0.0000123
7 0.0001508 -0.0000004 0.0001593 0.0000005
8 0.0000068 0.0000068 0.0001441 0.0000000
9 0.0000065 0.0000000 0.0000068 0.0000000
10 0.0000003 0.0000003 0.0000062 0.0000000

11 0.0000003 0.0000003 0.0000062 0.0000000
obtaining
x· =[0.0] (5.44)
0.0
5.2.2 Newton's Method
Newton's method is based on the assumptions that the first and second derivatives are
available. Differentiating the Taylor series (5.10) gives
VU(x+M) = g(x)+H(x)M+•·· (5.45)
Since we assume that x + M is the minimized point, VU (x + 6%) should be 0. By neglecting the
higher-order terms, we obtain
(5.46)
This incremental change predicts the position of the minimum in a single step if U(x) is a
quadratic function of (5.10). If the function U(x) is not quadratic, we could try the iterative
scheme
(5.47)
where 11 is the step length determined by a one-dimensional search. This scheme has, however,
several disadvantages. H(x) must be positive definite. Otherwise divergence could occur. If
-[H(x<1 >)j'g(x< 1>) does not point downhill, 11 has to be negative. Also H(x) may be locally
singular. Finally, the computation of H(x<1>) and its inverse are time consuming.
Example 5.4 Let the objective function be
(5.48)
and the initial point be x 1 = 1.0, x 2 = 1.0. We use Newton method to find a minimal point.
According to (5.1 I) and (5.12), we have
(5.49)
H(x) =[12(x 1 -3.0)2 +2 -8.0] (5.50)

-8.0 32.0
Program P503: Newton's Method
1. Purpose. This program is used to solve Example 5.4 by Newton's method.

2. Usage. Xl and X2 are unknown, and the initial guess must be available.
Program Newton
k-0
Write(*,*) 'Initial guess: X(l) and X(2)'
Read (•,•) Xl,X2
10 U=(Xl-3.0)*•4+(Xl-4*X2)••2
gl=4•(xl-3.0)••3+2•(xl-4•X2)
g2a-2•(Xl-4*X2)•4.0
hll•l2.0*(Xl-3.0)*•2+2
hl2•-8.0
h21=-8.0
h22a2*(-4)*(-4)
Write (•,20) k,Xl,X2,U
20 Format (2X,I3,4X,3(Fl4.8,4X))
!Inverse the Hessen Matrix
Aahll*h22-hl2*h21
all•h22/A
al2a-hl2/A
a21•-h21/A
a22=hll/A
Xl•Xl-all*gl-al2*g2
x2-x2-a21•g1-a22•g2
k•k+l
IF (U.GT.0.lE-6) Goto 10
End
We input the initial gauss x 1<0>=1.0 and x2co> =1.0, and obtain
Step x(l) x(2) u
0 1.00000000 1.00000000 25.00000000
l 1.66666700 0.41666660 3.16049300
2 2 .11111100 0.52777780 0.62429490
3 2.40740800 0.60185190 0.12331750
4 2.60493800 0.65123460 0.02435902
5 2.73662500 0.68415640 0.00481166
6 2.82441700 0.70610420 0.00095045
7 2.88294500 o. 72073610 0.00018774
8 2.92196300 0.73049070 0.00003709
9 2.94797500 0.73699380 0.00000733
10 2.96531700 0.74132920 0.00000145
11 2.97687800 0.74421950 0.00000029
12 2.98458500 0.74614630 0.00000006
Thus, the solution of (5.48) is

x· =[ 2.98972400]
0.74743090
(5.51)
If the objective function of (5.48) is changed to
(5.52)
U(x), g(x) and H(x) in Program P503 are revised as follows:
Program Newton
k•0
Read (*,*) Xl,X2
10 U•(Xl-3.0)**2+(Xl-4*X2)**2
gl•2*(Xl-3.0)+2*(Xl-4*X2)
g2=-2*(Xl-4*X2)*4.0
hll=4. 0
hl2=-8.0
h21•-8.0
h22•32.0
Write (*,20) k,Xl,X2,U
20 Format (2X,I3,4X,3(Fl4.8,4X))
!Inverse the Hessen Matrix
A•hll*h22-hl2*h21
all=h22/A
al2•-hl2/A
a21=-h21/A
a22•hll/A
Xl•Xl-all*gl-al2*g2
X2=X2-a2l*gl-a22*g2
k•k+l
IF (U.GT.0.lE-6) Goto 10
End
The result is found to be
1.0
1.0
1.00000000 1.00000000 13.00000000
3.00000000 0.75000000 0.00000000
5.2.3 The Conjugate Gradient Method
The conjugate gradient method is a variant of the quasi-Newton method. As the name
suggests, the quasi-Newton method is based on the Newton technique, offers a quadratic
tennination, and avoids the explicit evaluation of the Hessian matrix and its inversion. These
algorithms include the conjugate gradient, typified by the Fletcher-Reeves [1] and the variable
metric method such as the Davidon-Fletcher-Powell (DFP) algorithm [2]. In this section we only
introduce the conjugate gradient method. For the variable metric method, see Bown and Geiger
[2]. Before proceeding let us first define the conjugate directions.
Conjugacy and Conjugate Directio11S
Suppose the minimization of U(x) given in (S.10) starts at x<01 in an initial direction p101 •
For convenience we assume p< 01 is a unit vector, i.e. [p< 01 Jp< 01 = 1. The vector x111 will be
computed from
(5.53)
and the step length t0 will be determined by minimizing U(xt 0> +10 p< 0>) with respect tot,
(5.54)
giving
/(0) = r
[g(X(O)) p<O)
(5.55)
J
[i><o> H(x<o> )p<o>
After 10 is computed from (5.55) and x<•> from (5.53}, a new direction must be chosen for
the minimization of U(x). The new direction p111 is said to be conjugated with respect to the old
direction p< 0> if
(5.56)
In general, a set of n linearly independent directions of search p< 1>, p< 2>, •••, ptn-•> are said to be
conjugate with respect to a positive definite matrix H if
(5.57)
When H =I, the conjugate becomes orthogonality.
Example 5.5 Consider the following problem:
Minimize: (5.58)
r.
starting at x10> = [1 4 The vectors and matrices WC need arc
(5.59)
(5.60)
The vector xU> is computed from

(5.61)
Since any direction can be picked for p< 0>, we choose for example
I
A(0) [ 1 1] (5.62)
p = ..Ji. ..Ji.
The step length 10 is computed from (5.55),
[6 4f *]
,,=-1* *{~ ~ur-272
{* 5 (5.63)
Then
x<•>=[l]4 __5 [*]=[;]

2✓2 * 4
(5.64)
The next direction for minimization p<1> is picked to be conjugate to p< 0> by using (5.57)
(5.65)
The additional equation needed is

(5.66)
leading to
(5.67)
The step length t1 is computed next from (5.55)

(5.68)
(5.69)
The Conjugate Gradient Method
In Flecher-Reeves conjugate gradient method, the direction of search p 111 is given by
(5.70)
where
J
_ (g(xU>) g(xu>)
(5.71)
'1 - [g(x<1-•>>J g(x<1-•>)
and, initially, 10 = 0. Thus the first iteration is in the direction of the steepest descent and g(x) is
found by (5.11). Apart from the round-off errors, the procedure will terminate at a minimum of a
quadratic objective function of 11 independent variables in at most n iterations.
Example 5.6 We wish to find a minimum of the quadratic function
(5.72)
Program P504: The Conjugate Gradient Method
I. Purpose. This program is used to solve Example 5.6 by the conjugate gradient method.
2. Usage. The main program is Conjugate, which reads the initial guess x< 0> and prints out
the solution x of (5.72). The Flecher-Reeves conjugate gradient method is carried
out by subroutine RF, which includes the following.
3. Subroutines.
Subroutine OBF calculates the objective function U(x).
Subroutine DER calculates the first derivatives g(x) presented by Gx.
Subroutine dscpow determinates the one dimensional step length I.
Program CONJUGATE
Parameter(N•3)
Dimension X(Nl,Y(N),Gx(N)
Iobf•l
Ider•l
Write(*,*) 'Input initial guess x(l),x(2), ••• ,x(N)'

Read(*,*) X
Call FR(X,Y,Fy,Gx,N,5000,Icovg,0.00000l,1)
Write (*,l) Y(l),Y(2),Y(3)
1 Format (5X, 'X(l)•",Fl6.10,3X, 'X(2)•",&
& Fl6.10,3X, 'X(3)a',Fl6.10)
Write(*,2) Fy, Icovg
2 Format (5X,'Fy•",Fl6.10,6X,I3)
End
Subroutine FR(X,Y,Fy,Gx,N,Imos,Icovg,Tl,It)
Dimension X(N),Y(N),GX(N),S(20),Delg(20)
If(It.GT.0) Goto 151
Tl•0.0001
151 Iter•0
Icovg•0
Erla0.01
Er2 .. 0.001
Etl•0.001
Et2=10.0
Ireset•N+l
Index•Ireset
Call Obf (X, Fx)
Write(*,*) 'Fx=', Fx
Call Der (X, Gx)
Write(*,91) Gx(l),Gx(2),Gx(3)
91 Format (5X, 'GX(l)a',Fl6.10,3X,'GX(2)a',&
& Fl6.10,3X, 'GX(3)=',Fl6.10)
Gxn•0.0
Do 2 I=l,N
Delg(I)•-Gx(I)
2 Gxn•Gxn+Gx(I)*Gx(I)
Gxn•SQRT(GXN)
1 If(Gxn.LT.Tl) Goto 60
If(Iter.GT.Imos) Goto 80
If(Index.NE.Ireset) Goto 90
5 Index•0
Do 10 I•l,N
S(I)=Delg(I)
10 Gx(I)=Delg(I)
! One-dimensional search
130 TD•ET2*Gxn
If(TD.LT.Etl) Goto 21
Td•Etl
21 Call Dscpow(X,Fx,Y,Fy,Gx,Gx,N,2,Td,l,Iter,Iex)
If (Iex.Ne.l) goto 31
Icovg•-1
Return
31 Iter•Iter+l
Indexaindex+l
Call Der (Y, Gx)
Gxn0aGxn
Gxn•0.0
Do 50 I•l,N
Delg(I)•-Gx(I)
Gxn•Gxn+Gx(I)*Gx(I)
50 X(I)•Y(I)
Fx•Fy
Gxn•SQRT(Gxn)
Goto 1
! Calculate The New Search Direction
90 R•Gxn•Gxn/(Gxn0•Gxn0)
Sn=0.0
Gs•0.0
Do 51 I•l,N
S(I)=Delg(I)+R*S(I)
Sn•Sn+S(I)*S(I)
Gs•Gs+Gx(I)*S(I)
51 Gx(I)=S(I)
Sn=SQRT(Sn)
Er•Er2*Gxn
If(Erl.GT.Er) Goto 52
Er=Erl
52 If(Gs.GT.-Er*Gxn•Sn) Goto 5
Goto 130
60 Icovg•l
80 Return
End
Dimension X (3)
Fx•(X(l)-3.0)**2+(X(2)-4*X(3))**2+(X(3)-5*X(l))**2
Return
End
Gx(l)• 2*(X(l)-3.0)-10*(X(3)-5*X(l))
Gx(2)= 2*(X(2)-4*X(3))
Gx(3)•-8*(X(2)-4.0*X(3))+2*(X(3)-5*X(l))
Return
End
(See Appendix A412)
Running Program P504 we obtain

1.0
2.0
3.0
Fx• 108.00000
GX(l)• 16.00000000 GX(2)• -20.00000000 GX(3)= 76.00000000
X(l)= 2.99999200 X(2)• 59.99984000 X(3)• 14.99996000
Fy• 0.0000000001 -1
2.9999920000]
[
x· = 59.9998400000 (5.73)
14.9999600000
LEAST-SQUARES PROBLEM 225
5.3 Least-Squares Problem
In circuit optimization, the objective function is often conveniently formulated as a sum of

squares of (5.5), where m specifies the performance features G0 (co,), The corresponding realized
values a{x,co) are required to be matched. To simplify our discussion, let w, =1.0, i =1, 2, •••, m.
Then (5.5) can be assembled as
U(x) = [f(x)r f(x) (5.74)

where
fa(x) G{x,co 1)-G0 (co 1)
f (x) = fz (x) = G{x,co2)-Go(C02) (5.75)
/.,(x)
The reduction of U(x) of (5.74) to zero ensures that G(x,co,) = G0 {co,) for all i. The method was
introduced by Guass [1809] for solving sets of nonlinear equations based on Newton's method.
Because it exploits the particular form of the sum-of-squares objective function, the method of
least-squares is also known as the Guass-Newton method. Differentiating (5.74) gives
g(x) =VU(x) =2[J(x)r f(x) (5.76)
where J(x) is the mxn Jacobian matrix

ar. ar. ar.
ax, ax2 axn
aJ; aJ; 8/2
J(x)= ax, ax2 axn (5.77)
a/., a/,,, a/,,,

_ax, ax2 axn_
If the gradient at x<•• 1> is approximated by

(S.78)
and r(x<M>} is approximated by a first-order Taylor series

(S.79)
then substituting (5.79) in (5.78) and letting g(x<hl> }= 0 lead to the Gauss least-squares method
for the computation of x<MI :
(5.80)
When [J(x<•> )J J(x<•>) becomes ill-conditioned, the Levenburg-Marquardt correction is used to

change [J(x<•> )J J(x<•>) to { [J(x<•> )J J(x<•> )+µI}, where I stands for the N x N unit matrix and
µ is real and positive called damping coefficient. The damping technique is effective for jumping
out of a local minimum point by choosing different µ, where the convergence and downhill
properties arc still preserved. As µ ➔ 0 , the process is undamped, whereas for µ ➔ co the step
is in the steepest descent [5].
Example 5. 7 Use the least-squares method to optimize the problem given in Fig. 5.1,
where the objective function is given by
U(x)=(X1X2X3X 4 -1.0) 2 +(X 2 X 3X4 -2.6)3)2593) 2 +

(5.81)
(x,x4 +X3X4 +X1X2 -3.41421386) 2 +(X2 +X4 -2.61312593) 2
Program P505: The Least-Squares Method

1. Purpose. This program is used to solve Example 5. 7 by the least-squares method.
2. Usage. The main program is program Least, which reads the initial guess x101 , constructs
the mxn Jacobian matrix J(x), and prints out the solution x of (5.81 ).
3. Subroutines.
Subroutine OBF calculates the objective function U(x) presented by Fx.
Subroutine IVSNC finds the inverse of the matrix {[J(x<•>>J J(x<A->)}.
Subroutine DSCPOW determines a one-dimensional search step length t.
Program Least
Dimension X(4),H(4,4),J(4,4),A(4,4),F(4),Y(4)
Dimension B(4),C(4),ME(4),MF(4),V(4,4),S(4),Delx(4)
Real J
N=4
IJKal
Do 8 I•l,N
Write(*,*) 'Input initial Guess of x(',I,')'
8 Read(•,*) X(I)
Write(•,•) 'Step X(l) X(2) X(3l&
& X(4) U(x)'
10 F(l)•X(l)•X(2)•X(3)•X(4)-l.O
F(2)•X(2)*X(3)•X(4)-2.61312593
F(3)=X(l)*X(4)+X(3)*X(4)+X(l)•X(2)-3.41421386
F(4)•X(2)+X(4)-2.61312593
Call Obf (X, Fx)
J(l,l)=X(2)•X(3)•X(4)
J(l,2)=X(l)•X(3)•X(4)
J(l,3)•X(l)•X(2)•X(4)
J(l,4)•X(l)•X(2)•X(3)
J(2,l)=O.O
LEAST-SQUARES PROBLEM 227
J(2,2)•X(3)*X(4)
J(2,3)•X(2)*X(4)
J(2,4)=X(2)*X(3)
J(3,l)=X(2)+X(4)
J(3,2)=X(l)
J(3,3)•X(4)
J(3,4)=X(l)+X(3)
J(4,l)a0.0
J(4,2)•1.0
J(4,3)=0.0
J(4,4)=1.0
Do 56 I=l,N
Do 56 K=l,N
56 H(I,K)=J(l,I)*J(l,K)+J(2,I)*J(2,K)+J(3,I)*J(3,K)+J(4,I)*J(4,K)
Do 59 Ial,N
Do 59 K•l,N
59 V(I,K)=H(I,K)
Call ivsnc(V,B,C,ME,MF,4,0.lE-10)
Do 66 I=l, N
Do 66 K•l,N
66 A(I,K)•V(I,l)*J(K,l)+V(I,2)*J(K,2)+V(I,3)*J(K,3)+V(I,4)*J(K,4)
Do 71 I .. l,N
71 S(I)•A(I,l)*F(l)+A(I,2)*F(2)+A(I,3)*F(3)+A(I,4)*F(4)
SS=S(l)**2+S(2)**2+S(3)**2+S(4)••2
Do 72 I=l,N
72 S(I)=-S(I)/Sqrt(SS)
Iter•0
Call dscpow(X,Fx,Y,Fy,S,Delx,4,2,0.000001,1,Iter,Iex)
Write(*,82) IJK,Y(l),Y(2),Y(3),Y(4),Fy
82 Format(lX,I3,2X,5(F12.9,2X))
Do 90 I•l, N
90 X(I)-Y(I)
IJK=IJK+l
IF(Fy>0.lE-08) Goto 10
End
(See Appendix A402)
Dimension X(4),F(4)
F(l)=X(l)•X(2)*X(3)•X(4)-l.0
F(2)=X(2)*X(3)*X(4)-2.61312593
F(3)=X(l)*X(4)+X(3)*X(4)+X(l)*X(2)-3.41421386
F(4)=X(2)+X(4)-2.61312593
Fx•F(l)*F(l)+F(2)*F(2)+F(3)*F(3)+F(4)*F(4)
Return
End
Subroutine ivsnc(A,B,C,ME,MF,N,EP) (See Appendix Al02)

The initial guess is chosen as
-X(O) -1.0·
I
X(O)
X(O) = 2 1.0
X(O)
= (5.82)
l 1.0
x<o> 1.0
- 4
Input initial Guess of x( 1
1.0
Input initial Guess of x( 2
1.0
Input initial Guess of X ( 3
1.0
Input initial Guess of X( 4
1.0
Step X ( 1) X(2) X(3) X( 4) U(x)
1 0.606297910 0.654844463 1. 244061470 1. 4 947 96038 2.293474913
2 0.246755481 0.952759326 1. 705116987 1.544167519 0.196836948
3 0.385703892 1.068815231 1.569372654 1.542141676 0.000876050
4 0.382639825 1.082382441 1.577116251 1. 530752659 0.000000046
5 0.382683426 1.082392097 1.577160954 1.530733943 0.000000000
The solution of Example 5. 7 is found to be
x)n- [0.382640]
• x< 5> 1.082382
X = 2 = (5.83)
x1' 1 1.5111 16
x!'> _ 1.530753
5.4 Direct Search Optimization Method
In contrast to the previous method, a direct search algorithm requires only the computation
of the values of an objective function, not any of its derivatives. Since, in practice, evaluating
derivatives are usually laborious, and in some cases impossible, a direct search algorithm is
attractive.
There are many such methods with widely different characteristics. We arc mainly
concerned with the Flexible Polyhedron Search.
5.4.1 Tabulation Method
In tabulation method, a user-defined set of points in the argument space is chosen and the
objective function is evaluated at each of these points: The point of lowest function values is
returned as the optimum. Figure 5.2 illustrates two common strategics for the selection of these
sets:
DIRECT SEARCH OPTIMIZATION METHOD 229
;,cl ;,c,
• • • • • •
•
• • • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
0 ;,c,
0 x,
(a) Random tabulation (b) Grid tabulation
Fig. 5.2 A number of points in the argument space being chosen with the objective function
evaluated at each of these points.
In each case, fork points tested, we evaluate U(x<1>), i = 1,2,···,k and choose x<•> such that
(5.84)
We notice that tabulation search is intrinsically inefficient since so much information is rejected
at each iteration. It does, however, have the virtues of computational simplicity and have the
capacity to converge to a global minimum rather than a local minimum.
5.4.2 Flexible Polyhedron Search
Regular polyhedrons in En are called simplexes. For example, in Fig 5.3 a regular simplex
for two variables is an equilateral triangle (three points). For three variables, it is a regular
tetrahedron (four points), and so forth.
(a) Two-variable simplex (b) Three-variable simplex
Fig. 5.3 The regular polyhedrons in En called simplexes.

Simplex Search
In search for a minimum of the objective function U(x), trial vectors x can be selected at
points in En located at the vertices of the simplex, as originally suggested by Spendley, Hext
and Himsworth [I]. From theory of analytical geometry, it can be shown that the coordinates of
the vertices of the regular simplex are designated by following n x (n + 1) matrix D, in which
the columns represent the components of the vertices, numbered from 1 to (n+ l ), and the rows
represent the coordinates, i= 1 to n.
0 d, d2 d2
0 d2 d, d2
D= 0 d2 d2 d2 (5.85)
0 d2 d2 di
where
di = 1r,.- (.Jn+t + n-1) (5.86)
nv2
d2 = -1-(.Jn+l -1) (5.87)

nJ2.
I = distance between two vertices (5.88)
For example, for n =4 and I = 1, the polyhedron has the following coordinates:
X(O) X(II x<21 x<JI x<41

0.00000000 0. 92561480 0.21850800 0.21850800 0.21850800
0.00000000 0.21850800 0. 92561480 0.21850800 0.21850800
0.00000000 0.21850800 0.21850800 0.92561480 0.21850800
0.00000000 0.21850800 0.21850800 0.21850800 0. 92561480
For an nth-order independent system, if the initial guess is chosen as
(5.89)
then+ 1 vertices of the simplex are

-X(O) +d2
I x 101
I + dI x I101 + d2 x<O>
I
X(O) x<201 + d2 x 2101 + dI x 2101 + d2
2
D= X(O)
3 x 3101 + d2 x<o>
3
+ d2 x<O>
3
+ d2 (5.90)
X(O) x<n0> + d 2 x<n0> + d 2 x<n0> + d I.

• n
The objective function can be evaluated at each of these vertices. A projection made from
the point say x<"> yields the highest value of the objective function through the centroid of the
simplex. Point x<"> is deleted, and a new simplex, termed a reflection, is formed, composed of
the remaining old points and the one new point located along the projected line at a proper
distance from the centroid. Continuation this process, always delete the vertex that yields the
highest value of the objective function, plus the rules for reducing the size of the simplex and
preventing cycling in the vicinity of the extremes. This procedure permits a derivative-free
search in which the step size on any stage k is fixed but the directions are permitted to change.
This search method is called the Simplex Search.
Flexible Polyhedron Search
To accelerate the search in curving valleys or on curving ridges, we describe the Nelder
and Mead technique, in which the simplex is permitted to alter in shape and thus no longer stays
a simplex and is called the flexible polyhedron. As in the simplex search, the objective function
can be evaluated at each ofits vertices. Among them we find
x<">: the vertex having the greatest U(x) value

x<•>: the vertex having the second greatest U(x) value
x</l : the vertex having the lowest U(x) value
that is
(5.91)
Excluding x<">, we compute the centroid of the simplex making up of the other n vertices:
(5.92)
The details of the algorithm are outlined as follows.
1. Reflection. Reflect x<"> through the centroid by computing
(5.93)
where a> 0 is the reflection factor.
2. Expansion. If U(x1' 1) < U(x<ll), expand the vector (x<r> -x<c>) by computing
(5.94)
where y > 1, is the expansion factor. If U(x<r>) < U(x111 ), replace x<"> by x<r> and continue
from step 1. Otherwise, replace x<"> by x<r> and continue from step 1.
*
3. Contraction. If U(x 1' 1) > U(x1' 1) for all i h, contract the vector (x 0•1-x"' 1) by
computing
(5.95)
where O< p< 1is the contraction coefficient. Replace x<h> by x and return to step 1 to continue
the search.
4. Reduction. If U(x 1' 1) > U(x 1h1), reduce all the vectors (x 1' 1 - x1' 1), i= 1,2,. .. ,11+ 1, by
one-half from x" 1 by computing
(5.96)
and return to step 1 to continue the search.

The criterion used by Nelder and Mead to terminate the search was to test to determine if
(5.97)
where & is an arbitrarily small number.
Example 5.8 Let us design a single terminated Butterworth filter of Fig 5.1, from which
we obtain the voltage transfer ratio function as
V1 (s) 1
(5.98)
v; (s) = x,x2X3X4S +X2X3X4S3 +(x,x. +X3X4 +x,x2)s2 + (X2 +x. )s+}
4
In order to produce the Butterworth response, we set
X 1X2X3X4 = 1.0
X1X3X4 =2.61312593
(5.99)
X1X4 +X3X 4 +x 1x 2 =3.41421356
X2+X4 =2.61312593
Choose the initial point

XIO) = [1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 r (5.100)
and use Program P506.
Program 506: The Flexible Polyhedron Search
1. Purpose. This program is used to solve Example 5.8 by using flexible polyhedron search.
2. Usage. The program reads the dimension of the unknowns, the initial guess and the step
length, which also includes a subroutine to calculate the objective function
U(x) = [Cx1x2x3x4 }2-1.0] 2 + [cx2x3x4 ) 2 -2.61312593]2 +

(5.101)
[cx,x4 ) 2 +(x3x4 ) 2 +(x1x2 )2-3.41421356] 2 + (x~+x~ -2.61312593) 2
where we use x; instead of x, to avoid the negative value of the solution.
Program Simple
NX is the number of independent variables
! Step is the initial step size.
! X(I) is the array of initial guesses.
Dimension Xl(S0,50),X(S0),Sum(S0)
Common X,Xl,NX,Step,Kl,Sum,IN
IJK•l
Write(*,*) 'Input the number of independent variable'
100 Read(*,*) NX
Write(*,*) 'Input Step Length'
Read(*,*) Step
Write(*,*) 'Initial guess of independent variables'
Do 2 I•l,Nx
2 Read(*,*) X(I)
Alfa•l.0
Beta•0.5
Gama•2.0
Difer=0.0
XNx•Nx
In=l
Call Sumr
! Call Second(time)
Kl•Nx+l
K2=Nx+2
K3•Nx+3
K4•Nx+4
Call Start
25 Do 3 I•l,Kl
Do 4 J•l,Nx
4 X(J)•Xl(I,J)
IN•I
Call Sumr
3 Continue
! Select largest Value of Sum(I) in Simplex
28 Sumh•Sum(l)
Index=l
Do 7 I•2,Kl
IF(Sum(I).LT.Sumh) Goto 7
Sumh•Sum(I)
IndexaI
7 Continue
! Select minimum Value of Sum(I) in Simplex
Suml•Sum(l)
Kount•l
Do 8 I•2,Kl
IF(Suml.LT.Sum(I)) Goto 8
Suml=Sum (I)
Kount=I
8 Continue
! Find centroid of points with I different from index
Do 9 J=l,NX
Sum2•0.0
Do 10 I•l, Kl
10 Sum2=Sum2+Xl(I,J)
Xl(K2,J)=l.0/XNX*(Sum2-Xl(Index,J))
! Find reflection of high point through centroid
Xl(K3,J)=(l.0+Alfa)*Xl(K2,J)-ALFA*Xl(Index,J)
X(J)=Xl(K3,J)
9 Continue
IN=K3
Call Sumr
IF(Sum(K3).LT.Suml) Goto 11
! Select the second largerst value in simplex
IF( Index.EQ.l) Goto 38
Sums=Sum(l)
Goto 39
38 Sums•Sum(2)
39 Do 12 I•l,Kl
IF((Index-1).EQ.0) Goto 12
IF(Sum(I) .LT.Sums) Goto 12
Sums=Sum(I)
12 Continue
IF(Sum(K3).GT.Sums) Goto 13
Goto 14
! Form expansion of new minimum if reflection has &
! produced one minimum
11 Do 15 J•l,NX
Xl(K4,J)=(l.0-Gama)*Xl(K2,J)+Gama*Xl(K3,J)
15 X(J)=Xl(K4,J)
IN=K4
Call Sumr
IF (Sum(K4).LT.Suml) Goto 16
Goto 14
13 IF(Sum(K3).GT.Sumh) Goto 17
Do 18 J•l,NX
18 Xl(Index,J)•Xl(K3,J)
17 Do 19 J•l,Nx
Xl(K4,J)•Beta*Xl(Index,J)+(l.0-Beta)*Xl(K2,J)
19 X(J)=Xl(K4,J)
In•K4
Call Sumr
If(Sumh.GT.Sum(K4)) Goto 16
Do 20 J•l,Nx
Do 20 I•l,Kl
20 Xl(I,J)=0.5*(Xl(I,J)+Xl(Kount,J))
Do 29 I=l,Kl
Do 30 J .. l,Nx
30 X(J)•Xl(I,J)
In=I
Call Sumr
29 Continue
Goto 26
16 Do 21 J•l,Nx
Xl(Index,J)•Xl(K4,J)
21 X(J)•Xl(Index,J)
IN•Index
Call Sumr
Goto 26
14 Do 22 J=l,NX
Xl(Index,J)=Xl(K3,J)
22 X(J)•Xl(Index,J)
In•Index
Call Sumr
26 Do 23 J=l,Nx
23 X(J)•Xl(K2,J)
INaK2
Call Sumr
Difer•O.O
Do 24 I•l,Kl
24 Difer•Difer+(Sum(I)-Sum(K2))**2
Difer•l.0/XNX*SQRT(Difer)
IJK=IJK+l
Write(*,32) IJK-1,Difer
32 Format(6X,I4,6x,G20.12)
IF(IJK.GT.2000) Goto 46
IF (Difer.GT.0.00000001) Goto 28
46 Do 37 J•l,Nx
X(J)•Xl(Kount,J)
Write(*,47) J,X(J)*X(J)
47 Format(6X,'X(',I2,')m',F20.12)
37 Continue
End
Subroutine Sumr
Common X,Xl,Nx,Step,KI,Sum,In
Dimension Xl(S0,50),X(SO),Sum(SO)
Sum(IN)•((X(l)*X(2)*X(3)*X(4))**2-l.0)**2+&
&((X(2)*X(3)*X(4))**2-2.61312593)**2+((X(l)*X(4))**2+&
&(X(3)*X(4))**2+(X(l)*X(2))**2-3.41421356)**2+&
& (X(2)*X(2)+X(4)*X(4)-2.61312593)**2
Return
End
Subroutine Start
Common X,Xl,Nx,Step,Kl,Sum,IN
Dimension A(S0,50),Xl(S0,50),X(SO),Sum(SO)
Vn•Nx
Stepl=Step/(Vn*Sqrt(2.0))*(Sqrt(Vn+l.O)+Vn-l.O)
Step2•step/(Vn*Sqrt(2.0))*(Sqrt(Vn+l.O)-l.O)
Do 1 J=l, Nx
1 A(l,J)•O.O
Do 2 Ia2,Kl
Do 2 J•l,Nx
A(I,J)=Step2
L=I-1
A(I,L)•Stepl
2 Continue
Do 3 Ial,Kl
Do 3 J•l,Nx
3 Xl(I,J)aX(j)+A(I,J)
Return
End
Input the number of independent variable

4
Input Step Length
0.3
Initial guess of independent variables
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1 0.908774495125
2 1. 03354144096
3 0.861756503582
4 0.604779124260
5 0.447989016771
6 0.315542221069
98 0.113556346548E-06
99 0.906813681922E-07
100 0.105009974050E-06
101 0.113075330432E-06
102 0.852189288025E-07
103 0.560781217018E-07
104 0.486740852068E-07
105 0.426863842051E-07
106 0.404981399527E-07
107 0.369655879240E-07
108 0.344963915211E-07
109 0.291035480160E-07
110 0.226805294545E-07
111 0.138915021708E-07
112 0.792759635715E-08
X( 1) = 0. 382675111294
X( 2)• 1.082357525826
X( 3)a 1.577256441116
X( 4 )• 1. 530714 631081
The result is fount to be
X( 1)= 0.382675111294
X( 2)= 1.082357525826
X( 3)= 1.577256441116
X( 4)= 1.530714631081
ONE-DIMENSIONAL SEARCH 237
5.5 One-Dimensional Search
In circuit optimization, we often need a one-dimensional search for a minimum in some

feasible downhill direction. Broadly, two classes are distinguished: The first is an approximation
or interpolation method which assumes that the function is smooth and well-represented by a
low-order polynomial near the optimum. The second is an elimination method, which chops
away subintervals not containing the optimum in an efficient manner with the only assumption
that it be unimodal.
5.5.1 Interpolation Method
Many of the algorithms described so far require an efficient one-dimensional search

routine. Let x<1> be the base vector. If the search direction is p< 1>, a one-dimensional search is to
find a one-dimensional step length t, , when
(5.103)
so that the objective function U(x<1• 1>) is minimum on the search direction p<•>. Many general
optimization procedures are available, we only introduce the polynomial interpolation technique.
To avoid confusion, we write a one-dimension function as U(t), where I is the step length. We
wish to determine ,·, such that U(t•) is minimum. Suppose t" is the minimum point. We have
u·c,·> = dU(t) o (5.104)

dt
As shown in Fig. 5.4, we use a linear approximation of U'(I) to construct
(5.105)
U'(t)
Fig. 5.4 A linear approximation of U'(t).

From Fig 5.4 we define two points { 1<•> ,U(r<0 )} and { r<k-l) ,u(l<A:-•>) }, by which we determine
the constant k and b of (5.1_04) as
(5.106a)
(5.106b)
Substituting (5.106) in (5.105) and letting U'(I) = 0 of (5.105) gives
(5.107)
Another way to obtain a minimum point of the objective function U(t) is to approximate
U(t) as a quadratic function
U(t)=pt 2 +qt+r (5.108)
Setting U'(t) = 0 gives a minimum of U(t) as

• q
I=-- (5.109)
2p
To reach a solution of (S.108), we compute the three points {tu,U(ta)}• {t,..U(t,.)} and
{ t.,,U(l,J }, and write
(5.1 JO)
(5.1 J J)
U(I.,) =pt;+ qt.,+ r (5.112)
Combining (5.110), (5.111) and (5.112) gives
(I,. -1.. )U(lu)+ (I .. -tJU(t,,) +(tu -t,.)U(I,.)

p=- (5. J13)
Uu - t,.)(I,. -1.,)(1., -lu)
q=- v; -r;p(lu)+v;-1;µ(1,,)+(r; -1;µ(1 .. )

(5.J 14)
(la -l,.}(l1, -1.,)(I., -la)
Substituting (5.113) and (5.114) in (S.109), we obtain

I°= (1;-1;)U(l 0 )+(1;-1;)U(lb)+(1;-1:)U(lc)

(5.115)
2[(I,, -lc)U(/ )+ (le -1,,)U(lb)+ (10 -lb)U(tc)]
0
Based on the above discussion, a method suggested by Davies, Swann, and Campey [4]
will be described here. The technique does not require a unimodal interval containing a known
minimum in advance, but the unimodality restriction must hold.
(5.116)
l
,<1> = L21• 1a, k=l,2, ... (5.117)
J•I
where p< 1>determines the negative gradient direction,
(5.118)
and o> 0, for example, 1% of x<•>, is a convenient increment. Thus ,<•> is a positive step in the
direction of decreasing U(x). When, for some k,
(5.119)
(5.120)
It should be clear that we now have four uniformly spaced points on the /-axis. They are
,<l-2>, 1<1• 1>, ,<hi> and 1<1>. Note that k ~ 2.
A minimum of the quadratic equation at a, b, and c is located at
(5.121)
Evaluation of U(x 1' 1 +r<t>p 111 ) at /min provides an estimate of a minimum and completes one
cycle of the method. A new cycle with a reduced o can be started at b or /min , whichever
corresponds to a smaller U(x 1' 1 +r<t>p 1' 1).
Now we cite DSCPOW algorithms from Himmelblau [4]
Program P507 : One Dimensional Search using the OSPPOW Method
1. Purpose. This program is used to find the step length by a one-dimensional search using
the dscpow method.
2. Usage. X(N) are the initial variable values.

Fx is the corresponding function value.
S(N) is the search direction vector.
Step is the initial step length.
(See Appendix A402)
Example 5.9 Use the one-dimension search Program P509 to find the minimum of
(5.122)
The initial guess is x101 = [-1.2, 1.sr on the search direction s = [24.4, 12.or with accuracy
0.001, The main program is
Program search
Iter=0
Iobf=0
X(l)=-1.2
X(2)•1.5
S(l)•24.4
S(2)=12.0
Call dscpow(X,Fx,Y,Fy,S,Delx,2,2,0.lE-10,1,Iter,Iex)
Do 2 I=l,2
Write (•,l) I,Y(I)
1 Format (SX,'X(',I1, 1 )a 1 ,D20.10)
2 Continue
Write (*,3) Fy,Iex
3 Format (/,SX,'U(xl,x2)=',G20.10,6X,'Iex=',IS)
End
Subroutine Obf(X,F)
DIMENSION X(2)
F•l00*(X(2)-X(1)*•2)*•2+(1.0-X(1))••2
Write(•,•) 'F=',F
Return
End
Using this program, we obtain

F• 5.1999993
F.. 2.7535692E+07
F• 4.4337668E+07
F• 3.4342463
F• 2.1377030E+06
F• 4.6295078E+02
F• l.9359894E+05
F• 2.6482101E+02
F= 2. H91625E+04
F• 71. 7780457
F• 2.9499165E+03
F• 9.5451880
F• 4.7423242E+02
F• 1.0924842
F= 90.2972488
F• 0.5523993
f .. 19.9089870
F• 0.5088459
F• 5.0360188
Fa 0.5069668
F= 1.6061997
F• 0.5069311
F• 0. 7783967
F= 0.5069436
F• 0.5743477
X (1) = 0.1711576959D+0l
X(2)= 0.2931923140D+0l
U(xl,x2)• 0.5069310218D+00 Iex• 2
5.5.2 Elimination Method
At the start of the kth iteration in the search for a minimum of a unimodal function, suppose
that we have an interval of uncertainty r<•> where, from Fig.5.5,
(5.123)
ma, = u and ,<~>

with ,<k> 0
mm =/. Furthermore" at the two interior points 1<a =a and 1,.• =h. we
11
already have evaluated the objective function. Let U(a) and U(b) be denoted by U u and u,,,
respectively. Note that we take
l<a<b ub' the minimum lies in [a, u] and r<l♦I) =u-a. If ua <Ub. the minimum lies in
[/, b] and r<l+I> =b-1.
u u I◄ rt•> ►I
f.-rhl) ---.f
0 a b u 0 I a b u
Fig. 5.5 Reduction of interval of uncertainty.
There are two well-known and efficient methods: Fibonacci search and Golden Section
search. Let us discuss the Golden Section search to see how these interior points are located.
Whatever the outcome by comparing U0 and U,., we want
r<k+I) = rt - a = b-1 (5.125)
This is achieved by a symmetrical placement of a and b on (/, rt]. We want to minimize r< 1•11
and use one of the points in our new interval again. This leads to
r(l+l) =rt-b=a-1 (5.126)
Combining (5.123) to (5.126), we obtain
(5.127)
To reduce the interval of uncertainty by a constant factor 't at each iteration, we set
(5.128)
From (5.127) and (5.128) we have
(5.129)
the solution of which is -r={l+.Js)/2~1.618034. The division of a line according to (5.127)

and (5.128) is called the Golden Section of the line.
Using this scheme, at the kth iteration, we have

We remark that each iteration except the first involves only one functional evaluation because of
symmetry. Depending on the outcome of the lcth iteration, the appropriate quantities are set for
the ( k + l )th iteration and the process can be repeated. After n such functional evaluations, we
obtain
r<I)n-1
--=t
r<n) (5.132)
For a desired accuracy of er, n should be chosen such that
(5.133)
Program P508: The Golden Section Search
1. Purpose. This program is used to find the step length by a one-dimensional search using the
Golden Section method.
2. Usage.
X(N) are the initial variable values.
Fx is the corresponding f mction value.
Subroutine Golden(X,Fx,Y,Fy,s,oe1x,N,Indic,Tol,Itol,Iter,Iex,w,R,PI
(See Appendix A40ll
Example 5.10 Use the Golden Section search program P508 to find a minimum of
(5.136)
r
The initial guess is x< 0> = [o.o, 0.0 on the search direction s = [1.0, 201 with accuracy 0.001.
The main program is
Program P508
Dimension X(2),Y(2),S(2),Delx(2),R(2),W(2),P(2)
X(l)aO.O
X(2)a0.0
S(ll•l.O
S(2)•2,0
Tol .. 0.00001
Call Golden(X,l.O,Y,Fy,S,Delx, 2,2,Tol,2,0,lex,R,W,P)
Do 10 Ial,2
10 Write(*,12) I,Y(I)
12 Format(5X, 'Xl(',I2, ')•',G20.10)
Write(*,18)"Fy, Iex
18 Format(/,5X, 'U(xl,x2)a',G20.10,6X, 'Iex•",I3)
End
Subroutine Obf(X,F)
DIMENSION X(2)
F•l00*(X(2)-X(l)**2)**2+(1.0-X(l))**2
Write(•,•) 'F=',F
Return
End
Running the program yields the desired results.
F• l.0000000E+02
F.. 9.0400000E+02
F"' 29.3919163
F• 17.9231453
F= 60.6094322
Fa 2.0656323
F• 0.9975007
Fa 0.9975262
F= 0.9975032
Xl ( 1) = 0.2545530442E-02
Xl( 2)a 0.5091060884E-02
U(xl,x2)• 0.9975007176 Iex= 0
References
1. Bandier, J. W. (1973) "Computer-aided circuit optimization," in Modern Filter Theory and
Design, pp. 211-271, by G. C. Ternes and S. K. Mitra (ed.), New York: John Wiley.
2. Bown, G. C. S. and Geiger, G. V. (1971) "Design and optimization of circuits by computer,''
Proc. IEE (London), Vol. 118, no. S, pp. 549-661.
3. Cuthbert, Jr. T. R. (1983), Circuit Design Using Personal Computers, New York: John
Wiley.
4. Himmelblau, D. M. (1972) Applied Nonlinear Programming, New York: McGraw-Hill.
5. Massare, R. E. (1991) Optimization Methods in Electronic Circuit Design, Harlow, Essex,
England: Longman Scientific & Technical.
6. Powell, M. J. D. (1966) ComputerJ., No.7, pp. 155, 1964. See also Numerical Analysis, J.
Walsh (ed.), London·, England: Academic Press.
7. Ternes G. C. and Calahan, D. A. (1967) "Computer-aided network optimization: the state-of-
the art," Proc IEEE, Vol. 55, no. 11, pp. 1832-1863.
Chapter 6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Impedance Transformation
A frequently encountered problem is to design of a lossless two-port network to transform
a terminating impedance into another desired one, as depicted in Fig. 6.1, and is known as
impedance transformation. Three types of transformation may be needed, and they are listed
below:
+ +
Two-port
network
I' 2'
Fig 6.1 The problem of impedance transformation.
(1) A load impedance z2 (s) is transformed exactly to a specified one Zin(s) at a single
frequency s0 = jro 0 • For example, we may wish to conjugate-match the load impedance
to the source impedance z1{s):
(6.1)
(2) A load resistance R2 is to be transformed closely into another R, over a band of

frequencies from ro 0 to ro6 •
(3) A given rational impedance z2 (s) is to be transformed into another Z;n(s), known as
the compatible impedance problem.
In this chapter we only study cases 1 and 2, leaving the third to Chapter 8.
6.1 Exact Transformation at a Given ro 0
Consider the simplest and most useful matching network of Fig. 6.2, often referred to as the
L section because of its shape. Since we only study the transfonnation at a given frequency, the
inductor and capacitor are denoted by their reactances X, {ro 0 ) . It is an inductor if the reactance
is positive, and a capacitor if the reactance is negative. The inverse of X,{ro 0 ) is the susceptance
and is denoted by B,{ro 0 ).
245
246 IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION
J,(joo) jX1(oo) l2(jw)
+ +
Zin(jw)~ J,;(joo) jX2(oo) V2(jw) =:(ioo)

v.(iw)
(a)
(jw)
/ 1
jX2(W) / 2(jw)
+ +
Z.,(jw)~ Jt.(jw) jX1(oo) V2(jw) :z(jW)

Jl.(jw)
(b)
Fig. 6.2 Two-element impedance transforming networks.
To simplify our discussion, we introduce the notion of interface impedance. For a lossless
two-port, if we cut at the node pair cc, the interface impedance is the impedance either looking
into to the source Z P Uro O), or to the load z,,
Uro O) , as shown in Fig. 6.3. If the reactive
elements are adjusted, so that the input impedance Zin(jro 0 ) of N is equal to the conjugate of the
source impedance z1(jro0 ), a maximum power transfer from the source to the load z2 (jro0 ) is
achieved. Under this condition, the matched lossless two-port can be cut at any interface points
and a conjugate match exists. The reflection coefficient magnitude must be zero at every
interface. On the other hand, if there is a mismatch anywhere, the reflection coefficient at every
interface will be nonzero and all will have the same magnitude, because the actual power and
available power are the same everywhere. In the following, we use the concept of interface
impedance to simplify the derivation of the matching relations.
I
r------------------~--------------------
1
I
I
I
I I
: -----. :c
+ 'I
I +
I
I
I
I Z,,(~w)~
V.(joo) I
I
-4-Zp(joo)
I
I
I
le'
Z,,,,(jw) I
I
I N
--------------------r--------------------
Fig. 6.3 The interface impedances at the node pair cc'.
EXACT TRANSFORMATION AT A GIVEN ro0 247
6.1.1 Real Source and Real Load at a Given ro 0
The two elements of an L section can be put together in two different ways as depicted in
Fig. 6.2, where R2 is the load resistance and R1 the source resistance. In Fig. 6.2(a), if we adjust
the reactances X 1(ro 0 ) and X 2 (ro 0 ) so that the input impedance ZinUro0) = R1 , the maximum
available power is transferred from the source to the load. Now we cut the network as shown in
Fig. 6.4. Let Z P LJro 0 ) be the interface impedance at the cut looking back to the source
(6.2)
and Zq(jro 0 ) be the interface impedance looking to the load
Z (. ) 1 (6.3)
q Jroo = G2 + J"B2 ( roo )
where G2 =1/ R2 and Bi{ro0 )=-1/X2 (ro 0 ). Underthcconjugatematchingcondition
(6.4)
we have
(6.5)
(6.6)
I
I
I
I
•c
I
I +
I
I
+
Z,(jro}~
V,(jro} I
I
I
~:Zp(jro}
:c'
I
•
Fig. 6.4 A two-element impedance transfonnation network cut at cc'.
Example 6.1 Design a two-element matching network for a source resistance of 10 Q and
a load resistance of 100 Q. The matching frequency is 3. 75 MHz.
Computing B2 ( ro 0 ) from ( 6.5) and substituting the result in ( 6.6) give

B2 =±0.03S
x, =±30Q
The realizations are presented in Fig. 6.5, where Fig. 6.S(a) possesses a low-pass frequency
response and Fig. 6.S(b) a high-pass response. Notice that a physical solution of (6.S) requires
I/ R, > G2 • If I/ R1 < G2 , we use the configuration Fig. 6.2(b).
JOn 1.273µH
V,(s)
T 1273pF
100n.
(a) A transforming network having low-pass

frequency response.
JOn 1414.7pF
1.4147 µ1-1 100n
(b) A transforming network having high-pass

frequency response.
Fig. 6.5 Two realizations of Example 6.1.
6.1.2 Complex Source and Complex Load at a Given ID0
Consider the two-element impedance transfonning network of Fig. 6.2, and the clement
connected in series with the source is designated by jXiID), one in parallel with load by
jB4 (ID). Fonnulas (6.S) and (6.6) can easily be extended to solve the matching problem between
a complex source z1(jID) and a complex load z2(jID) = 1/y 2(jID) at a given frequency ID 0. Write
(6.8)
'S is the unit of conductance, and IS• In-•.

EXACT TRANSFORMATION AT A GIVEN ro 0 249
if 1/ R1(ro0 ) < G2 (ro0 ), we use the structure of Fig. 6.2(b). The parallel susceptance of Fig. 6.2(a)
is given by
(6.10)
and the series reactance by
(6.11)
Example 6.2 We wish to design a two-element matching network to match a load

composed of a resistor in series with an inductor z2 = 6.0 + jl2.0 n to a source composed of a
resistor in series with a capacitor z1 = 20.0- jl 0.0 n, both measured at the frequency
fo =3.75MHz.
Program P601: Complex Source and Complex Load at a Given ro 0

1. Purpose. This program is used to compute the element values of an L section-matching
network of in Fig. 6.2.
2. Usage.
Input: RI is the real part of the source impedance in ohms.

XI is the imaginary part of the source impedance in ohms.
R2 is the real part of the load impedance in ohms.
X2 is the imaginary part of the load impedance in ohms.
Yield: Solution (1) corresponds to Fig. 6.2(a).

Xs 1 is the series reactance in ohms.
Xpl is the parallel reactance in ohms.
Solution (2) corresponding to Fig. 6.2(b).
Xs2 is the series reactance in ohms.
Xp2 is the parallel reactance in ohms.
Implicit Real(L)
Complex Zl,Yl,Z2,Y2
Write(*,*) 'Input Rl,Xl'
Read (*,*) Rl,Xl
Write(*,*) 'Input R2,X2'
Read(*,*) R2,X2
Write(*,*) 'Input F'
Read(*,*) F
Pi=J.1415926535
IF(Xl>0.0) write(*,*) I Ll= I , Xl/(2.0*Pi*F)
IF(Xl<0.0) write(*,*) 'Cl=' I 1.0/(ABS(X1)*2.0*Pi*F)
IF(X2>0.0) write(*,*) 'L2=', X2/(2.0*Pi*F)
IF(X2<0.0) write(*,*) 'C2=', 1.0/(ABS(X2)*2.0*Pi*F)
Z2=Crnplx(R2,X2)
Y2=1.0/Z2
G2=Real(Y2)
B2=Airnag(Y2)
IF(l.0/Rl.LT.G2) Goto 60
Write(*,*) 'This is Solution (1)'
Write(*,*) 'Xp is parallel with Z2, Xs is series with Zl'
Write(*,8) G2,B2
8 Forrnat(4X, 'G2=',G14.8,6X, 'B2=',Gl4.8)
Bpl=Sqrt(G2*(1.0/Rl-G2))-B2
Bp2=-Sqrt(G2*(1.0/Rl-G2))-B2
Write(*,10) Bpl,Bp2
10 Forrnat(4X, 'Bpl=',G14.8,6X, 'Bp2=',G14.8)
Xpl=-1.0/Bpl
Xp2=-1.0/Bp2
Write(*,12) Xpl,Xp2
12 Forrnat(4X,'Xpl=',Gl4.8,6X,'Xp2=',Gl4.8)
Xsl=Rl/G2*(Bpl+B2)-Xl
Xs2=Rl/G2*(Bp2+B2)-Xl
Write(*,14) Xsl,Xs2
14 Forrnat(4X, 'Xsl=',Gl4.8,6X,'Xs2=',Gl4.8)
Call LC(Xpl,Xp2,Xsl,Xs2,Pi,F)
60 Write(*,*) 'This is Solution (2)'
Write(*,*) 'Xp is parallel with Zl, Xs is series with Z2'
Zl=Crnplx(Rl,Xl)
Yl=l.0/Zl
Gl=Real(Yl)
Bl=Airnag(Yl)
Write(*,68) Gl,B1
68 Forrnat(4X, 'Gl=',Gl4.8,6X, 'B1=',G14.8)
IF(l.0/R2.LT.Gl) Goto 90
Bpl=Sqrt(Gl*(l.0/R2-Gl))-B1
Bp2=-Sqrt(Gl*(l.0/R2-Gl))-B1
Write(*,70) Bpl,Bp2
70 Forrnat(4X, 'Bpl=',Gl4.8,6X, 'Bpl=',Gl4.8)
Xpl=-1.0/Bpl
Xp2=-1. 0/Bp2
Write(*,72) Xpl,Xp2
72 Forrnat(4X, 'Xpl=',Gl4.8,6X,'Xp2=',Gl4.8)
Xsl=R2/Gl*(Bpl+B1)-X2
Xs2=R2/Gl*(Bp2+B1)-X2
Write(*,80) Xsl,Xs2
80 Forrnat(4X, 'Xsl=',G14.8,6X, 'Xs2=',Gl4.8)
Call LC(Xpl,Xp2,Xsl,Xs2,Pi,F)
90 End
Subroutine LC(Xpl,Xp2,Xsl,Xs2,Pi,F)
IF(Xpl>0.0) write(*,*) 'Lpl=', Xpl/(2.0*Pi*F)
IF(Xpl<0.0) write(*,*) 'Cpl=', 1.0/(ABS(Xp1)*2.0*Pi*F)
IF(Xsl>0.0) write(*,*) 'Lsl=', Xsl/(2.0*Pi*F)
IF(Xsl<0.0) write(*,*) 'Csl=', 1.0/(ABS(Xs1)*2.0*Pi*F)
IF(Xp2>0.0) write(*,*) 'Lp2=', Xp2/(2.0*Pi*F)
IF(Xp2<0.0) write(*,*) 'Cp2•', 1. 0/ (ABS (Xp2 l *2. 0*Pi * Fl

IF(Xs2>0.0) write(*,*) 'Ls2-', Xs2/(2.0*Pi*F)
IF(Xs2<0.0) write(*,*) 'Cs2a', l.0/(ABS(Xs2)*2.0*Pi*F)
Return
End

Input Rl,Xl
20.0
-10.0
Input R2,X2
6.0
12.0
Input F
3.75e06
Cl• 4.2441317E-09
L2• 5.0929583E-07
This is Solution (1)
Xp is parallel with Z2, Xs is series with Zl
G2•0.33333335E-01 B2a-.66666670E-01
Bpl•0.90236895E-01 Bp2•0.43096446E-0l
Xpl=-11. 081942 Xp2=-23.203770
Xsl= 24.142134 Xs2a-4.1421342
Cpl• 3.8297725E-09
Lsla l.0246240E-06
Cp2• l.8290699E-09
Cs2= l.0246244E-08
This is Solution (2)

Xp is parallel with Zl, Xs is series with Z2
Gla0.39999999E-0l B1=0.20000000E-01
Bpl•0.51180523E-01 Bpl•-.91180518E-0l
Xpl•-19.538683 Xp2• 10.967255
Xsl=-1. 3229214 Xs2=-22.677078
Cpl• 2.1721687E-09
Csla 3.2081509E-08
Lp2a 4.6546472E-07
Cs2a l.8715514E-09
There are four possible realizations, which are presented in Fig. 6.6, and Fig. 6. 7.
20 n 4.244 nF 1.0246 µH 0.5093 µH

---"""--~--------=
V,(s)
+
l
TJ.829SnF 60
(a) Matching network A.

0+""-----------------------'
40000 1040000 2040000 3040000 4040000 504000(
(a) Matching notwork A. Frequency
I0.246 nF 0.5093 µH
1---
V.(s)
- _ 1_ _ _
T l.8291nF
~
6Q
(b) Matching network B.
0-1-.:;.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _..,.._ _ _ _ _-r
4.0E+04 1.0E+06 2.0E+06 3.0E+06 4.0E+06 5.0E+OE

(b) Matching notwork B. Froquoncy
Fig. 6.6 Realization (a) and (b) of Example 6.2 for 1/R (ro1 0) > G2 (ro 0 ).
20n 0.5093µH
4.2~082nF
V.(s) 2.1722 nF 6n
(c) Matching network C.
•.
C
c:, 0.80 ---------f--------->,c-i

•3'
0
a. 0.60
•
u::,
-----------------4
"":!l
e
0.40 -----,------------4
I-
0.00 ......" - - -.......- -.......- - - - . - - - - - -....

40000 1040000 2040000 3040000 4040000 5040001
(c) Matching network C, Frequency
4.244nF l.8716nF 0.5093µH
Y,(s) 0.465SµH 6n
(d) Matching network D.

o~-----..:::::;..----------'
4.0E+04 1.0E+06 2.0E+06 3.0E+06 4.0E+06 5.0E+OE
(d) Matching network D. Frequency
Fig. 6.7 Realization (c) and (d) of Example 6.2 for 1/ R2 (ro0 ) > G,(ro0 ).
6.1.3 Three-Element Matching Networks
Two three-element matching circuits are shown in Fig. 6.8, where (a) is called as the n-
section and (b) the T-section. Consider the interface impedance at the cut cc' of then-section of
Fig. 6.8(a). Write the interface impedance looking to source as
(6.12)
and the interface impedance to the load as
(6.13)
where g 1 = I/ R1 and g 2 = I/ R2 • In order to obtain a complete matching at ro 0 , let
(6.14)
Substituting (6.12) and (6.13) in (6.14) yields
(6.15)
EXACT TRANSFORMATION AT A GIVEN co0 255
I
R, jX2(ro)I
C
I
I
+ z,(jro)~
I
V,(jro) j81(ro) I JB>(ro) R:
I
..__ Zp(jro)
le'
I
I
jX1(ro) jX>(ro)
V,(jro) j82 (ro) R:
Fig. 6.8 Three-element impedance transfonnation networks.
(6.16)
Since there are three unknowns in two equations, one of the unknowns can be used as a
designing parameter. Suppose that we choose B3 (co 0 ) = co 0C3 as one of such parameter by setting
(6.17)
Then
(6.18)
(6.19)
To obtain a physical solution of (6.18), we require that
Q>~g•-1 (6.20)
K2
This will yield two solutions for a chosen Q.
Example 6.3 Design a three-element matching network for a source resistance of 10 n

and a load resistance of 100 n. The matching frequency is 3.75 MHz.
Using(6.20) we choose Q = 8.0. Substituting Q = 8.0 in (6.17) gives
B3 (ro 0 ) = 0.0lx8.0 = 0.08S (6.21a)
(6.21b)
From (6.18) we have
B1(ro 0 ) = ±0.234521 S (6.22)
showing
C1 = o.234521 9953.3 pF (6.23)

roo
1
or Li= 0.23452lroo 0.18097 µH (6.24)
Substituting (6.21) and (6.22) in (6.19), we obtain
(6.25)
or X 2 (ro 0 ) = 8.699680 n
(6.26)
Two realizations together with their transducer power gains arc presented in Fig 6.9.
0.67548µH
10n
Y,(.r)
+
9953.3pF
l 3395.3pF 100n
Fig. 6.9(a) A three-element matching network realization.

EXACT TRANSFORMATION AT A GIVEN 0>0 257
C
;;
~
•Jr;
0.8 -----------1-----
0
•u
': 0.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
::,
~ 0.4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __,__ _-¼------◄
C
I!
1-
0.2 +----=---ca::aa-....-=::'---------'\--1
0 ------------------------
40000 1040000 2040000 3040000 4040000 504000(
Fr1qu1ncy
Fig. 6.9(b) The frequency response of the matching network of Fig. 6.9(a).
0.36923µH
10n
V,(s)
+
0.l8097µH
l 339S.3 pF 100n
Fig. 6.9(c) Another realization of Example 6.3.
C
;;
~ 0.8
•Jr;
-----------1--t-------1
0
': o.e - f - - - - - - - - - - 1 ' - - - \ - - - - - - 1
•::,u
~ 0.4
C
----------1---------1
I!
1- 0.2 - f - - - - - - - - - r - - - - - - " " c : - t
o"'-----===----..-----,.----,1
40000 1040000 2040000 3040000 4040000 5040001
Frequency
Fig. 6.9(d) The frequency response of the matching network of Fig. 6.9(c).
6.1.4 Uniform Lossless Transmission Lines
The matching network in this section consists of a uniform lossless transmission line of
Fig. 6.10, where the load impedance is given by
(6.27)
The desired input impedance is
(6.28)
...L
Fig. 6.10 A lossless transmission line matching network.
Our task is to determine the characteristic impedance z0 and electrical length pt of a

transmission line. It is known (10] that the ABCD parameters for a uniform dissipate
transmission line are given by
cosh yl z0 sinh yl]

T= [ (6.29)
sinh yl / z0 cosh yl
where the characteristic impedance of the line is defined by
(6.30)
and r0 + jro/0 is the impedance per unit length and g 0 + jroc0 the admittance per unit length of
the line. The propagation constant y can be expressed as
(6.31)
where the attenuation and phasor constants are given by

EXACT TRANSFORMATION AT A GIVEN ro0 259
(6.32)
(6.33)
respectively. The input impedance is
(6.34)
When the transmission line is lossless, a.= 0 and
tanh yl = tanhjpl = j tan Pl (6.35)
(6.36)
(6.37)
Example 6.4 Given Zin =40- jSOQ and z2 = 20+ j30Q, find the transmission line
characteristic impedance and its electrical length.
Program P602: Lossless Transmission Line Matching Network
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the characteristic impedance z0 and the
electrical length of a transmission line, which transforms z2 (jro0 ) to Zin (jro0 ).
2. Usage.
Input: Rl: is the real part of Zin (jro0 ) in ohms.
Xl: is the imaginary part of Zin(jro0 ) in ohms.
R2: is the real part of z2 (jro0 ) in ohms.
X2: is the imaginary part of z2 (jro0 ) in ohms·.
Yield: 20: is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line in ohms.
Theta: is the electrical length of the transmission line in degrees.
Program p602
piaJ.1415926
Write(*,*) 'Input Rl and Xl'
read (*,*) Rl,Xl
Write(*,*) 'Input R2 and X2'
Read (*,*) R2,X2
qa(Rl-R2)/(Rl*X2+Xl*R2)
Z0=Rl*(R2*R2+X2*X2)-R2*(Rl*Rl+Xl*Xl)
Z0=Z0/ (R2-Rl)
Z0=SQRT (Z0)
Theta•l80.0/pi*ATAN(Z0*q)
Write(*,*) 'The result is'
Write(*,10) Z0
10 Format(3X,'Characteristic impedance Z0=',Fl4.8)
Write(*,20) Theta
20 Format(3X,'Electrical length a',Fl4.8,4X, 'degrees')
End
Input Rl and Xl
40.0
-50.0
Input R2 and X2
20.0
30.0
The result is
Characteristic impedance Z0• 38.72983170
Electrical length• 75.52249146 degrees
We obtain
Zo =38.73Q (6.38)
Pl =75.52" (6.39)
6.2 Low-Pass Impedance Transformation Nehvorks
In this section, we study a low-pass network that transforms a load resistance R2 to

Zin(jro) ~ R1 for ro 0 S ro S rob. Explicit fonnulas are obtained to compute the element values of
such a network having the Butterworth or Chebyshev response. For second- and fourth-order
networks, element values and transfonnation frequency band can directly be detennined by the
impedance ratio r. Since the compact analytic expressions of the complex conjugate poles of the
reflection coefficient of these networks are known, fonnulas for the higher order networks are
obtained, thereby reducing their design to simple arithmetic and avoiding the use of design tables
given by Matthaei [6] and Criatal [2].
6.2.1 Introduction
We consider the low-pass impedance transformation networks of Fig. 6.11, where

R1 and R2 are two terminating resistors. Since the ladders are antimetric [4], only the even order
LOW-PASS IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION NETWORKS 261
is studied. The main difference between these and the conventional low-pass filters is that the
latter has equal or nearly equal tenninating resistors at each end. In the fonncr, the tcnninating
resistors may have radically different values, resulting in a sizable attenuation at zero frequency.
In the operating frequency band from 00 0 to rob, the input impedance Zirl(jro) of the ladder
network, when port 22' is tenninated in R2 , is required to be close to R1• The transducer power
gain of a typical low-pass impedance transfonnation network is shown in Fig. 6.12, and is widely
used in high frequency circuits. Using frequency transfonnation to design such a network was
first discussed by Szentinnai [9]. Matthaei gave tables of element values for networks having
the Chebyshev response and Criatal for networks having the Butterworth response. Tables
provide useful means to solve practical problems, but they are of limited significance in general
applications, because interpolations between the specifications and between the element values
are often needed to obtain approximate results. In addition, tables were made by using a
continued-fraction-expansion process, resulting in a gradual loss of accuracy as the expansion
progresses [6]. To overcome these difficulties, explicit fonnulas for the element values of such a
network having a Butterworth or Chebyshev response are obtained. For second- and fourth-order
networks, element values and transfonnation frequency band are directly detennined by the
impedance ratio r.
g2 gz--2 gb,
R,
g, gJ gb<-1 R1
V,(s)
(b) R2 < R1
Fig. 6.11 Low-pass impedance transfonnation networks.

!g 3 0 - t - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - r - - - 1
C
.
ju
C)
~
0.
20-t--------------------1
8:I
'C
:!!
~ 10
0 -l--.l---~:::..=:::::=:s.=,:.:.2=:s:ii=.:.:::.:.:.:=--,,__ ____J
0.00 Wa WO Wb 2.
Normallzod froquoncy
Fig. 6.12 Defining response parameters for a low-pass impedance transformation

network, where the normalized frequency is co 0 =1.
To simplify our discussion, let

.. co
co=- (6.40)
COo
be the normalized frequency variable, where
(6.41)
From (6.40) and (6.41) we obtain

(6.42)
Define the frequency transformation constant as (2,6,9]
(6.43)
and write the impedance ratio as

R
r=-2 (6.44)
R,
Without loss generality, assume r > 1. The case where r < 1 can be solved in dual manner (see
Fig.6.11 (b)).
6.2.2 The Buttenvorth Impedance Transforming Networks
The transducer power gain of a 2mth-order low-pass Butterworth impedance

transformation network is defined by
(6.45)
where mis an integer. From Fig. 6.11, the de gain of the network is given by
G(O) = 4r (6.46)
(1 +r) 2
Substituting ro = 0 in (6.45) and comparing the resulting function with (6.46) give
[
A= (r-1)2
4r ]2~ (6.47)
Using A found from (6.47) and solving (6.42) and (6.43) give the upper 3-dB frequency
(6.48)
and the lower 3-dB frequency

roa = ✓1-A (6.49)
if AS I. When A> 1, the loss at de is less than 3-dB, and &0 does not exist.
The 2nd-Order Networks

There are two elements in a 2nd-order network. The first is a series inductance g 1 and the
second a shunt capacitance g 2 • The values are found to be
(6.50)
and g 2 = g1/r, where the impedance is normalized to R1 and the frequency to ro 0 •
The 4th-Order Networks

As shown in Fig. 6.11, the four normalized element values are found to be
(6.51)
(6.52)
(6.53)

When n ~ 6, fonnulas become more complicated. To simplify the expressions, define
(6.54)
(6.55)
where
i=l,2,···,m (6.56)
Using (6.54)-(6.56) with m = 3 gives g, in tenns of b, defined in Section 6.2.4:
(6.57a)
(6.57b)
(6.57c)

Using (6.54)-(6.56) with m = 4 gives
(6.58a)
(6.58b)
g, = g4r, g6 = g3/r, g1 = g2 r, g8 = g 1/r and g9 = r, where the c coefficients are defined in

Section 6.2.4.

Using (6.54)-(6.56) with m = 5 gives
(6.59a)
(6.59b)
(6.59c)
(6.59d)
(6.59e}
and the remaindering element values are given by g6 = g5 /r, g1 = g4r, g8 = g3/r, g9 = g2r,
g 10 = g 1/r, and g 11 = r, where the d coefficients are defined in Section 6.2.4.
6.2.3 The Chebyshev Impedance Transformation Networks
The transducer power gain of a 2mth-order low-pass impedance transformation network

having the Chebyshev response is defined by
(6.60)
Gc(ro) = ( (6.61)
1+&2cosh 2
2
mcosh_,1& ; 11)
for ro < &0 and & > rob, where m is a positive integer, &2 S 1 and the transformation constant A
is defined in (6.47). When the value of r, the frequencies ro 0 and ro" and the maximally
allowable ripple am.,. in dB arc given, we can determine the number 2m of reactive elements
required to meet these specifications. Substituting m= 0 in (6.61) and comparing the resulting
function with (6.46) give
cosh-• r-1
2.Jr(l 0°· 10-• -1)
/11 ~ 2 2 (6.62)
-1 roa + rob
cosh 2 2
rob -roa
For example, suppose that a designer wishes to design an impedance transformation network to
give an impedance radio r = 3 over the frequency band from 500 MHz to 1000 MHz with 0.10-
dB or smaller attenuation ripple in the operating band. Substituting these in (6.62) shows
/11~ 1.826 (6.63)
Then we choose m = 2. Substituting m = 2 in (6.62) with the equality sign, the ma.ximally
allowable ripple is found to be 0.0692 dB. On the other hand, keeping the same r and the same
maximally allowable ripple 0.10-dB, we replace m = 2 in (6.62) and obtain
(6.64)
showing that the operating band is either from 463.236 MHz to I 000 MHz or from 500 MHz to
1079.363 MHz.
When m, rand & are given, we can compute
(6.65)
from (6.62) and obtain the matching frequency band from
(6.66)
to
(6.67)
The 2nd-Order Networks

There arc two elements in the networks. The first is a series inductance g 1 and the second a
shunt capacitance g 2 •
(6.68)
The 4th-Order Network

The four normalized element values are given by
(6.69)
(6.70)
(6.71)

Define
(6.72)
(6.73)
(2k-1)1t
.,,/j -- ___2__,;._ J k = 1,2,· · ·,m (6.74)
m
1 "nh•'
a=-s1 1 (6.75)
m ✓ 1oo.1a_, -1
Using (6.72}-(6.75) with m = 3 yields
(6.76a)
(6.76b)
(6.76c)

Using (6.72)-{6.75) with m = 4 gives
(6.77a)
(6.77b)
(6.77c)
(6.77d)
The ]Otiz-Order Networks

Using (6.72)-{6.75) with m = 5 gives
(6.78a)
(6.78b)
(6.78c)
(6.78d)
6.2.3 Derivation of the Formulas
We only derive the formulas for the element values of the Chebyshev network. The
fonnulas for the Butterworth network can be obtained in a similar manner. The key to their
derivations is to find the poles of the reflection coefficient. Write the transducer power gain of a
conventional low-pass Chebyshev response as
(6.79)
where ro is the frequency variable defining the prototype low-pass filter and C.,(ro) is the mth-
order Chebyshev polynomial. Appealing to the theory of analytic continuation by replacing
ro = -JS in (6.79) and applying the para-unitary property of the scattering matrix of a lossless
two-port network, the input reflection coefficient becomes
(6.80)
The poles of p(s)p(-s) are fo'und to be (4.52)
St= crk + fro1: =-sinhasiny" + jcoshacosy" (6.81)
where
(6.82)
I 'nh"'
a=-SI 1 (6.83)
m .J100.1a.,., -1
The frequency transfonnation relating (6.60), (6.61) and (6.79) are given [2,6,9]
~ .s2 +l (6.84)
s =-1--
A
where s is the complex frequency of impedance transfonnation networks. Express the reflection
coefficient poles of the impedance transformation network as
(6.85)
✓-Acosh a cosr1: -1 + ✓(Acosh a cos Y1: + 1) 2 +(Asinh a sin Y1: ) 2

cr1:=± .fi. (6.86)
-Asinh a sin
y 1:
(l)k=------ (6.87)
2crk
Combining the LHS complex conjugate poles s, and s; gives
(6.88)
where P; and q1 are given in (6.72)-(6.75). The reflection coefficient is found to be
cm(s ;1)
2
p(s) = Am ·-m----'----"--- (6.89)

[I (s2 + PiS+qJ
,.,
where the numerator is a mth-order Chebyshcv polynomial in {s 2 + 1)/A. The input impedance
of the network becomes
Z. (s) = l+p(s) (6.90)

'" 1-p{s)
After long divisions, we obtain the formula for the element values given in Section 6.2.2.
6.2.4 Denominator Polynomial of p(s)
In this section, we determine the a', b', c' and d' coefficients quoted in Section 6.2.2, from
which the element values for the higher order matching networks are calculated. Assume that we
have m pairs of the complex conjugate poles of p(s) for a 2mth-order network. Obviously, the
denominator polynomials of (6.89) can be expressed as
T2m(s) =fJ(s 2 + p,s+q,) (6.91)

I ·I
where p, and q, of the Butterworth network are given in (6.54}-{6.56), and of the Chebyshev
network given in (6.72}-{6.75). For 2m = 4, we have
(6.92)
Expanding the right-hand side of (6.91) and comparing to (6.92) gives
al= Pi+ Pl
al= qi +ql + P1Pl (6.93)
a1 = P1ql + plq1
ao =q1ql
For the 6th-order denominator polynomial
(6.94)
we have three pairs of complex conjugate poles. Substituting the first two pairs in (6.93)
generates the a coefficients. Using these and the third pair of poles, we obtain
b, =a3 + PJ
b4 =al +a3p3 +q3
b3 =a1 +alPJ +a3q3 (6.95)
bl= ao +a,p3 +alqJ
b, = aoPJ +a,qJ
ho =aoqJ
The 8th-order polynomial is given by
(6.96)
Likewise, we have
c1 =b5 + p 4
c6 =h4 +b,p4 +q4
c5 =b3+b4p 4 +b5q4
C4 =bl +b3p4 +b4q4 (6.97)
C3 =b1 +blp4 +b3q4
cl =b0 +b1p 4 +blq4

c1=b0 p 4+b,q4
Co =boq4
The 10th-order polynomial is
where
d9 =c, + Ps
da =C6 +C1Ps +qs
d, =cs +c6ps +c1qs
d6 =c• +CsPs +c6qs
ds =cl +c4ps +csqs
(6.99)
d4 =C2 +C3Ps +C4Qs
d3 = C1 +C2Ps +C3Qs
d2 =co +C1Ps +c2qs
di =CoPs +c,qs
do= CoQs
Example 6.5 We wish to design a 4th-order Butterworth impedance matching network

with impedance ratio r = 7.
Substituting r = 7 in (6.53) gives
k = 0.9258201 (6.100)
and using (6.100) to (6.51) and (6.52), we obtain
Ki= 1.4196760
K2 = 0.6521350
(6.101)
g3 = 4.5649450
g4= 0.2028108
Substituting r = 7 in (6.47), we obtain the frequency transformation constant
A= 0.9391044 (6.102)
1.4197 H 4.5650H
IQ
Jl,(s)
+
T 0.65214 F T0.20281 F
7Q

IXI
"0
.5
Ill
16 4 - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - I
Ill
.s
0 -+--ir-"""'P_ ___,.,:;;-_ _ _ _,___.

0.02 0.32 0.62 0.92 1.22 1.52 1.82 2.12 2.42
Normalized Frequency
Fig. 6.14 Frequency response for Example 6.4.
Using (6.102) in (6.48) and (6.49), the lower and upper frequency edges are found to be
00 = 0.2467703
0
(6.103)
C01, = 1.3925170
A realization and its frequency response are presented in Figs. 6.13 and 6.14.
Example 6.5 Design a Chebyshev impedance transformation network. The impedance

transformation ratio is required to be r = 12, and the maximum allowable ripple is am"" ::;; 0.1 dB
in the operation frequency band from 500 MHz to 1000 MHz.
Substituting the above specifications in (6.62) gives
m'?:.2.76 (6.104)
We choose m = 3. From (6.65) we obtain the frequency transformation constant and lower and
upper frequency edges as
A=0.642643
ro 0 = 472.6 MHz (6.105)
ro 6 = 1013.2 MHz
According to (6.72)-(6.75), we compute the conjugate complex poles and write them in the form
of(6.91):
p 1 = 0.5644611, q, = 0.3841798
p 2 = 0.5969584, q2 = 1.178180 (6.106)
p3 = 0.2329048, q3 = 1.802251
Substituting (6.106) in (6.91}-{6.93) in conjunction with (6.76), we obtain the normalized

element values as
g, = 1.434387, g2 = 0.679409
g3 = 4.096315, g4 = 0.341360 (6.107)
g5 = 8.152911, g6 = 0.119532
A realization together with its transducer power gain is presented in Figs 6.15 and 6.16.
1.4344 H 4.0963H 8.1529 H

1n
V,(s) 0.6794 FT0.3414 F T0.1195 F 12n

T
- , _ _ _ _ _ 1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0 -+---------~,---..~----,.---,----,-..1
0.02 0.32 0.62 0.92 1.22 1.52 1.82 2.12 2.42
Nonnallzod Froquoncy
Fig. 6.16 Frequency response of Example 6.6.

COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN OF LOW-PASS IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMATION NETWORKS 275
6.3 Computer-Aided Design of Low-Pass Impedance Transformation

Networks
Using the analytic expressions of the poles of the reflection coefficients for the Butterworth
and Chebyshev responses, in the following we present computer programs for the design of a
low-pass impedance transformation network, thereby avoiding the use of design tables.
6.3.1 The Buttenvorth Impedance Transformation Networks
Appealing to the theory of analytic continuation by replacing & = - js in (6.45), we obtain

the transducer power gain of the low-pass Butterworth impedance transformation network as
(6.108)
Applying the para-unitary property of the scattering matrix of a lossless two-port network, we
have
(6.109)
which can be factored as

(s2 +tr
p(s)=-,,,----- (6.110)
IJ(s2 + p 1s+q1 )
,.,
where p 1 and q1 are given by (6.54) to (6.56). From (6.110) the input impedance and the
element values of the network can be computed by following program.
Program P603: Butterworth Low-Pass Impedance Transforming Network
1. Purpose. This program is used to design a low-pass Butterworth impedance transformation

network.
2. Usage.
Input : M is the integer m = N/2, where N is the order of impedance transformation

network.
R is the impedance transformation ratio.
Yields: Wa is lower 3-dB edge frequency.

Wb is upper 3-dB edge frequency.
G(O is the element values of the Butterworth impedance transformation
network.
Program p603
Dimension Gamma(l0),P(l0),Q(l0)
Dimension S(50),E(50),T(50),U(3),C(50),D(50)
Double Precision Gamma,P,Q,Pi,R
Double Precision A,T,U,C,D,S,E
Pi•3,141592653589793D0
Write(•,•) 'Please input Mand R'
Read (*,*) M,R
If(M•=l) goto 120
A=4.0*R/(R-l.0)**2
A•DEXP(DLOG(A)/(2*M))
Write(*,*) 'A•',A
IF(A.GT.1.0) Goto 6
Wa•Sqrt(l.0-A)
Write(*,*) 'Wa•',Wa
Goto 8
6 Write(*,*) 'Wa does not exist'
8 Wb•Sqrt(l.0+A)
Write(*,*) 'Wb•',Wb
Do 10 I•l,M
Gamma(I)•(2*I-l)*Pi/(2*M)
Q(I)=DSqrt(l.0-2.0*A*DCos(Gamma(I))+A*A)
10 P(I)•DSqrt(2.0*(A*DCos(Gamma(I))-l.0+Q(I)))
T(l)=Q(l)
T(2)•P(l)
T(3)-=l.0
IF(M.EQ.l) Goto 52
Do 40 Item=2,M
U(l)•Q(Item)
U(2)•P (Item)
U(3)al.0
Call mul(U,3,T,50,S,50,Item)
Do 30 Ial,50
30 T(I)•S(I)
40 Continue
Do 48 I•l,2*(M+l)
48 D(I)•0.0
52 Call Coeff(M,C)
Do 60 I•l,M+l
60 D(2*I-l)•C(I)
Do 70 I•l, 2*M+l
70 T(Il•T(I)+D(I)
Call Expand(2*M+l,T,E,50)
Do 100 I•l,2*M
100 Write(*,110) I,E(I)
110 Format(2X, 'g(',I2, 'l""',Fl6.10)
goto 133
120 e(l)•Sqrt(r-1)
e(2)•e(l)/r
Write(*,122) e(l),e(2)
122 Format(3X, 'g(l)•',Fl4.8,6X, 'g(2l•',Fl4.8)
133 End
SUBROUTINE MUL(P,M,Q,N,S,L,Item)
Dimension P(Ml,Q(N),S(N)
Double Precision P,Q,S
DO 10 I•l, L
10 S(I)=0.0
DO 50 I•l,M
DO 50 J=l,Item*2-l
K•I+J-1
S(K)aS(K)+P(I)*Q(J)
50 CONTINUE
RETURN
END
Subroutine Expand(N,S,Q,Nl)
Dimension A(50),Q(Nl),S(Nl)
Double Precision A,Q,S
Do 100 I=l,N
100 A(I)=S(N+l-I)
K.. N+l
A(K)=0.0
K•l
4 Q(K)=AIK)/A(K+l)
I•K+2
IF(I-N) 7,7,8
7 Do 6 LaI,N,2
6 A(L)•A(L)-Q(K)*A(L+l)
K=K+l
Goto 4
8 Return
End
Subroutine Coeff(M,C) (See Section 6.3.3)
Example 6.7 We wish to design a 16th-order low-pass Butterworth impedance

transformation network. The impedance transformation ratio is r = 1 . The frequency
transformation constant, normalized lower and upper frequency edges and element values are
found by Program P603 as follows:
Please input Mand R
A• 9.844155622050046E-001
Wa= 1.248376E-01
Wb= 1.408693
g( l)a .3710687748
g( 2)• .8065811585
g( 3)= 1.1733641676
g( 4)= 1.0758401564
g( 5)= 1.6794826919
g( 6)- .9250831543
g( 7)= 2.5735934841
g( 8)= .6128402719
g( 9)= 4.2898819046
g(l0)• .3676562128
g(ll)• 6.4755822066
g(12)= .2399261227
g(l3)= 7.5308857725
g(14)- .1676238327
g(15)• 5.6460942246
g(16)• .0530094202
6.3.2 The Chebyshev Impedance Transformation Networks
The reflection coefficient of a low-pass Chebyshev impedance transformation networks is

given by
(6.111)
for m odd, and
(6.112)
for m even, where T, are the coefficients of an mth-ordcr Chcbyshcv polynomial defined in
(4.38) and can be found by Program P404, and p, and q, are given by (6.72)-(6.75). The
element values arc determined by following program.
Program P604: Chebyshev Low-Pass Impedance Transformation Network
1. Purpose. This program is used to design a low-pass Chebyshev impedance transformation

network.
2. Usage.
Input : M is the integer m = N/2, where N is the order of a Chebyshcv impedance

transformation network.
R is the impedance transformation ratio.
Amax is the maximally allowable ripple al?W( in the pass-band.
Yields: Wa is the lower 3-dB edge frequency of the pass-band.

Wb is the upper 3-dB edge frequency of the pass-band.
G(I) is the element values of a Chebyshev impedance transformation
network.
Program p604
Dimension Gamma(lO),P(lO),Q(lO)
Dimension S(SO),E(SO),T(SO),U(3),C(SO),D(50)
Dimension Sn(SO),En(SO),Tn(SO),Un(2),Pn(SO)
Double Precision Gamma,P,Q,S,E,T,U,C,D
Double Precision Sn,En,Tn,Un,Pn,Pi,A,Ae
Pi•3.141592653589793DO
Write(*,*) 'Input the order M, match ratio rand ripple'
Read (*,*) M,R,Alpha
A=lO**(O.l*alpha)-1.0
A•(R-1)/2.0/DSqrt(R•A)
A•DLOG(A+DSqrt(A*A-1.0))
A=l.0/DCosh(A/M)
Write(*,*) 'A•' ,A
Wa=Sqrt(l.0-A)
Wb•Sqrt(l.0+A)
Write(•,•) 'Wa=',Wa, 'Wb=',Wb
Ae•l0••(0.l•alpha)-1.0
Ae~l.0/DSqrt(Ae)
Ae•DLOG(Ae+DSqrt(Ae•Ae+l.0))/M
Do 10 I=l,M
Gamma(I)=(2*I-l)*Pi/(2*M)
Q(I) .. (DCosh (Ae) *DCos (Gamma (I) l l **2+ (DSinh (Ae) *DSin (Gamma ( I) l l **.2
Q(I)=A*A*Q(I)-2*A*DCosh(Ae)*DCos(Gamma(I))+l.0
Q(I)=DSqrt(Q(I))
10 P(I)aDSqrt(2.0*(A*DCosh(Ae)*DCos(Gamrna(I))-1.0+Q(I))l
T ( 1) =Q ( 1)
T(2)•P(l)
T(3)al.0
IF(M.EQ.l) Goto 52
Do 40 Itema2,M
U(l)=Q(Item)
U(2)=P(Item)
U(3)al.0
Call mul(U,3,T,50,S,50,Item)
Do 30 I•l,50
30 T(I)=S(I)
40 Continue
Do 50 I--l,2*M+l
50 T(I)•S(I)
52 Do 300 I•l,M
300 Pn(I)=Cos(Gamma(I))
Tn(l)=Pn(l)
Tn (2) •l. 0
Tn(3)=0.0
Do 310 Item=2,M
Un ( 1) •Pn (I tern)
Un(2)•1.0
Call mul(Un,2,Tn,50,Sn,50,Item)
Do 315 I--1,50
315 Tn(I)=Sn(I)
310 Continue
Do 330 I=l,50
C(I)a0.0
330 En(I)=0.0
Do 350 MI=M,0,-2
Call Coeff(MI,C)
Do 360 K=l,MI+l
360 En(K)=En(K)+Tn(MI+l)*C(K)*A**(M-MI)
350 Continue
Do 370 I--1,50
370 D(I)--0.0
Do 380 I=l,M+l
380 D(2*I-l)=En(I)
Do 390 I•l,2*M+l
390 T(I)•T(I)+D(I)
Call Expand(2*M+l,T,E,50)
Do 100 I=l, 2*M
100 Write(*,110) I,E(I)
110 Format(2X,'g(',I2,')•",F16.10)
End
SUBROUTINE MUL(P,M,Q,N,S,L,Item) (See Program P603)
Subroutine Coeff(M,C) (See Section 6.3.3)
Subroutine Expand(N,S,Q,Nl) (See Program P603)
Example 6.8 We wish to design a 16th-order Chebyshev impedance transfonnation

network. The impedance transformation ratio is r = 1, and the maximum allowable ripple in
pass-band is arrwc = 0.1 dB. To compute the nonnalized lower and upper frequency edges and
element values, we use Program P604 and obtain
Input the order M, match ratio rand ripple
A• 9.458589564708108E-001
Waa 2.326823E-0l
Wba 1.394940
g( 1)- .9886455382
g( 2)- .9311773008
g( 3)• 1.9288642220
g( 4)• .8740987502
g( 5)- 2.4454373627
g( 6)a .7175540105
g( 7)= 3.1068197635
g( 8)= .5673929397
g( 9)= 3.9717505782
g(l0)= .4438313948
g(ll)= 5.0228780734
g(12)= .3493481947
g(13)= 6.1186912518
g(14)= .2755520317
g(15)• 6.5182411060
g(16)= .1412350769
6.3.3 Subroutines
Programs P603 and P604 need the following subroutines:
Product oftwo polynomials-.
Given
(6.113)
(6.114)
we wish to compute the product
(6.115)
a subroutine of which is given in Appendix A203.
The coefficients of (s + It
Given
(s+It =C~sn +C!sn•I + .. •+c;-1s+c: (6.116)
The coefficients C~, C!, .. •, c;- 1, and c; are computed by subroutine Coeff{M,C), where, M is
the order of (6.116).
Subroutine Coeff(M,C)
Dimension C (SO)
Double Precision C
CN•l
Do 200 I•l,M
200 CN•CN*I
Do 300 K•l,M+l
CK•l
Do 220 I•l,K-1
220 CK•CK*I
CNK•l
Do 230 I•l,M-K+l
230 CNK•CNK*I
300 C(K)•CN/CK/CNK
Return
End
Determination ofthe element values ofa ladder network by a continuedfraction expansion
(6.117)
The coefficients g1 are computed by the subroutine given in Appendix A301.

6.4 Short-Step Chebyshev Impedance Transformers
In Sections 6.2 and 6.3, we presented the design procedures for the Butterworth and
Chebyshev lumped-element low-pass impedance transformers. It was noted by Matthaei [7] that
these techniques could also be used for the design of semi-lumped clement microwave filters.
The result is comparable to that of the quarter-wave transformer, but the network size is smaller.
In the following, we present analytic formulas for the design of a semi-lumped-clement

impedance transformer composed of short sections of transmission line. Figure 6.17 shows a six-
section semi-lumped-clement coaxial transformer. It consists of a cascade of line sections having
the same effective length / with various characteristic impedances. Such a transformer will give a
good match between the line impedance z0 and z7 over a band as indicated by Fig. 6.18.
~//////////////////#////////7////////////////////////////////?i
I I
Fig. 6.17 A coaxial short-step impedance transformer designed to match between lines of
characteristic impedances z 0 and z7 • The impedances of the all-internal sections arc
of the same effective length I.
The length / of the line sections in Fig. 6.17 is considerably less than ')..m / 4, where ')..,,, is the
wavelength at the mid-band frequency. Observe that at the mid-band frequency of the lowest
pass-band, the electrical length 0,,, of the line sections is considerably less than rc/2. Unlike the
conventional quarter-wave transformers, this type of impedance transformer has the maximum
attenuation when the line sections are of quarter-wavelength long or 0 =rc/2 . The attenuation
characteristic shown in Fig. 6.18 is periodic and has a maximum attenuation of a 01 • This differs
from the lumped-element case discussed in Sections 6.2.2 and 6.2.3, where the attenuation
characteristic is not periodic and attenuation approaches infinity at high frequencies.
6.4.1 Response Parameters
We first define several parameters for the response characteristic of Fig. 6.18. Suppose that
we arc required to match two terminating resistances z0 and zn+i in the frequency band from
ro 0 to ro 6 • The maximum allowable ripple is ama:c dB. The electrical length
SHORT-STEP CHEBYSHEV IMPEDANCE TRANSFORMERS 283
a(8)indB
8 = 80+8,
• 2
I
I
1t
o 0., 00 0, - n
Fig. 6.18 The response cnaracteristic oi t typical short-step transfonner,
where the parameter 0 is the electrical length.
0 = tan·• ro (6.118)
is used as a frequency variable. The center frequency of the primary pass-band is defined by
(6.119)
where 80 = tanro 0 and 06 = tanro 6 , A., is the wavelength at the mid-band frequency, and/ is
the practical length of each individual line section of the short-step transfonner. Write the
fractional bandwidth of the pass-band as
0b -0 o
W= (6.120)
0.,
The transducer power gain of the short-step Chebyshev impedance t:ransfonners is defined by
G(ro)=---,---1-----e-- (6.121)
1
+& 2 cos2
2
(N (A
cos· 1 002 -ro~))
ro 2 + 1
(6.122)
for ro < ro a or ro > ro 6 , where

A= l+tan 2 06 (6.123)
tan 2 ab - tan 2 So
roo =
tan 2 ab 1+ tan 2ea ea
+ tan 2 l + tan 2 a,. (6.124)
2 + tan 2 8a + tan 2 0b
The de gain can be computed from Fig. 6.17
G(O) = 4r (6.125)
(r + 1) 2
where r is the ratio of the terminating line impedance zn,i to the input line impedance z0 •
Normalizing the line impedance so that z0 = 1, the peak attenuation can be computed by the
formula
(6.126)
where
• )Ije>-t<O = r(z
z. (J(J)
ID (
z •••z
I 3 n/2-1
)~
)4 ' 1112 even (6.127)
Z2Z,1 •••Zn/2
n/2 odd (6.128)
and z, is the characteristic impedance of line section i. They are determined as follows:
When the values of r, the frequencies roa and ro6 and the maximally allowable ripple a.m:u
in dB are given, substituting ro = 0 in (6.122) and comparing the resulting function with (6.125)
give the order N of the short-step sections required in the circuit.
(6.129)
Example 6.9 We wish to design a coaxial short-step impedance transformer, where

r = 2.0, the fractional bandwidth of the pass-band w = 1.0, and the maximum allowable ripple
allWl ~ 0.1 dB. We first detennine the order of transfonnation network using the following
program
Program P605: Determine the Order of a Coaxial Short-Step Chebyshev

Impedance Transformation Network
1. Purpose. This program is used to determine the order of a short-step Chebyshev impedance
transfonner.
2. Usage.
Input: r is the impedance transfonnation ratio.

w is the fractional bandwidth of the pass-band.
Amax is the allowable maximum ripple anw: in the pass-band in dB.
Yield: Wa is the lower edge frequency of pass-band.

Wb is the upper edge frequency of pass-band.
N the order of impedance transfonnation network.
Storage. The output is stored in 'File 601.dat'.

Program p605
! This program is to determine the order of a transmission
! impedance matching network
Implicit Double Precision (Q,W)
Double Precision X,Y,PI,R,alpha,A,Qa,Qb,Qm
Double Precision GO,E,PX,Aa,Gamma
Dimension X(20),Y(20)
PI=3,141592654D00
Write (*,*) 'Input r, W, alpha'
Read(*,*) r,W,alpha
Write(*,*) 'length=Lambda/?'
Read(*,*) H
Qm=2*Pi/H
Qa•Qm* ( 1, 0-W/2, 0)
QbaQm* (l.0+W/2.0)
Wa=Dtan(Qa)
Wb•Dtan(Qb)
WOcWb*Wb*(l+Wa*Wa)+Wa*Wa*(l+Wb*Wb)
WQaDSQRT(W0/(2,0+Wa*Wa+Wb*Wb))
Write(*,*) 'Wax=',Wa
Write(*,*) 'Wba',Wb
Write(*,*) 'WO•',WO
A•(l.O+Wb*Wb)/(Wb*Wb-WO*WO)
Write(*,*) 'transfoming factor A•',A
G0•4*r/(l.O+r)**2
Write(*,*) 'de gain GO•',GO
GO•DSQRT(l.0/G0-1.0)
E•DSQRT(lO.O**(O.l*alpha)-1.0)
Write(*,*) 'E•',E
PX•(G0/E)
PX•DLOG(PX+DSQRT(PX*PX-1.0))
QY=DLOG(A*W0*W0+DSQRT(ABS((A*W0*W0)**2-l.0)))
Or-=INT(PX/QY)+l
N•2*Or
Write(*,*) 'N•",N
E=G0/DCOSH(N/2*QY)
Write(*,*) 'alpha•',l0*LOGl0(l+E*E), 'dB'
Aa•l.0/(N/2)*DLOG(l.0/E+DSQRT((l.0/E)**2+1.0))
Open (Unit=3,File='F601.dat',Status•'Old',Access='Sequential')
Write(3,*) N,r,alpha
Write(3,*) Wa,Wb,W0
Write(3,*) A, E, Aa
M=N/2
Do 70 k=l, M*2
Gamma•(2*k-l)*PI/(2*M)
X(K)•-DSINH(Aa)*DSIN(Gamma)
Y(k)• DCOSH(Aa)*DCOS(Gamma)
Write(3,78) X(k),Y(k)
78 Format(3X,D20.12,6X,D20.12)
70 Continue
Close(3)
End

Input r, w, alpha
2.0
1.0
0.1
length=Lambda/?
16
Wa= 0.1989123674063103
Wb= 0.6681786380305519
WO= 0.4579468940998814
transfoming factor A= 6.1097316907364920
de gain GO• 0.8888888888888888
E• 0.1526204201011717
N= 6
alpha• 2.5911676341818960E-02 dB
This shows that the order of the required impedance transformation network is n = 6. The
matching frequencies are from ro0 =0.198912 to rob= 0.668179, ro0 =0.457947, the de gain is
G(0) =0.888888, and the ripple in the pass-band is cillllX =0.0259117 dB.
6.4.2 The Transformation Nehvork
Write the transducer power gain of the corresponding conventional Chebyshev low-pass
network as
G(ro)=-----,-1----.- (6.130)
1+s2 cosh'(mcosh-1 : , )
where ro is the sinusoidal frequency variable for the conventional low-pass filter, and roP is the
cutoff frequency. When m and s are determined, a.m"
(S a.m••) is obtained by the solution of
(6.129) with equality sign. Finally, the pole and zero locations are found to be
~ . (2k-1)1t
z0, = J cos--
2m-- (6.131a)
~ 'nh . (2k-1)1t
asm--
. h (2k-1)1t (6.13 lb)
p 1 = -s1 2 m--+ Jcos acos----
2m--
where k = 1,2, ... ,2m. In Example 6.9, we use program P605 to calculate the zeros and poles
and the results are stored in File 601.dat as follows:
z01 ,z06 = 0.8660250

Zo2 •Zo5 =0.0 (6.132a)
z03 ,z<M = -0.8660250
'ft,= -0.655097313661O+00 + i 0.1421395344900+01
p2 = -0.1310194621180+01
'fi3 = -0.655097313201O+00 - i 0.1427395345240+01
(6.132b)
p 4 = 0.6550973141320+00 - j 0.142739534457D+0l
p 5 = 0.1310194627180+01
p 6 = 0.6550973127360+00 + j 0.1427395345580+01
We remark that the zeros and poles are not restricted to the LHS, because we need all of
them. Next we apply the frequency transformation to determine the reflection coefficient of the
short-step transformer and input impedance.
(6.133a)
where co is the frequency variable for the short-step Chebyshev impedance transformer, the
transformation coefficient A is defined by (6.123), and co0 by (6.124). To extend the mapping of
(6.133a) from the jco-axis to the entire complex frequency plane, we replace fil, by sand jco
by s and obtain
~
S - -~ PA(s2
- JOO -S--,,2+ro~)
___}_ (6.133b)
ro ±ro
Thus, the point ro = 0 maps to the points = 0 t. The multiple poles at infinity in the -plane s
map to the multiple poles at s = ±l. The mapping is accomplished by program P606. The results
are stored in file 'F602.dat', from which we can find the poles and zeros of the reflection
coefficient of the short-step impedance transformer.
Program P606: Frequency Mapping
1. Purpose. This program is used to determine the pole and zero locations of the reflection
coefficient of a Chebyshev short-step impedance transformer by frequency
mapping of(6.134).
2. Usage.
Input: Input is given by file 'F60 I .dat', from which the following data are available:
r is the ratio of the impedance transformation.
W is the fractional bandwidth of the pass-band.
Amax is the maximum allowable ripple in the pass-band in dB.
Wa is the lower edge frequency of the pass-band.
\Vb is the upper edge frequency of the pass-band.
N is the order of the transformer.
X(I) are the real parts of the poles of the reflection coefficient of a
conventional low-pass filter given by (6.132).
Y(I) are the imaginary parts of the poles of the reflection coefficient of a
conventional low-pass filter given by (6.132).
Yield: C(I): are the poles of the reflection coefficient of the transformation network.
D(I): are the zeros of the reflection coefficient of the transformation network.
Storage: The output is stored in file F602.dat.

Program p606
Double Precision PI,R,Wa,Wb,W0,alpha,A,X,Y,F
Double Precision E,Aa
Complex (kinda2) C(20),D(20),U,V
Dimension X(20),Y(20),F(20)
Pim3,1415926535DO
Open (Unit=3, File='F601.dat', Status='Old',Accessa'Sequential')

Read(3,*) N,r,Alpha
Read(3,*) Wa,Wb,W0
Read(3,*) A,E,Aa
Do 13 I•l,N/2
Read(3,*) X(I),Y(I)
13 Continue
Close(3)
t Note thnt CJ> 0 = nrctnn 80 is not the same ns CJ>. =arctnn 8., where 8., =(8 0 + O, )/2 =2n/ /">.. • •
Do 17 I•l,N/2
C(I)•CMPLX(X(I),Y(I),kinda2)
Write(*,*) •c.. • ,C(I)
17 Continue
Do 20 I•l,N/2
F(I)•COS(PI/N*(2*I-1))
D(I)•CMPLX(0.0D0,F(I))
20 Continue
Write(*,22) W0,A
22 Format(lX,'W0=',F20.10,6X,'A=',F20.10)
U•Cmplx(0.0D0,W0*W0*A,kind•2)
V•Cmplx(0.0D0,A,kind•2)
Open (Unit .. 3, Filea'F602.dat',Status•'Old',Accessa'Sequential')

Write(3,*) N,r,Alpha
Write(3,*) Wa,Wb,W0
Write(3,*) A,E,Aa
Do 30 I•l,N/2
C(I)=Sqrt((C(I)+U)/(C(I)-V))
Write(3,*) C(I)
30 Continue
Do 36 I•l, N/2
D(I)•Sqrt((D(I)+U)/(D(I)-V))
Write (3, *) D(I)
36 Continue
Close(3)
End
In Example 6.9 we use program P606 to map the poles and zeros of a conventional filter to
p., p 2 = -0.1435997466004094 ± j0.7541945409717082

p3,p. = -0.2614823588886347 ± j0.4742403829926301 (6.134a)
Ps,P6 =-0.2402622045789232 ± j0.1760416876522508
z0., z02 = jro 01 = ±j0.6399266719491378

Zo3,Zo. = jroOl = ±j0.4579468941095872 (6.134b)
Z0s, z06 = jro05 = ±j0.2439913357610518
Write the reflection coefficient function as
(6.135)
where
(6.136)
Having obtained the reflection coefficient with its numerator and denominator polynomials
in factored form, they are next expanded. Assuming z0 = 1, the input impedance Z;n (s) is
determined by
Z. (s) = D(s) + N(s) (6.137)
in D(s)-N(s)
Program P607: Determine the Reflection Coefficient and the Input Impedance
1. Purpose. This program is used to determine the reflection coefficient and the input
impedance of a Chebyshev short-step impedance transformer.
2. Usage.
Input: Input is given by file 'F602.dat', from which following data arc available:
r is the ratio of the impedance transformation.
W is the fractional bandwidth of the pass-band.
Amax is the maximum allowable ripple in the pass-band in dB.
Wa is the lower edge frequency of the pass-band.
Wb is the upper edge frequency of the pass-band.
N is the order of transformer.
C(I): are the poles of the reflection coefficient of the transformation network.
0(1): are the zeros of the reflection coefficient of the transformation network.
Yield: A(I): are the coefficients of the numerator polynomial of the input impedance
of(6.137).
B(I): are the coefficients of the denominator polynomial of the input
impedance of (6.137).
Storage. The output is stored in File F603.dat. .
Subroutine. CmZero(N,A,B,G,H) is used to determine a polynomial from its complex zeros

and is given in Appendix A202.
Program p607
Complex(kind•2) C(20),D(20)
Dimension p(0:20),q(0:20),Ap(0:20),Bp(0:20)
Dimension U(20),V(20),X(20),Y(20),S(20),T(20)
Double precision u,v,x,Y,S,T,p,q
Double Precision W0,A,E,Aa,Kp,Ap,Bp
Open(Unit=3, File='F602.dat', Status•"Old', Access='Sequential')
Read(3,*) N,r,Alpha
Read(3,*) Wa,Wb,W0
Read(3,*) A,E,Aa
Do 10 I•l,N/2
Read(3,•) C(I)
10 Write(•,•) C(I)
Do 12 I•l,N/2
Read(3, *) D(I)
12 Write(*,*) D(I)
Close(3)
Kp=DLOG(A+DSQRT(A*A-1))
Kp=E*E*DCOSH(N/2*Kp)*DCOSH(N/2*Kp)
Kp=DSQRT(Kp/(l+Kp))
Do 14 I•l,N/2
U(I)•Real(D(I))
U(N/2+I)•U(I)
V(I)•Aimag(D(I))
14 V(N/2+I)•-V(I)
Do 16 I•l,N
16 Write(*,*) U(I),V(I)
Call Cmzero(N,U,V,S,T)
Do 40 I=N,0,-1
p(I)•Kp*S(I+l)
Write(*,42) I,p(I)
42 Format (3X,'P(',I2,')•",F20.10)
40 Continue
Do 54 I•l,N/2
X(I)=-Real(C(I))
X(N/2+I)•X(I)
Y(I)•Aimag(C(I))
54 Y(N/2+I)•-Y(I)
Do 56 I=l,N
56 Write(*,*) X(I),Y(I)
Call Cmzero(N,X,Y,S,T)
Do 60 I•N,0,-1
q ( I ) •S ( I+ 1)
Write(*,62) I,q(I)
62 Format (3X, 'q(',I2, 'l=',F20.10)
60 Continue
Open(Unit•3, File•'F603.dat', Status•'Old', Access•'Sequential'l
Write(3,*) N
Do 80 I=N,0,-1
Ap(I)•q(I)+P(I)
Bp(I)aq(I)-P(I)
Write (*,82) I,Ap(I),I,Bp(I)
Write(3,*) Ap(I),Bp(I)
82 Format (lX, 'A(',I2, ')•',F20.10,6X, 'B(',I2, 'l•',F20.10)
80 Continue
Close(3)
End
Subroutine CmZero(N,A,B,G,H)
Dimension A(N),B(N),G(N),H(N)
Double Precision A,B,G,H
G (l)•l. 0
G(2)•0.0
H(l)•0.0
H(2)•0.0
Do 4 J=l,N
G(J+l) =G (J)
H(J+l)•H(J)
IF(J-1.LE.0.0) goto 1
IF(J-1.GT.0.0) Goto 2
2 Do 3 L•2,J
K•J-L+2
X•G(k-1)-A(J)*G(K)+B(J)*H(K)
YaH(K-1)-A(J)*H(K)-B(J)*G(K)
G(K)-=X
H(K)=Y
3 Continue
1 X=-G(l)*A(J)+H(l)*B(J)
H(l)=-H(l)*A(J)-G(l)*B(J)
G(l)=X
Continue
Return
End
From file 'F602.dat' and using Program P607, we obtain
(6.138)
where
a6 = 1.9998954628155246 b6 = 1.0453718447556E-04
a5 = l.2906886339187622 b5 = 1.2906886339187622
a◄= 2.1896052106138684 b4 = 0.8322403685334704
al= 0.960690140724182} bl= 0.9606901407241821 (6.139)
a2 = 0.5758285136772350 b2 = 0.3303680209564015
a1 = 0.l 178859993815422 b1 = 0.1178859993 815422
a0 = 2.04481497728E-02 b0 = 1.022407446568E-02
6.4.3 The Richards Realization
Finally, we employ Richards method (8] for its realization. The transfer function of a short-
step impedance transformer such as the one shown in Fig. 6.17 would involve transcendental
functions. In order to circumvent this and to simplify the synthesis, Richards makes use of the
mapping function
un
s=tanh-r (6.140)
2
where p =Tl+ fs is the complex-frequency variable for the transmission-line circuit, and
s =er+ jro is the frequency variable of the mapped transfer function. The parameter u used by
Richards is defined by
ll I 1t
-=-=-- (6.141)
where v is the velocity of propagation, and sv4 is the radian frequency for which / ='J....,/4. In
order to apply the mapping to (6.138), it is necessary that all the transmission lines in the
structure be of length / or of some integer multiple thereof. This mapping will eliminate the
transcendental nature of the transfer and impedance functions, and makes it possible to use many
well-known network synthesis techniques commonly used in lumped element circuit synthesis.
In terms of the characteristic impedance z of a line section and the parameters u and p, the
open-circuit impedance parameters of a transmission line can be expressed as
z
2 11 =Z22 =-- (6.142a)
tanh up
2
z
2 12 = 2 21 = - - - (6.142b)
sinh-up_
2
which, after mapping, become
(6.143)
(6,144)
The s-plane equivalent circuit of the transmission-line circuit of Fig. 6.17 is shown in Fig. 6.19.
V,(s)
U.E.
Z1
U.E.
Z2
U.E.
z,. ],.. ,
Fig. 6.19 The s-planc equivalent circuit of the transmission-line circuit of Fig. 6.17.
We next use Richard's theorem to remove the unit elements. The theorem states that if
m1(s)m 2 (s)-n 1(s)ni(s)t_ 1 =0, where m2 {s) and m1{s) denote the even parts of the
denominator and the numerator polynomials of the input impedance, and n1{s) and n2 (s) their
odd parts, respectively; then a unit element Zin (1) of the impedance can be removed. The
remaining impedance becomes
(6.145)
Under these conditions, both the numerator and denominator of Z;0 (s) contain the
common factor (s 2 -1), and Zin(s) is therefore one degree lower than that of Zin(s). The
realization is accomplished by program P608. Because of antimetric nature, half of the line
impedances can be computed from the other half. For this reason, only half of the line
impedances are given. Another reason is accuracy consideration. The remaining line impedances
are easily computed by the formula
z I ---
J J•n/2+1 lo n - z
r
(6.146)
n+I-J
Program P608: Richards Realization
1. Purpose. This program is used tc realize a semi-lumped Chebyshev impedance

transformation network by Richards theory.
2. Usage.
Input: Input is given by file 'F603.dat', from which the following data are available:
A(I): are the coefficients of the numerator polynomial of the input impedance of
(6.138).
B(I): are the coefficients of the denominator polynomial of the input impedance
of (6.138).
Yield: G(I): are the characteristic impedances of the semi-lumped Chebyshev
impedance transformation networks.
Program p608
Dimension A(-4:30),B(-4:30),C(-4:30),D(-4:30),g(30)
Double Precision A,B,C,D,g
Double Precision Num,Den
Do 6 I•-1,30
A(I)•0.0
B(I)•0.0
C(I)•0.0
6 D(I)•0.0
Open(Unit•3, File='F603.dat', Status•"Old', Access•"Sequential')
Read(3,*) N
Do 7 I•N,0,-1
7 Read(3,*) A(I),B(I)
Close(3)
J•l
8 Num=0.0
Den•0.0
Do 10 I=0,N
Num=Num+A(I)
10 Den•Den+B(I)
g(J)•Num/Den
Write(*,12) J,g(J)
12 Format(3X, 'g(',I2, ')•',Fl4.8)

Do 16 I•l, N+l
C(I)•0.0D0
16 D(I)•0.0D0
Do 20 k"'0, N+l
C(N+l-K)•B(N-K)*g(J)-A(N+l-K)
D(N+l-K)•A(N-K)-B(N+l-K)*g(J)
22 Format (3X, 'C( ', I2, ')•', Fl4 .8, 6X, 'D(', I2, ')•', Fl4.8)
20 Continue
Do 30 Ia-l,N+2
A(I)•0.0D0
30 B(I)a0.0D0
Do 40 K•0,N-J
A(N-J-K)•C(N+2-J-K)+A(N+2-J-K)
B(N-J-K)=D(N+2-J-K)+B(N+2-J-K)
42 Format(3X, 'A(',I2, ')""',Fl4.8,6X, 'B(',I2, ')•',Fl4.8)
40 Continue
Do 50 K•0,N-1
50 A(K)•g(J)*A(K)
J•J+l
IF(J.GT.N/2) goto 99
Goto 8
99 Stop
End

g( l)a 2.01994199
g( 2) .. 0.52403373 (6.147)
g ( 3) • 3.62837484
Using (6.146) we obtain the characteristic impedances of remainder sections. A realization of

Example 6.9 is presented in Fig.6.20.
U.E. U.E. U.E. U.E. U.E. U.E.

z, 2n
%2
=J =4 Zs z,
V,(s)
2.01990 0.S240O 3.62840 0.5S12O 3.816SO 0.99010
I= ')../16

References
1. Chen, W. K. (1986) Passive and Active Filters: Theory and Implementations, New York:
John Wiley.
2. Cristal, E. G. (1965) "Tables of maximally flat impedance-transforming networks of low-
pass-filter form," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-13, pp. 693-
695.
3. Cuthbert, T. R. (1982) Circuit Design Using Personal Computers, New York: John Wiley.
4. Guillemin, E. A. (1957) Synthesis ofPassive Networks, New York: John Wiley.
5. Hardy, J. K. (1979) High Frequency Circuit Design, New York: Reston Puhl.
6. Matthaei, G. L. (1964) "Tables of Chebyshev impedance transforming networks of low-pass
filter form," Proc. IEEE, Vol. 52, Aug., pp. 939-963.
7. Matthaei, G. L. (1966) "Short-step Chebyshev impedance transformers," IEEE Trans.
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-14, No.8, Aug., pp.372-383.
8. Richards, P. I. (1948) "Resistor-transmission-lines circuits," Proc. IRE, Vol. 36, Feb., pp.
217-220.
9. Szentirbmai, G. (1964) "Band-pass matching filter in the form of polynomial low-pass filter,"
IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-11, March, pp. 177-178.
10. Vendelin, G. D., Pavio. A. M and Rhode, U. L. (1990) Microwave Circuit Design Using
Linear and Nonlinear Techniques, New York: John Wiley.
11. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1997) "Low-pass impedance transformation networks," IEE
Proc.-G Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 144, No, 5, Oct., pp.284-288.
Chapter7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Broadband Matching
Networks
7.1 Bode's Gain-Bandwidth Limitations
A systematic investigation of matching networks was made by Bode (1945) in connection
with a very special but important type of load impedance [1]. He studied the case of an
impedance composed of a resistor R1 shunted by a capacitor C1 as shown in Fig. 7.1, and
showed a fundamental limitation on the matching networks. Now we introduce the limitation
imposed on the transducer power-gain characteristic by the load impedance.
+ Lossless two-
port network
V.(s)
N
c, R,
Z 22 (s), S22 (s)
Fig. 7.1 A two-port network terminated in an RC load.
The reflection coefficient at the output port normalizing to z1(s) is given by
(7.1)
where h1(s)/h,(-s) is a real regular all-pass function defined in (2.132), and Z22 (s) is the output
driving-point impedance when the input port is terminated in R1 • For our pu1poses, the network
of Fig. 7.1 is redrawn as shown Fig. 7.2, where the shunt capacitor is treated as part of the two-
port network N O • Denote the output reflection coefficient of N O normalized to R1 by
(s)= Z(s)-R, (7.2)

p Z(s)+R,
297
298 BROADBAND MATCHING NETWORKS
in which
(7.3)
It is customary to use another quantity called
1
return loss = In-I- - (7.4)
pLJro)1
as a common measure. When p(s) = 0, the return loss is infinity, whereas under completely
mismatched conditions p(s) = 1, the return loss is zero. Thus, maximizing the return loss over a
frequency band is an optimization measure of match over this band.
+ Lossless two-
port network c, R,
N
~------------------------- p(s)
Fig. 7.2 A two-port network constrained by an RC load.
Bode's limitation is obtained by taking the contour integral of In[l/p(s)]around the closed
contour l; of Fig. 7.3. The complete contour consists of two parts: The large infinite semicircle
l;1 in the RHS and the imaginary axis l;2 • If the integrand is analytic in the region enclosed by
l;, the integral will be zero by appealing to Cauchy theorem. Even though p(s) is analytic in the
RHS, J/p{s) need not be. To avoid this situation, we multiply 1/p(s) by an all-pass function
(7.5)
where each sJ: is a pole of J/p{s) in the RHS. The resulting function is analytic in the RHS.
BODE'S GAIN-BANDWIDTH LIMITATIONS 299
/Ol
Fig. 7.3 The contour integral of ln[l/p(s)] around the closed contour s.
For the contour integral along the large infinite semicircle l; 1 in RHS, we take the limit ass
approaches infinity and obtain
.
lun-- 1/(sC, )+ R,
1 ➔-,-----.,--➔
•-- p(s) 1/(sc,)-R,
-(i +R,C,s
-- 2 ) (7.6)
Also, the real regular all-pass function approaches
(7.7)
As a result, we have
1-11(s)
-p(s) ➔-[l+~(-1-- ~>•)] (7.8)
,...., s RC 1 1
where l; 1 is the infinite semicircular part of the standard contour and r ds / s =- jrt. On the jro-
J~.
axis, since ln[l~p(jro)I] is an even function of ro, whereas the angle is an odd function, along the
jro-axis,
t The negative sign on the right-hand side of(7.8) suggests that wc take the logarithm of -ri(:s)/P<.:s) instead of ri(:s)/p(:s), wc
also use the relation ln(I +.t) ➔ .t , when M<< I •
300 BROADBAND MATCHING NElWORKS
[ ln[- 11(~ro)l;dro= [1nL~1:-l:dro+ [jarg[- 11(~ro)l:dro=j2[1nl 1 ldro (7.10)

ao p(;ro)J' ao ~ p(;ro)J' p(jro)
According to Cauchy's theorem
r In[- T1(S)1. + [1n[- Tl(~ro) l ;dro = 0 (7.11)

J~, p(s)J ao p(;ro) J'
r In I dro = 1t( -I- - " s"

lp(jro)I R1C1 ~ J (7.12)
where Res.. > 0, and s.. are RHS poles of 1/p{s). The sum of all such poles will be real and
positive. The final result becomes
r In
I
lp(jro)I
I
dro s 1 t - -
R,c,
(7.13)
Since N 0 is lossless, from Theorem 2.4 we have
(7.14)
Using (7.14), the limitation of (7.13) can be expressed as
r 1
In .,---~dro S 1 t - -
lS22 (jro)I R,C,
1
(9.15)
This is a fundamental limitation on the return loss when a two-port matching network is
terminated in an RC load. This constraint also places a limitation on the achievable transducer
power-gain. To illustrate this, suppose that p(s) =Po, a constant, in the passband OS ro S ro"; and
p(s} = I in the stop band ro ~ ro" as shown in Fig. 7.4. Then we have
r0
1
ln---dro
IS22(jro)I
= r•
O
I
ln---dro
IS22(jro)I
+ f.'° ln---dro
I
"'• IS22(jro)I
= ro In-I S -1t -
" !Pol R,C,
(7. 16)
showing that
(7.17)
BODE'S GAIN-BANDWIDTH LIMITATIONS 301
Po~.·····•·
0 m
Fig. 7.4 Low pass characteristic with a constant return loss in OS ro S roe.
Since N0 is lossless, Using the para-unitary property (2.173), the constant transducer power-gain
G0 in the passband OS ro S roe becomes
(7.18)
This puts an upper limit on the achievable transducer power-gain over a wide frequency
band. This is true even if we assume that a constant gain is possible over the passband. In fact,
the wider the frequency band of interest is, the more stringent the limitation for a fixed RC load
will be.
Program P701: Constant Transducer Power-Gain Limitation G0 Imposed by the

RC Load
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the constant transducer power-gain limitation G0
in the pass-band OS ro S roe imposed by a parallel RC load.
2. Usage.
Input: R: is the terminating resistance in ohms.

C: is the terminating capacitance in farads.
F: is the upper pass-band frequency in Hertz
Output: G: is the maximum attainable constant transducer power-gain in the pass-

band Osrosro'".
Real R,C
Write(*,*) 'Input Rand C'
Read(*,*) R,C
Write(•,•) 'Input FO'
Read(*,*) FO
Pia3,1415926535
W•2*Pi*FO
G•l-exp(-2*Pi/(W*R*C))
GO•Sqrt(G)
Write(*,10) G
10 Format(3X,'The constant TPG is not greater than',Fl2.8)
End
Example 7.1 Given a two-port network tenninated in a parallel RC load with R2 = 75 Q,

C = 30 pF, and the passband from O to 150 x 106 Hertz, find the maximum attainable constant
transducer power-gain.

Input Rand C
75.0
30.0e-12
Input FO
150.0e06
The constant TPG is not greater than 0.94833440
The maximum gain is found to be 0.94833440.
7.2 Youla's Theory of Broadband Matching
In the derivation of Bode's limitation, we assumed that J/p(s) is analytic on the jro-axis
and the load is a simple RC shunt circuit. Fano (2] extended Bode's work and solved the problem
of impedance matching between an arbitrary passive load and a resistive generator, in its full
generality. Fano's results are expressed as a set of integral constraints with proper weighting
functions depending on the load impedance. Youla (1964) developed a new theory based on the
principle of complex nonnalization, which circumvents some of difficulties encountered in
Fano's work. Furthennore, Youla's theory can be generalized to the design of active equalizers.
In the following sections, we shall present Youla's theory in detail and establish the
fundamental gain-bandwidth limitations for the parallel RC, RLC and the Darlington type-C
loads.
7.2.1 Preliminary Considerations ofYoula's Theory
Consider the two-port N of Fig. 7.5 and let S(s) be its scattering matrix nonnalizing to the
reference impedance matrix
z(s)=[Rg O ] (7.19)
0 z1(s)
YOULA'S THEORY OF BROADBAND MATCHING 303
/ 1(s)
+
1
21,(,) ~
~ p (Jw)
Lossless two-
V.(s)
port network V:(s) 2 z1(s)
N
V.,(s)
I' 2'
Fig. 7.5 The symbolic representation of the broadband matching problem.
From Section 2.5, S(s) can be expressed as
S(s) = h(s)S 1 (s)h:' (s) (7.20)
where S, (s) is the current-based scattering matrix of N, and h(s)h.(s) is the para-hermitian part
of z(s) defined by
r(s) =½[z(s) + z. (s)] =h(s)h. (s) (7.21)
The procedure for decomposing r(s) into factors h(s) and h.(s) was discussed in Section 2.5.2.
Write
(7.22a)
(7.22b)
(7.22c)
The current-based reflection coefficient at the output port is given by
(7.23)
where Z22 (s) is the driving-point impedance looking into the output port when the input port is
terminated in its reference impedance RK, and is related to the normalized reflection coefficient
S22 (s) by the equation
S (s)= h,(s) sU>(s) (7.24)

22 h,(-s) 22
We recognize that h1(s)/h1(-s) is a real regular all-pass function, whose poles include all the
open LHS poles of z1(s). Thus, it can be written as the product of the real regular all-pass
function
" s-a
A(s)= IT-- 1
s+a1
1• 1
(7.25)
defined by the open RHS poles a 1 (j=l,2, .. ,v) of z1(-s) and another real regular all-pass
function B(s) defined by the open RHS zeros of r1(s):
(7.26)
Now observe that the open RHS poles of si~>(s) are precisely those of z1(-s). The
function defined by
(7.27)
is analytic in the closed RHS. In other words, p 2 (s) is a bounded-real function, so is S22 (s).
They are also called the bounded-real reflection coefficient. Since IA(jro~ =I and IB(jro)I =I and
since the two-port network N is lossless, whose scattering matrix S(s) of (7.20) is para-unitary,
the transducer power-gain characteristic G(ro 2 ) can be expressed in terms of p 2 (jro) by the
relation
(7.28)t
Thus, to study the class of transducer power-gains compatible with a prescribed load impedance
z1(s), it suffices to consider the bounded-real reflection coefficient
(7.29)
which together with (7.28) forms the cornerstone of Youla's theory on broadband matching [9].
To proceed to the derivation of the limitations imposed on p 2 (s), we need introduce two more
terms based on z1(s).
t In the following text, the transducer power gain is designated by G(0> 2 ) instead of G(0)) •
Definition 7.1 Zero of transmission. For a given load impedance z1(s), a closed RHS zero
of multiplicity k of the function
c;(s) = r,(s) (7.30)
z1(s)
where
r,(s) =t[z,(s)+z1(-s)] (7.31)
is the even part of z 1(s), is said to be a zero oftransmission oforder k of z 1(s).
The term zero of transmission has its origin in Darlington synthesis. For ifwe realize z1 (s)
as the driving-point impedance of a lossless two-port terminated in a 1 Q resistor, the magnitude
squared of the transfer impedance function on the jro -axis between the 1Q resistor and the
input is equal to r,Uro), as can be seen from (3.72a). After analytic continuation, it is easy to see
that the zeros of ,; (s) would be the zeros of transmission of the lossless two-port, which are
defined as the complex frequencies at which zero output occurs for any finite input. We note that
in Definition 7.1 not all of the zeros of c;(s) are called the zeros of transmission, only the closed
RHS ones are.
For convenience, the zeros of transmission are divided into four mutually exclusive classes.
Definition 7.2 Classification of zeros of transmission. Let s 0 = cr0 + jro0 be a zero of

transmission of order k of the load impedance z1(s). Then s0 belongs to one of the following
four mutually exclusive classes depending on cr0 and z1(s0 ), as follows:
Class 1: cr0 > 0, which includes all the open RHS zeros of transmission.
Class 2: cr0 =0 and z,Uro 0 )=0.
Class 3: cr0 =0 and 0<lz,Uro 0 )I<«>.
Class 4: cr0 = 0 and lz, Uro 0 )I = «>.
With these preliminaries, we now introduce constraints imposed on p 2 (s) by the load
impedance z1(s).
7.2.2 Basic Constraints on p 2 (s)
In this section, we introduce the basic constraints imposed on the· bounded-real reflection
coefficient p 2 (s) by a given load z, (s). The restrictions on p 2 (s) are most conveniently
formulated in terms of the coefficients of the Laurent series expansions of the following
quantities about a zero of transmission s 0 = cr0 + jro 0 of order k
.,
P2 (s) = LP,(s-s0 ) 1 (7.32)
l•O
"'
A(s)= LA,(s-s0 ) 1 (7.33)
1•0
"'
F(s) =2,;(s)A(s) =LFi(s-s0 )' (7.34)
,.o
For each zero of transmission s0 of order k of z 1(s), one of the following four sets of
coefficient conditions must be satisfied, depending on the classification of s0 :
Class I: Ai= P1 for j = 0,1,2, .. ,k-1. (7.35a)

Class 2: A1 = P1 for j = 0,1,2, .. ,k-l, and (A" -1',J/F,,.1 ~ 0. (7.35b)
Class 3: A1 = P1 for j = 0,1,2,··,k-2, and (A,,_1 -~_,)/F,, ~ 0, where k ~ 2. (7.35c)
Class4: A1 =P1 for j=0,1,2,··,k-l,and f',,_1/(A,,-~)~;_ 1 ,where ;_1 is
the residue of z 1(s) evaluated at the pole jro 0 • (7.35d)
Theorem 7.1 Let z1(s) be a prescribed rational non-Foster positive-real function and
p 2 (s) a real rational function of s. Then the function defined by
(7.36)
where A(s) and F(s), as given in (7.25) and (7.34), are uniquely specified by z 2 (s), is positive
real if and only if p 2 (s) is a bounded-real reflection coefficient satisfying the coefficient
constraints (7.35).
7.2.3 Design Procedure for Singly Matched Networks
Based on Theorem 7 .1, we can design a lossless two-port network to match a given non-
Foster positive-real load z1(s) to a resistive source and to achieve a preassigned transducer
power-gain characteristic. The design procedure can be stated in eight steps, as follows:
Step I. From a preassigned transducer power-gain characteristic G(ro 2 ), verify that G(ro 2)
is an even rational real function and satisfies the inequality
(7.37)
for all ro. The gain level is usually not specified to allow desired flexibility.
Step 2. From a prescribed passive load impedance z1(s), which has a positive real part over
a frequency band of interest, compute
r,(s) =t[z,(s) + z1(-s)] (7.38)

• s-s
A(s) =IT--',
s+s,
,.1
Res, > 0 (7.39)
where s,(i=l,2, •,v) aretheopenRHSpolesof z,(-s),and

00
F(s) = 2,;(s)A(s) (7.40)
Step 3. Detennine the locations and the orders of the zeros of transmission of z 1(s), which
are the closed RHS zeros of the function
c;(s) = r,(s) (7.41)

z1(s)
and divide them into respective classes according to Definition 7.2.

Step 4. Perfonn the unique factorization of the function
(7.42)
in which the numerator of p2 (s) is a Hurwitz polynomial and the denominator is a strictly
Hurwitz polynomial. In other words, p2 (s) is a minimum-phase reflection coefficient.
Step 5. Obtain the Laurent series expansions of the functions A(s),F(s) and p2 (s) at each
of the zeros of transmission s0 of z1(s):
.,
A(s) = LA,(s-s0 ) 1 (7.43a)
l■O
.,
F(s)= LF,(s-s0 ) 1 (7.43b)
/ ■O
.,
P2(s)= Ift,cs-so)' (7.43c)
l■O
The above expansions may be obtained by any available techniques.

Step 6. According to the classes of zeros of transmission, list the basic constraints imposed
on the coefficients of (7.43). The gain level is detennined from these constraints. If the
constraints cannot all be satisfied, we consider the general bounded real reflection coefficient
(7.44)
where ri(s) is an arbitrary real all-pass function. Then repeat Step 5 for p2 (s). Of course, we
should start with lower-order ri(s). If the constraints still cannot all be satisfied, we must modify
the preassigned transducer power-gain characteristic G(ro 2 ).
Step 1. Having successfully carried out Step 6, the equalizer back-end driving impedance is
determined by
(7.45)
where p2(s) maybe p2(s). Z22 (s)is guaranteed to be positive real.

Step 8. Using Darlington's procedure if necessary, realize the function Z22 (s) as the
driving-point impedance of a lossless two-port terminated in a IQ resistor. An ideal transformer
may be required at the input port to compensate for the actual level of the source resistance Rg.
This completes the design of the single matching networks.
We illustrate the above by matching the RC, RLC and RCR load in details.
7.3 Parallel RC Load
We already have studied the gain-bandwidth restriction imposed by the parallel RC load. In
the present section, we apply Youla's basic constraints on p2 (s) to determine the gain-bandwidth
restrictions imposed on the design of a lossless two-port network N that equalizes the parallel RC
load
R1
z1(s) = (7.46)
1+R1C 1s
to a resistive generator of internal resistance Rg, and to achieve the nth-order low-pass
Butterworth or Chebyshev transducer power-gain characteristic.
For the load z,(s) of (7.46), we compute following quantities:
-T/C,
r1 (s) =½ [z1(s)+z1(-s) ] = 2 2 (7.47)
S -T
S-'t
A(s)=- (7.48)
s+T
-2T/C1
F(s) = 2,; (s)A(s) = (7.49)
(s+-r)2
(7.50)
where
PARALLEL RC LOAD 309
I
't=- (7.51)
R1C1
Thus, from (7.50) we confirm that the only zero of transmission of z1(s) is at s = co am is
of order 1. This shows that s0 =co and k =I. Since z 1(s0 ) = 0, s0 is a Class 2 zero of
transmission of order I. We now proceed to discuss the gain-bandwidth limitations for the two
gain characteristics in details.
7.3.1 Buttenvorth Matching Networks
The nth-order low-pass Butterworth transducer power-gain characteristic is given by
(7.52)
as defined in (4.1), where roe is the 3-dB radian bandwidth and Kn is the de gain. Substituting
(7.52) in (7.28) and appealing to analytic continuation give
(7.53)
where (7.54)
(7.55)
The numerator and denominator polynomials of (7.53) can be factored in terms of the roots of
the equation (-tr s 2" +1 = 0. Let
(7.56)
be the minimum-phase factorization of (7.53), which yields a bounded-real reflection coefficient,

where
n
q(s) =a0 +a1s+ •+ans"
00 =LaJsJ (7.57)
J•O
is the nth degree Hurwitz polynomial formed by the LHS zeros of the equation (-tr s 2n + 1= 0
with a0 =an= 1, which can be calculated by Program P402. From (4.16), we have
an-t = 1/sin(n/2n) (7.58)

Write
(7.59)
where
" s-i..
11<s) =IT--', Rei.., ~ O,(i = 1,2,- ••,u) (7.60)
1a1 s+i..,
is an arbitrary real all-pass function, whose zeros are to be chosen to maximize the de gain Kn.
To this end, the Laurent series expansions of p 2 (s), A(s) and F(s) about the infinity are found
to be
A(s) = (s--r)/(s+-r) = 1-2-r/s+ 2-r 2/ s 2 +··· (7.61)
F(s) = (-2-r/C,)/(s+-r) 2 = -2-r/C,s 2 + 4-r 2 /C,s 3 + ··· (7.62)
±p 2 (s) =11(s)p 2 (s) = 1+(11 1 +i't)/s+11 1 fa.// +··· (7.63)

where
II
11, = -2 I,._,
l•I
(7.64)
Pi =-[1-(l-Kn)l/2n ]roc/sin(n/2n) (7.65)
Since the load impedance has only a Class 2 zero of transmission of order 1, the basic
constraints on the coefficients of (7.61)-(7.63) are given by
(7.66)
(7.67)
where Ao =1,A, =-2-r,P0 =±1,Pa =±(11 1 +fa.), and F; =-2-r/C,. Thus, to satisfy (7.66) we
must choose the plus sign in the expansion of p 2 (s). To satisfy the second constraint, we
substitute the appropriate quantities in (7.67) and obtain
(7.68)
To obtain a solution Kn in the range O< Kn S 1, the zeros i..1 of 11(s) are not completely
arbitrary, and must be chosen in accordance with the requirement
(7.69)
The de gain is bounded by

For an adequate discussion, two cases are distinguished.
Case 1. 2sin(rc/2n)/ R1C1roe;;::; 1. Since ~)., is real and positive, by choosing the zeros "-,
appropriately, we can guarantee that the inequality (7.70) can be satisfied with Kn = 1. Thus, in
this case, a de gain of unity can be achieved. In particular, this is true if we set all "-, =0.
Case 2. 2sin{1t/2n)/R1C1roe < 1. Then
2sin(rc/2n)(_l__ f"-,)st (7.71)

roe R,C, /•I
Thus, if we choose "-, :;t: 0,(i = 1,2, .. ,,u), the maximal obtainable de gain Kn for a preassigned
bandwidth roe will be reduced. Setting all "-, = 0 in (7.70) yields the inequality
(7.72)
The following program is used to compute the maximum de gain imposed by the RC load.
Program P702: Compute the Maximum DC Gain Imposed by the RC Load
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the maximum attainable de gain of the nth-order
Butterworth low-pass transducer power-gain characteristic imposed by a parallel
RC load.
2. Usage.
Input: N: is the order of the Butterworth matching network.

R: is the terminating resistance in ohms.
C: is the terminating capacitance infarads.
F: is the cut-off frequency of the low-pass characteristic in hertz.
Output: The maximum de transducer power gain.
Real R,C
Read(*,*) N
Read(*,*) R,C
Write(*,*) 'Input FO'
Read(*,*) FO
Pi•3.1415926535
W0•2*Pi*FO
Gamma•Pi/(2*N)
At•2.0*SIN(Gamma)/(R*C*W0)
IF(At.GE.1.0) Gal.O
IF(At.LT.10) G•l.0-(l.0-At)•*(2*N)
Write(*,•) 'The Maximum de TPG for Butterworth Matching'
Write(*,*) 'Network is not greater than'
Write(*,10) G
10 Format(3X,Fl2.8)
End
Example 7.2 Given a parallel RC load with R1 =75 n, c, =300 pF, ro 0 =21t x 20 x 10 6
rad/s, find the maximum attainable de gains for the 5th and 6th order Butterworth low-pass
filters.
Input N
5
Input Rand C
75.0
300.0e-12
Input F0
20. 0e06 •
The Maximum de TPG for Butterworth Matching
Network is not greater than
0.91511738
Input N
6
Input Rand C
75.0
300.0e-12
Input F0
20.0e06
The Maximum de TPG for Butterworth Matching
Network is not greater than
o. 91165680
The maximum de gains are found to be G(0) = 0.91511750 for 5th order and
G(0) = 0.91165680 for 6th order Butterworth low-pass equalizer.
Realization of equalizer
Having successfully decided the maximum de transducer power-gain, the equalizer back-
end driving point impedance Z 22 (s) is determined by (7.45), where p2 (s) may be p2 (s). Since
we do not employ the real regular all pass function to satisfy the basic constraints, the realization
can be a ladder network, and only an ideal transformer may be required at the input port to
compensate for the actual level of the generator resistance Rg. Program P703 is used to compute
the element values of the matching network.
Program P703: Compute the Element Values of Butterworth Low-pass Network

Matching a Parallel RC Load to a Resistive Generator
1. Purpose. This program is used to compute the element values of the nth order Butterworth
low-pass network that equalizes a paraUel RC load to a resistive generator.
2. Usage.

RL: is the terminating load resistance in ohms.
CL: is the terminating load capacitance in farads.
FO: is the cut-off frequency of the low-pass characteristic in hertz.
Output: HO: is the maximum de gain.

Li: are the inductances of a Butterworth low-pass network in henrys.
Ci: are the capacitances of a Butterworth low-pass network in farads.
Rg: is the source internal resistance in ohms, as determined by the de gain and
RL. When Rg is also specified, an ideal transformer may be required.
Program p703
Implicit Real (L)
Write(•,•) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•) ' Program P703 is to match RC Load to a resistive'
Write(•,•) ' source and yield a Butterworth response '
Write(•,•) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•) 'Input N, F0 in Hz'
Read(•,•) N,F0
Write(•,•) 'Input Rl in Ohms and Cl in Farads'
Read(•,•) Rl,Cl
Pi-3 .1415926
wo-2.o•pi•Fo
Gamma•Pi/(2.0•N)
delta•2•Sin(Gamma)/(RL•CL•wo)
IF(delta.GE.1.0) H0=l.0
IF(delta.LT.1.0) H0=l-(l-delta)••(2•N)
Write(•,•) 'The Maximum de Gain G0=',H0
Alpha=(l-H0)••(l.0/(2•N))
C(l)•2•SIN(Gamma)/((1.0-Alpha)•RL•W0)
Write(•,28) C(l), C(l)-CL
28 Format(/,2X,'C(l)~CL•",El4.9,6X,'C(l)-CL•",E20.14)
Do 10 I•l,N/2
L(2•I)=4•Sin((4•I-3)•Gamma)•Sin((4•I-l)•Gamma)
L(2*I)-L(2*I)/(W0*W0*(l.0-2*Alpha•cos((4*I-2)*Gamma)+Alpha••2))
L(2•I)•L(2*I)/C(2*I-1)
C(2•I+l)=4•SIN((4•I-l)•Gamma)•SIN((4•I+l)*Gamma)
C(2*I+l)•C(2*I+l)/(W0*•2*(1-2*Alpha*COS(4*I*Gamma)+Alpha*•2))
C(2*I+l)•C(2•I+l)/L(2*I)
IF (2•I+l.GT.N) goto 99
Write(*,38) 2*I,L(2*I),2•I+l,C(2•I+l)
38 Format (2X,'L(',I2,')""',El4.9,6X,'C(',I2,')•',El4.9)
10 Continue
Goto 50
99 Write(*,48) 2•I,L(2•I)
48 Format (2X, 'L(',I2, ')=',El4.9)

50 b=2*RL-4*RL/H0
Rgl=(-b+Sqrt(b*b-4*RL*RL))/2.0
Rg2=(-b-Sqrt(b*b-4*RL*RL))/2.0
Write(*,60) Rgl,Rg2
60 Format(/,3X, 'source resistance is required to be one of ',&
& 2(Fl2.8,5X))
End
Example 7.3 We wish to design a 5th order Butterworth low-pass network to match a
parallel RC load with R1 = 75 Q and C, =300 pF. The cut-off frequency is 20 MHz.
The maximum de gain and the element values of a realized ladder are computed by
Program P703. The ladder together with its transducer power-gain characteristic is presented in
Figs.7.6 and 7.7.
Input N, F0 in Hertz
5
20.0e06
Input Rl in Ohms and Cl in Farads
75.0
300.0e-12
The Maximum de Gain GO= 0.9151174
C( l)~CL=.300000025E-09 C( l)-CL=0.27755575615629E-16
L( 2)=.609627989E-06 C( 3)=.298092856E-09
L( 4)=.328369566E-06 C( 5)•.670787592E-10
The source resistance is required to one of

136.66894531 41.15784836
0.3284µH 0.6096µH
67.08pF 298.1 pf 300pF 7Sn

PARALLEL RC LOAD 315.
C
;;
0.8 of------~--------1
l. 0.6-----------------
Cl
C,
u
~ 0.4--------------~
~
I!
1- 0.2----------------1
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Frequency In MHz
Fig. 7. 7 The transducer power-gain characteristic of Example 7.3.
7.3.2 Chebyshev Matching Networks
We now use the same problem discussed in the foregoing to design an equalizer having the
nth order low-pass Chebyshev transducer power-gain characteristic
(7.73)
where the quantities Kn, & and roe are defined the same as in (4.34). The de gain is
G(O)=Kn, nodd (7.74)
G(O) = 1Kn 2 , n even (7.75)

+&
We remark that (7.74) is the value of the maxima and (7.75) is the value of the minima of the
Chebyshev response in the pass-band.
Substituting (7.73) in (7.28) and appealing to the theory of analytic constitution give
(7.76)
where
(7.77)
When Kn= l, (7.76) reduces to

r. 2C;(-j s/ro,,)
P2(s)p2(-s) = l+r.2C;(-js/ro,,) (7.78)
Like the Butterworth response, the numerator and denominator polynomials of (7.76) can
be factored in tenns of the roots of
(7.79a)
(7.79b)
Again, let p2 (s) be the minimum-phase decomposition of (7.76) fonned by the LHS zeros of
(7.79) and write
(7.80)
These polynomials can be fonned directly from their zeros given in (4.52) for any values of 11
and E. Explicit fonnulas for the coefficients bn-i and i,n-i in tenns of 11 and E are useful, and
they are written explicitly as
b _ sinha
(7.81)
n-l - sin(rc/2n)
f, - sinha (7.82)
n-l - sin(rc/2n)
where
a=-Sl
1 'nh-1 -1 (7.83)
11 E
A
a=-Sl
1 'nh•l -1 (7.84)
n e
Expanding p 2 (s) by Laurent series as in (7.63) yields
±p 2 (s)=T)(s)p 2 (s)=(l+T) 1S-1 +···)[t+bn-l(s/ro,,t1-bn-i(s/ro,,t1 + 00

·]
(7.85)
= 1+.!.[111 + (bn-1 -bn-1 )ro,, ]+· ..
s
where T) 1 is given in (7.64), identifying

P0 ::: ±I (7.86)
and from (7.81)-(7.84)
(7.87)
From the basic constraints (7.66) and (7.67) imposed on the coefficients P0 and P., we see
that we must first choose the plus sign in the expansion of p 2 (s) in (7.85). In addition, the
inequality
. h a-sm
sm 2 . 1t [ - I- - f,,
. h a$-sm-
A
L...,A, ) (7.88)
ro, 2n R1C, ,. 1
must be satisfied. Combining (7.77), (7.83), (7.84) and (7.88) yields the bonafide restriction on
the constant Kn
(I - Kn )112 :2: Esinh{nsinh-' l:inh(.!.sinh- 1

n E
.!.)- 2 sinroe1t/2n [--R,C,1--i),)]}
,~,
(7.89)
In order that (7.89) possesses a solution Kn in the range O< Kn $I, the zeros A, of ri(s) must
again be chosen in accordance with the requirement (7.69). But even so, two cases are
distinguished.
Case l. 2sin(1t/2n)/ R,C,ro,. :2: sinha. Since LA, is real and positive, by choosing the
zeros )., appropriately, we can guarantee that the right-hand side of (7.89) is non-positive, so
that we can achieve Kn ::: 1. In particular, this is true if we set all A, ::: 0 .
Case 2. 2sin(1t/2n)/ R1C1roe < sinh a. Then
2sin(1t/2n) [ l
- - - - - - - - L...,/\.
f,, ) <SI"nh a (7.90)
ro,. R,C, ,.1 '
Thus, if we choose A, ;i!: 0,(i::: 1,2,-··,u), the maximal obtainable de gain Kn for a preassigned
bandwidth roe will be reduced. Setting all >.., ::: 0 in (7.90) yields the inequality
K,. ~ I - E sinh {n sinh- [sinh(.!.sinh

2 2 1 _, .!.)- 2 sin 1t/2n]} (7.91)
n E R,C,roe
We use Program P704 to compute the maximum de gain and the nth order Chebyshev low-
pass characteristic imposed by the parallel RC load.
Program P704: Compute the Maximum DC Gain of nth Order Chebyshev Low-
pass Filter Imposed by the Parallel RC Load.
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the maximum de gain of the nth Chebyshev low-
pass characteristic imposed by a parallel RC load.
2. Usage.
Input: N: is the order of the Chebyshev matching network.

RL: is the terminating resistance in ohms.
CL: is the terminating capacitance in farads.
W: is the cut-off frequency of the Chebyshev low-pass characteristic in rad/s.
Amax: is the maximum ripple in dB in the pass-band.
Output: GO: is the maximum de gain.

Real R,C
Write(*,*) 'Input N, Amax in dB'
Read(*,*) N,Amax
Read(*,*) R,C
Write(*,*) 'Input F0 in Hz'
Read ( *, *) F0
Pi=J.1415926535
W0=2.0*Pi*F0
Gamma=Pi/(2*N)
E=Sqrt(l0**(0.l*Amax)-1.0)
A=l.0/N*LOG(l.0/E+Sqrt(l.0/(E*E)+l.0))
B=2.0*SIN(Gamma)/(R*C*W0)
IF(B.GE.A) Then
G0=l.0
Else
G0=Sinh(A)-B
G0=LOG(G0+Sqrt(G0*G0+l))
G0=l.0-E*E*Sinh(N*G0)**2
Endif
Write(*,*) 'The Maximum de TPG for Chebyshev Matching'
Write(*,*) 'Network is not greater than'
Write(*,10) GO
10 Format(3X,Fl2.8)
End
Example 7.4 For a parallel RC load with R, = 75 .Q, C1 = 300 pF and co0 = 2n x 20 x I 06
rad/s, find the maximum de gain for a 5th order Chebyshev low-pass filter. The maximum ripple
in passband is a.max = 0.1 dB.
Input N, Amax in dB
5
0.1
Input Rand C
75.0
300.0e-12
Input F0 in Hertz
20.0e0G
The Maximum de TPG is not greater than 0.87538338
Since no real regular all-pass function is needed to match the RC load to a resistive source,
the realization is straightforward by means of the following program.
Program P705: Compute the Element Values of Chebyshev Low-pass Network

Matching a Parallel RC Load to a Resistive Generator
1. Purpose. This program is used to compute the element values of the nth-order Chebyshev
low-pass network that equalizes a parallel RC load to a resistive generator.
2. Usage.

RL: is the terminating resistance in ohms.
CL: is the terminating capacitance in farads.
FO: is the cut-off frequency of a Chebyshev low-pass characteristic in hertz.
Amax: is the maximum ripple in the pass-band in dB.
Output: HO: is the maximum de gain.

Li: are the inductances of a Chebyshev low-pass network in henrys.
Ci: are the capacitances of a Chebyshev low-pass network in farads:
Rg: is the source internal resistance in ohms, as detem1ined by the de gain and
RL. When Rg is also specified, an ideal transformer may be required.
Program P705
Implicit Real (L)
Write(*,*) '***************************************************'
Write(*,*) 'This Program is to match RC Load to a resistive'
Write(*,*) ' source and yield a Chebyshev response
Write(*,*) '***************************************************'
Write(*,*) 'Input N, Amax in dB'
Read(*,*) N,Amax
Write(*,*) 'Input RL and CL'
Read(*,*) RL,CL
Write(*,*) 'Input WO in Rad/s'
Read(*,*) WO
Pi=3.1415926535
Gamma=Pi/(2*N)
A=l.0/N*LOG(l.0/E+Sqrt(l.0/(E*E)+l.0))
BT=2.0*SIN(Gamma)/(RL*CL*W0)
IF(BT.GE.A) Then
H0=l.0
Else
H0=Sinh(A)-BT
H0=LOG(H0+Sqrt(H0*H0+l))
H0=l.0-E*E*Sinh(N*H0)**2
Endif
Write(*,7) HO
7 Format(/,3X, 'The Maximum de TPG is not greater than',F12.8)
IF(N/2*2.LT.N) DCgain=H0
IF(N/2*2.EQ.N) DCgain•H0/(l+E*E)
Write(*,8) DCgain
8 Format(3X,'DC Gain G(0)•",F12.8)
X=Sqrt ( 1. 0-H0) /E
B•l.0/N*LOG(X+Sqrt(X*X+l.0))
C(l)=2*SIN(Gamma)/((Sinh(a)-Sinh(b))*W0*RL)
Write(*,28) C(l)
28 Format(28X,'C( l)•",E14.9)
Do 10 I•l,N/2
L(2*I)•L(2*I)/(W0*W0*F(gamma,2*I-1,a,b))
L(2*I)=L(2*I)/C(2*I-1)
C(2*I+l)=4*SIN((4*I-l)*Gamma)*SIN((4*I+l)*Gamma)
C(2*I+l)~C(2*I+l)/(W0**2*F(Gamma,2*I,a,b))
C(2*I+l)•C(2*I+l)/L(2*I)
Write(*,38) 2*I,L(2*I),2*I+l,C(2*I+l)
38 Format (2X, 'L(',I2, ')=',E14.9,6X, 'C(',I2, ')•',E14.9)
10 Continue
Goto 50
99 Write(*,48) 2*I,L(2*I)
48 Format (2X, 'L(',I2, ')=',E14.9)
50 bs•2*RL-4*RL/DCgain
Rgl•(-bs+Sqrt(bs*bs-4*RL*RL))/2.0
Rg2•(-bs-Sqrt(bs*bs-4*RL*RL))/2.0
Write(*,60) Rgl,Rg2
60 Format(/,3X,'source resistance is required to be one of',/,&
& 3X,Fl2.8,6X, 'or',Fl2.8)
End
Function F(Gamma,m,_a,b)
F=Sinh(a)**2+Sinh(b)**2+Sin(2*m*Gamma)**2
F•F-2*Sinh(a)*Sinh(b)*Cos(2*m*Gamma)
End
Example 7.5 It is desired to design a lossless two-port network N to equalize the RC load
with R1 =100 Q and C 1 =300 pF to a generator with internal resistance and to achieve the sixth
order Chebyshev transducer power-gain characteristic having a maximal attainable K 6 • The
pass-band tolerance is 0.1 dB and the cutoff frequency is 100 x 106 rad/s.
Using Program P705, the maximum de gain K6 the element values of the desired ladder are
computed below. The matching ladder and its transducer power-gain characteristics are
presented in Figs. 7.8 and 7.9.
Running Program P705 gives:

Input N, Amax in dB
6
0.1
Input RL and CL
100.0
300.0e-12
Input WO in Rad/s
l.Oe08
The Maximum de TPG is not greater than 0.86729431
DC Gain G(Q)a 0.84755230
C( l)a,300000053E-09
L( 2)-.782350128E-06 C( 3)=.388148236E-09
L( 4)a,757328735E-06 C( 5)a,316582566E-09
L( 6)•.317941300E-06
source resistance is required to be one of

228.10847473 or 43.83879089
0.7S73µH
316.SSpF 388.ISpF 300pF 100n
0.8
- - - - -\
C
~
; 0.6 l \
l
0
\
II.
s
-6 0.4
~
~
0.2 l \
0 . . . . ~
. . . . . . .
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181
Frequency 100000Rad/s
Fig 7.9 The transducer power-gain characteristic of Example 7.5.

7.4 RLC Load: The Low-pass Buttenvorth Networks

In this section, we shall apply Youla's broadband matching theory to determine the gain-
bandwidth limitations and discuss the design of a lossless matching network that equalizes the
RLC load, as shown in Fig. 7.10, to a resistive source and achieves the nth-order Butterworth or
Chebyshev low-pass transducer power gain characteristic.
+ Lossless two-
V.(s) port network
R,
N
Z 22 (s), S22 (s)
Fig. 7.10 The schematic of a broadband matching problem for the RLC load.
7.4.1 Low-Pass Buttenvorth Matching Networks
Referring to the schematic of Fig. 7.10, our objective is to match out the RLC load to a
resistive generator and to achieve the nth order Butterworth transducer power-gain characteristic
of (7.52). The load impedance is
z1(s)=L1s+ R, (7.92)
R1C1s+l
We first compute the following quantities:
[
r,(s)=½ z1(s)+z1(-s) = 1 --c/C,
2 2 (7.93)
s -'t
S-'t
A(s)=- (7.94)
s+-c
-2-c/C1
F(s) = 2,; (s)A(s) = (7.95)
(s+-c)2
c;(s) = r,(s) = --c/C, (7.96)

z1(s) (s--c)[sL1(s+-c)+l/C1 ]
where 't is given in (7.51), showing that the load z1(s) possesses a Class 4 zero of transmission
of order 3 at infinity. We express the bounded-real reflection coefficient p2 (s) of (7.56), being
the minimum-phase factorization of (7.53), explicitly as
RLC LOAD: THE LOW-PASS BUTTERWORTH NETWORKS 323
(7.97)
where
(7.98)
y is defined in (7.55) and the coefficients a's can be found by means of Program P402. The most
general solution of (7.53) that is analytic in the closed RHS is given by
(7.99)
Chen [3] showed that a first order real regular all-pass function is sufficient for the match. Thus,
let
(7.100)
where cr is real and positive.
To obtain the basic constraints imposed on the matching network N by the load, we
compute the needed functions and their Laurent series expansions about the zero of transmission,
as follows:
S - 't
A( s)=--=1-2-r/ s+2-r 2/s 2-2-r 3/s3+···
s+-r
= /4, + AJs+ A2/s 2 + A3 /s 3 +··· (7.101)
-2 4
F(s)=2r,(s)A(s)= 2 2 + 2 3 3+•··
R1C1 s R1 C1 s
= F0 + F./ s+F2 /s 2 +F;/s 3 +··· (7.102)
(7.103)
where
(7.104a)
(7.104b)
(7.104c)
~ = (o3 -l)an-3ro! -(o 2 -1)(2cr+ an_lroc)an-20>! + (1-o)an-lan-20>! +

(7.104d)
(o-})(2cr2 + a;.10>! + 2cran-lO)c)an-lO)c -2cr3
in which
(7.105a)
(7.105b)
2
an-I COSY2
(7.105c)
2siny 3
y,,. =nm/2n, m =1,2, .. ,n (7.105d)
For a Class 4 zero of transmission of order 3, the basic constraints imposed on the
coefficients (7.101 }-(7 .104) by the load become
k =0, 1, 2 (7.106)
(7.107)
Thus, the condition /4, = Po is always fulfilled. To satisfy the constraint A1 =Pi, we require that
(7.108)
giving
6 = 1 2(1-R,C,cr)siny 1 (7.109)
R,C,IDC
Substituting (7.109) in (7.98) yields the de gain
(7.110)
With 6 as given in (7.109), the third constraint A2 = P2 is always satisfied, as can be seen below.
P2 = (6 2 -l)an-20)! -(6-l)(an-l(J)c + 2cr)an-l(J)c + 2cr 2

(7.111)
=½[(6-l)an-l(J)c-2cr] 2 =--i-T= A2
R1 C1
To fulfill the requirement of (7.107), we define
(7.112)
Substituting (7.101), (7.102) and (7.104d) in (7.112) in conjunction with (7.105) and (7.109), and
after considerable mathematical manipulation, the inductance La can be surprisingly simplified
to
Thus, with Kn as specified in (7.110), the matching is possible if and only if the series
inductance L1 does not exceed La. To show that any RLC load of Fig. 7.10 can be matched, we
must demonstrate that there exists a nonnegative real cr such that La can be made at least as
large as the given L1 and satisfies the constraint (7.107) with 0 < Kn S 1. To this end, let
x=R1C1roc (7.114)
(l-B)x
U=-'----'-- (7.115)
2siny1
Using (7.114) and (7.115), (7.109) and (7.113) can be written as
cr/roc = (1-u)/x (7.116)
ro L = 4xR1 sin y1 sin y3

(7.117)
c a u[4(u-xsiny 1)
2 sin y1 +x 2 sin 2 y2 +4(1-u)siny 1 siny3 ]
2
which is clearly positive for OS u S 1, as required by (7.116). From (7.115), we have
a= 1- 2usiny, (7.118)
X
To complete our proof, we must show that there exists a nonnegative real u, 0 Su S 1, such
that La can be made at least as large as the given L1 and satisfies the constraint (7.118) with
0 Sa S 1. For this two cases are distinguished.
Case 1. x ~ 2 sin y1. Under this situation, the maximum permissible u is 1. Substituting
u = 1 in (7.117) gives
(7.119)
For an adequate discussion, two subcases are considered.
Subcase 1. L1 S La,. To maximize Kn we choose u =1, yielding cr = 0 and
(7.120)
Subcase 2. L1 >La,. To maximize Kn, letting La = L1 in (7 .117) leads to a cubic equation

in u:
(7.121)
where
(7.122a)
(7.122b)
c, = 4x 2sm
•4
y, +x 2sm
•2
y2 + 4· . 3
smy, smy (7.122c)
(7.122d)
Now we must show that the cubic equation (7.121) possesses a real root in the range
0 Su S 1. For this we plot g(u) as a function of u. For u =0, g(u) =c0 is negative, and for u =1
by the very definition of La,, we have
(7.123)
where
(7.124)
g(u)
Fig. 7.11 The existence of a solution in the range OS u S 1 for the cubic equation (7.121 ).
In fact, the slope of g(u) is always positive:

From these observations, we see that the plot of g(u) versus u must have the fonn as shown
in Fig. 7.11. The intersection of this curve with the u-axis gives the desired value of u, which
when substituted in (7.118) yields the maximum attainable de gain K", as indicated in (7.110).
Case 2. x < 2sin y 1 • As is evident from (7.118), the maximum pennissible u is x/(2sin y1 ),
which is less than unity and corresponds to 6 = 0. Substituting this value of u in (7 .117) yields
(7.126)
As in Case 1, two subcases are considered.
Suhcase 1. L1 S La 2 • To maximize Kn , we choose u = x/ (2sin y 1), giving 6 = 0, Kn =1 and
1(
-CJ= - 1 - X- -) >0
ro, x 2sin y 1
(7.127)
Subcase 2. L, > La 2 • As before, we plot g(u) as a function of u. For g(O) =c 0 is negative,

and for u = u 1 = x/(2sin y 1 ) we have
(7.128)
where
(7.129)
Since (7.125) remains valid, the plot of g(u) versus u must again have the form as shown in Fig.
7.11, yielding the desired result.
Thus, we have shown that any RLC load of Fig. 7.10 can be matched to a resistive
generator over a frequency band to achieve the maximally flat gain response of arbitrary order.
7.4.2 Explicit Formulas for Low-Pass Buttenvorth Response
In this section, we derive explicit formulas and provide computer programs for the design
of an optimum low-pass Butterworth matching network.
Substituting (7.23) and (7.94) in (7.29) in conjunction with (7.92) and solving for Zl2(s)
yield the matching network back-end impedance
(7.130)
which according to Theorem 7.1 is guaranteed to be positive real, provided that the coefficient
constraints of the preceding section are satisfied.
Using (7 .100) in conjunction with (7.97), the term [l + p 2 (s)]/[1 -p 2 (s)] can be expanded
explicitly in a continued fraction as
1+ p 2 (s) s[q(y) + onq(y/o)]+cr[q(y)-onq(y/o)] 1

C's+---- (7,131)
l-p 2 (s) = s[q(y)-onq(y/o)]+cr[q(y)+onq(y/o)] a r:s+Z(s)
where Z(s) is the remainder of the expansion and

C' = 2 (7.132)
a (1-o)an-l(J)c + 2cr
L' = 8sin 2 y 1 siny 3 (7.133)

a (1-o)x[ro~c: (o 2 -2ocosy 2 + 1) + 4crsin y1 sin y 3 ]
in which we invoked the relation (7.109) in arriving at (7.133). Appealing to it once more, we
can show that
(7,134)
(7,135)
To facilitate our derivation of the explicit formulas, four cases are distinguished, each
corresponding to a situation depicted at the end of the preceding section.
Case A. x ~ 2 sin y 1 and L1 ~La,. Under this situation, cr = 0 and the maximum attainable
Kn is given by (7.120). With cr=0 and Kn of(7.120), (7.130) is reduced to
R,
Z 22 ( s ) = - - - - - - - - - L,s (7.136)
- R,C,s + _q_(y_)_+_on_(_y/~o_)
q(y)-onq(y/o)
Using Takahasi formula [6], Z 22 (s) can be expanded explicitly in a continued fraction, and
is given by
1
Z 22 (s)=(La1 - L , ) s + - - - - - - - (7.137)
C3s+----l-
L4s+--l-
·.+-
Rg
where the element values are given by
C,=C,= 2siny, (7.138)

{1-S)R1roc
L C - 4siny4,-lsiny4,-1 i=l,2,··•,[n/2] (7.139)

2, 2,-1 - 2 2s: s:2),
ror. (1- ucosy 4,_ 2 + u
(7.140)
showing that Z 22 (s) can be realized by a physical LC ladder network terminated in a resistor, as
shown in Fig. 7 .12, where L2 =L01 and the terminating resistance of the ladder can be
determined from (7 .13 6) by setting s = 0 , yielding
(7.141)
Subroutine: RealLC1
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to realize the ladder part of the Butterworth matching
network of Fig. 7.12, which is needed in Program P7O6.
2. Usage.
WO: is the cutoff frequency in rad/s.
CL: is the load capacitance in farads.
RI.: is the load resistance in ohms.
Gamma: is y m defined by (7.105d).
Output: C{I): are the capacitances of the network of Fig. 7 .12 in farads.
L(I): are the inductances of the network of Fig. 7 .12 in henrys.
Subroutine RealLCl(N,RL,CL,W0,H0,gamma,C,L)
Implicit Real (L)
Dimension C(l20),L(l21)
delta=l-2*Sin(Gamma)/(RL*CL*W0)
Write(*,*) 'delta=' ,delta
C(l)=2*SIN(Gamma)/((l.0-delta)*RL*W0)
Write(*,28) C(l)
28 Format(/,2X,'C( l)=',El4.9)
Do 10 I=l,N/2
L(2*I)=4*Sin((4*I-3)*Gamma)*Sin((4*I-l)*Gamma)
L(2*I)=L(2*I)/(W0*W0*(l.0-2*delta*Cos((4*I-2)*Gamma)+delta**2))
L(2*I)=L(2*I)/C(2*I-l)
C(2*I+l)=4*SIN((4*I-l)*Gamma)*SIN((4*I+l)*Gamma)
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)/(W0**2*(1-2*delta*COS(4*I*Gamma)+delta**2))
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)/L(2*I)
Write(*,38) 2*I,L(2*I),2*I+l,C(2*I+l)
38 Format (2X, 'L(', I2, ')=' ,El4. 9,6X, 'C(' ,I2, ')=' ,El4 .9)
10 Continue
Goto 50
99 Write(*,48) 2*I,L(2*I)
48 Format (2X,'L(',I2,')=',El4.9)
50 b=2*RL-4*RL/H0
Write(*,60) Rgl
60 Format(/,3X, 'The source resistance is required to', /,6X,F12.8)
Write(*,62) Rg2
62 Format(3X, 'or',F12.8)
Return
End
r--------------------------------------------- 1
I
I
---~
Cn-2 C3 : . . _ Z22(s)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I ____________________________________________ !
(a)n odd.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - II
I
---~
C3 : . . _ Z22 (s)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-------------------------------------------------·
(b) n even
Fig. 7.12 The realization of the matching network back-end impedance

as an LC ladder terminating in a resistor. (a) n odd. (b) n even.
Case B. x~2siny 1 and L, >La,· From (7.128), the desired real root u0 of g(u) can be
computed by means of the standard formulas for the cubic equation. Our purpose here is to
derive explicit formulas for this root, which when substituted in (7 .116) yields the desired value
for cr.
Referring to (7.122), we first compute the quantity p=(3c3c1 -c~)/9ci, which after
considerable mathematical manipulation can be simplified and put into the form
(7.142)
showing thatthe desired real root u0 of (7.121) can be expressed explicitly as
2xsin 2 y, +siny 3 2 c inhti,

Uo = - vPS - (7.143)
3siny1 3
where
(7.144)
Substituting (7.143) in (7.116) yields the desired value for CJ :
CJ=-
c ti, 2xsin 2 y1 +siny3 ]
1 [ 1+2vpsinh- (7.146)
R,C, 3 3siny1
The subroutine for computing er is given below:
Subroutine: Psigma
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to compute er according to (7.146), and is required by

Program P706.
2. Usage.
Input: RI: is the load resistance in ohms.
Cl: is the load capacitance in farads.
LI: is the load inductance in henrys.
Gamma: is y., defined in (7.105d).
Output: Sigma: is er defined in (7.146).
Subroutine Psigma(RL,CL,LL,WO,gamma,Sigma)
Real LL
X•RL*CL*WO
p•(x-2*Sin(gamma))**2*Sin(3*gamma)/(9.0*sin(gamma))
ra2*X*sin(gamma)**2+sin(3.0*gamma)
r•r/(54.0*sin(gamma)**3)
rrl•3.0*(x-2.0*sin(gamma))**2*sin(gamma)*sin(3.0*gamma)
rr2•(2•x•sin(gamma)**2+sin(3.0*gamma))**2
r•r•(rrl+rr2)
r•r-x*RL*sin(3.0*gamma)/(2.0*WO*LL*sin(gamma))
Write(•,*) 'p•',p
Write(*,*) 'r•',r
phiar/Sqrt(p**3)
phi•log(phi+Sqrt(phi**2+1))
Write(*,*) 'phi•',phi
Sigma•l.0+2.0*Sqrt(p)*sinh(phi/3.0)
Sigma•Sigma-(2*X*sin(gamma)**2+sin(3.0*gamma))/(3.0*sin(gamma))
Sigma=Sigma/(RL*CL)
Wr.ite(*,*) 'Sigma=',Sigma
End
Case C. x<2siny 1 and L1 SL02 • Then to maximize Kn, we choose u=x/(2siny 1),
giving S = 0, Kn == 1 and cr as shown in (7.127).
Case D. x < 2 sin y I and L, > L02 • Since (7 .142) remains valid in this case, the desired cr
can be computed by (7.146). Using this cr, the de gain Kn is determined by (7.110).
7.4.3 Explicit Formulas for Butterworth Networks Containing a Darlington Type-C Section
In Case B, C, or D, we indicated that a first-order all-pass function is needed to match an

arbitrary RLC load to resistive generator and to achieve the nth order Butterworth response
characteristic with a maximum attainable de gain. However, once an all-pass function is
introduced. the back-end impedance Z 22 (s) can no longer be realized in the form of a simple
ladder by a continued fraction expansion. The all-pass cycle of the operations corresponds to a
realization of the Darlington type-C section. This section can begin at any stage in the continued
fraction expansion of Z 22 (s). To be definitive and for our purposes, we assume that this all-pass
cycle is to be accomplished at the end, as shown in Fig. 7.13. In this section, we present explicit
formulas for the element values of this matching network in terms of the given load. Thus, the
desired expansion takes the form
1
Z 22 (s) = (L2 - L , ) s + - - - - - -1- - - - (7.147)
C3s + - · - - -1- - - -
L4 s + - - - - - -
·. . Bns+~---=-
w1s+w2
W3S+W4
where Bn = C..\ for n odd and Bn = Ln for n even, and n indicates the order of the Butterworth
gain response. To express the elements values of (7.147), a set of H coefficients are needed.
,--------------------------------------
1
I
L
--------------------------------------'
(a) n odd.
r------------------------------------
l,. l,.. l L L,
2 4 01 -
I
I
l,
c,._, c,
(b)n even.
Fig. 7.13 The realization of the matching network back-end impedance as an LC ladder
terminating in a Darlington type-C section. (a) n odd. (b) n even.
Define
H 1 = 2crsiny 1 (7.148)
H 2 =coc(l-6) (7.149)
H 3 =2cr(H1 +H2 )siny 3 (7.150)
H 4 =co!(6 2 -26cosy 2 +1) (7.151)
H 5 = 2cr(H3 + H 4 )sin y5 (7.152)
From the above equations, we obtain the following recurrence relations among the H'~
(7.153)
(7.154)
Subroutine: Hcoeff
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to compute H coefficients in accordance with (7.148)-

(7.154), which is required by Program P706.
2. Usage.

Gamma: is y m defined in (7.105d).

Delta: is o defined in (7.98).
Sigma: is cr defined in (7.146) and computed by subroutine Psigma.
Output: H: are 2 * N + 3 dimensional real numbers, the H coefficients defined in

(7.148)-{7.154) and needed in Program P707.
Subroutine Hcoeff(H,N,WO,Sigma,delta,Gamma)
Dimension H(300)
SigmaO=Sigma/WO
H(l)=2*sigma0*sin(gamma)
H(2)=1-delta
H(3)=2*sigmaO*(l-delta+2*sigmaO*sin(gamma))*sin(3*Gamma)
H(4)=delta**2-2*delta•cos(2*gamma)+l
H(5)=2*sigmaO*(H(3)+H(4))*Sin(5*gamma)
Do 4 M=3,N+l
H(2*M)=delta**2-2*delta•cos((2*M-2)*gamma)+l
H(2*M)=H(2*M)*(H(2*M-5)+H(2*M-4))
4 H(2*M+l)=2*sigmaO*(H(2*M-l)+H(2*M))*sin((2*M+l)*gamma)
End
Using the If coefficients, the element values of (7.147) are given by
(7.155)
(7.156)
(7.157)
Subroutine: RealLC2
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to realize the ladder part of the Butterworth matching
network of Fig. 7.13 for the cases B, C, and D, and is required by Program P706.
2. Usage.

WO: is the cutoff frequency in rad.ls.
LL: is the load inductance in henrys.
HO: is the de gain determined by Program P706.
delta: is o defined in (7.98).
H: are 2 * N + 3 dimensional real numbers, the H coefficients defined in

(7.206)-(7.208) and computed by subroutine Hcoeff.
Output: C(I): are the capacitances of the network of Fig. 7.13 in farads.
L(I): are the inductances of the network of Fig. 7.13 in henrys.
Subroutine RealLC2(N,RL,W0,H0,gamma,delta,sigma,H,C,L)
Implicit Real (L)
Dimension C(l20),L(121),H(300)
Write(*,*) W0,sigma
C(l)=2*SIN(Gamma)/(((1.0-delta)*W0+2*sigma*sin(gamma))*RL)
Write(*,28) C(l)
28 Format(/,2X, 'C( 1)=',E14.9)
Do 10 I=l,N/2
L(2*I)=L(2*I)/(W0*W0*(l.0-2*delta*Cos((4*I-2)*Gamma)+delta**2))
L(2*I)=L(2*I)*(l+H(4*I-3)/H(4*I-2))
L(2*I)=L(2*I)/(l+H(4*I-1)/H(4*I))
L(2*I)=L(2*I)/C(2*I-1)
C(2*I+1)=4*SIN((4*I-l)*Gamma)*SIN((4*I+l)*Gamma)
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)/(W0**2*(1-2*delta*COS(4*I*Gamma)+delta**2))
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)*(l+H(4*I-1)/H(4*I))
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)/(l+H(4*I+l)/H(4*I+2))
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)/L(2*I)
Write(*,38) 2*I,L(2*I),2*I+l,C(2*I+l)
38 Format (2X, 'L(', I2, ')=' ,E14 .9, 6X, 'C(', I2, ')=', El4. 9)
10 Continue
Goto 50
99 Write(*,48) 2*I,L(2*I)
48 Format (2X,'L(',I2,')=',E14.9)
50 b=2*RL-4*RL/H0
Write(*,60) Rgl
60 Format(/,3X, 'The source resistance is required to',/,F12.8)
Write(*,62) Rg2
62 Format(3X,'or',F12.8)
Return
End
Finally, the explicit formulas for the element values LP, L.• , M and CP of the Darlington
type-C section of Fig. 7.13 are given below:
L = Z/)(cr)+crZ~(cr) = t/ 3cr2 + 2t 114cr+lif 4 (7.158)

" 2cr 2cr(t3 cr+t4 ) 2
[Z,,(cr)-crz;>(cr)]2 (11t3cr 2 +2tif3 cr+titJ (7.159)

L, = 2cr[Z"(cr)+crz;)(cr)] = 2cr(t,t 3cr 2 +2t1t 4cr+1 21J13cr+1J 2
C = 2 (7.160)
r er[Z0 (er)-erZ~(er)]
M =Z 0 (er)-erZ~(er) =l 1l3 er 2 +2l213er+l 2 / 4

(7.161)
2er 2er(l3er+l4 )2
where Z'(er) denotes the derivative of Z(s) evaluated at s =er, and
(7.162)
(7.163)
13 = (1-R,er 'fc
11t•O
2...,)(1 +o")+er(l-o"- )/(co"siny 1),
1 for n is odd (7.164a)
(7.164b)
(7.165)
The tenninating resistance is detennined by
(7.166)
Subroutine: Csection
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to realize a Darlington type-C section in the matching
network of Fig. 7.13, and which is required in Program P706.
2. Usage.

Gamma: is y., defined in (7.1 OSd).
delta: is o defined in (7.98).
Sigma: is er defined in (7.148) and computed by subroutine Psigma.
Subroutine Csection(N,RL,W0,sigma,gamma,delta,L,C)
Implicit real (L)
Pl=0.0
Ql=0.0
Do 10 I=l,N/2
10 Pl=Pl+L(2*I)
IF(N/2*2.EQ.N) Then
Do 20 I=l, N/2
20 Ql=Ql+C(2*I-1)
Else
Do 30 I=0,N/2
30 Ql=Ql+C(2*I+l)
Endif
p=Rl-sigma*Pl
q=l-Rl*sigma*Ql
Cl=p*(l-delta**n)+RL*sigma*(l+delta**(N-1))/(W0*sin(gamma))
C2=RL*sigma*(l+delta**n)
C3=q*(l+delta**n)+sigma*(l-delta**(N-1))/(W0*sin(gamma))
C4=sigma*(l-delta**N)
Tl=Cl*C3+2*Cl*C4/sigma+C2*C4/Sigma**2
T2=Cl*C3+2*C2*C3/sigma+C2*C4/sigma**2
T3=(C3+C4/sigma)**2
Lp=Tl/(2*sigma*T3)
Ls=T2**2/(2*sigma*Tl*T3)
Cp=2*T3/(sigma*T2)
Lm=T2/(2*sigma*T3)
Write(*,*) 'Lp=',Lp
Write(*,*) 'Ls=',Ls
Write(*,*) 'Cp=',Cp
Write(*,*) 'Lm=',Lm
return
End
The following program is capable of designing a Butterworth equalizer that matches an

arbitrary RLC load to a resistive generator over a preassigned frequency band.
Program P706: Design Butterworth Equalizer to Match an Arbitrary RLC Load to a

Resistive Generator
1. Purpose. This program is used to design a Butterworth impedance matching network that
matches an RLC to a resistive source.
2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of the Butterworth impedance matching network.

Rl: is the load resistance in ohms.

Output: HO: is the maximum attainable de gain.

C(I): are the capacitances in farads (see Fig. 7. 12 or Fig. 7.13).
L(I): are the inductances in henrys (see Fig. 7.12 or Fig. 7.13).
Rg: is the source resistance in ohms.
3. Subroutines.
Hcoeff(H, N, WO,Sigma,delta,Gamma)
RealLC2(N,RL,WO,HO,gamma,delta,sigma,H,C,L)
RealLCl(N,RL,CL,WO,gamma,C,L)
Csection(N,RL,WO,sigma,gamma,delta,L,C)
Psigma(RL,CL,LL,WO,gamma,Sigma)
Program ButRLC
Implicit Real (L)
Dimension C(l2O),L(121),H(3OO)
Write(*,*) '*********************************•••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,*) ' This Program is to match RLC Load to a '
Write(*,•) ' resistive source and to yield Butterworth response'
Write(•,•) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,•) 'Input N'
Read(*,*) N
Write(*,*) 'Input Load impedance R, Land C'
Read(*,•) RL,LL,CL
Read(•,•) WO
Pi-3.1415926535
Gamma•Pi/(2*N)
X•RL•CL•wo
Write(*,•) X, Sin(gamma)
IF(X.GE.2•sin(gamma)) then
Write(•,•) 'X> ..2sin(gamma)'
Lal•X*RL•sin(3*gamma)
Lal•Lal/(sin(gamma)•((x-sin(gamma))•*2+(cos(gamma))**2)*WO)
Write(•,•) 'Lal""',Lal
IF(Lal.GE.LL) Then
Write(*,*) 'This is Case A'
HO .. 1.O-(1.O-2•sin(gamma)/x)••(2•N)
Write(*,•) 'HO""',HO
Call RealLCl(N,RL,CL,WO,HO,gamma,C,L)
L2•L(2)-LL
Write(•,•) ' L2 .. ',L2
Else
Write(*,•) 'This is Case B'
Call Psigma(RL,CL,LL,WO,gamma,Sigma)
delta .. 1-2•(1-RL•cL•sigma)•Sin(gamma)/(RL*CL*WO)
HO•l-delta••(2•N)
Write(*,•) 'delta""',delta, 'HO•',HO
Call Hcoeff(H,N,WO,Sigma,delta,Gamma)
Call RealLC2(N,RL,WO,HO,gamma,delta,sigma,H,C,L)
Call Csection(N,RL,WO,sigma,gamma,delta,L,C)
Endif
Else
Write(*,*) 'X<2*Sin(gamma)'
delta•O.O
La2•8.0*RL*Sin(gamma)**2*Sin(3.0*gamma)/WO
La2•La2/((x-sin(3.0*gamma))**2+(1+4*Sin(gamma)**2)&
& *sin(gamma)*sin(3.0*gamma))
Write(*,*) 'La2•',La2
IF(La2.GT.LL) Then
Write(*,*) 'This is Case C'
HO•l.O
sigma•l-X/(2*sin(gamma))
sigma•sigma*WO/X
Write ( *, *) 'HO•", HO, 'sigma .. ', sigma
Else
Write(*,*) 'This is Case D'
Write(*,*) 'X<2*Sin(Gamma) and La<LL'
Call Psigma(RL,CL,LL,WO,gamma,Sigma)
delta•l-2*(1-RL*CL*sigma)*sin(gamma)/X
HO•l-delta**(2*N)
Write(*,*) 'delta""',delta, 'HO•",HO
Endif
Endif
End
Example 7.6 Let

R1 =15Q, C1 =300pF, L1 =0.8µH (7.167a)
n=S, roc=l.0xl01 rad/s (7.167b)

Input N
Input Load impedance R, Land C
Input WO in Rad/s
2.250000 0.309017
Lal• 9.4563461E-07
This is Case 1
HO• 0.959702
delta• 0.725318
C( l)•.299999969E-09
L( 2)•.945634497E-06 C( 3)•.317504578E-09
L( 4)•.516228226E-06 C( 5)•.717540541E-10
The source resistance is required to be
49.92253113 Ohm
L2• l.4563449E-07
0.5162µH
71.75 pf 75n
Thus, Case A applies, and no Darlington type-C section is required. The maximum de gain is
G(O) = 0.959702.
Example 7.7. Let

R1 = 750., C, =120 pF, L1 =2.0µH (7.168a)
n = 6, roe= 1.0xl08 rad/s (7.168b)
Lal• l.371995E-06
This is Case 2, X>•2*Sin(Gamma) and La<LL
p= 4.438083E-02
ra 2.155649E-Ol
phia 3.831546
Sigma• 7.009437E+07
delta• 7.876817E-01 HO• 9.429561E-01
l.OOOOOOE+OS 7.009437E+07
C( l)•.120000000E-09
L( 2)•.200000000E-05 C( 3)a.158621000E-09
L( 4)•.185162100E-05 C( 5)•.842555300E-10
L( 6)•.44l582900E-06
The source resistance is required to be 122.06730000

Lp• 8.682767E-07
Lsm 8.715558E-07
Cp• 2.339683E-10
Lrna 8.699147E-07
0.4416µH 1.8516µ11 2.0µH
158.62pF 75n
v.cs)

Running Program P706 shows that Case B applies and the de gain is found to be G(0) = 0.9430.
Example 7.8 Let

N =4, R1 = SO Q, L, =0.5 µH (7.169a)
C, =I 00 pF, ro,. =1.0 x I 08 rad/s (7.169b)
Input N
4
50
0.5e-6
lOOe-12
Input WO in Rad/s
1.0e8
X=RL*CL*WO= 0.50000000 2*Sin(gamma)= 0.76536690
X<2*Sin(gamma)
La2= 7.3101610E-007
This is Case 3
WO= 0.1000000000E+09 Sigma= 0.6934371000E+08
C( 1)=.999999900E-10
L( 2)=.731016100E-06 C( 3)=.397578300E-09
L( 4)•.633160500E-06

50.00000000
Lp= 3.1791190E-007
Ls= 3.7552580E-007
Cp= 6.0188370E-010
Lm= 3.4552010E-007
0.6332µH 0.2310µH 0.SµII
0.375SµH
397.SSpF son

Example 7.9. Let
N = 4, R, = 50 Q, L1 = 2.3 µII (7.170a)

C,=l00pF, roc=l.0xl0 8 rad/s (7.170b)
Input N
4
50
2.3e-6
lOOe-12
Input WO in Rad/s
l.Oe8
X=RL*CL*WO= 0.50000000 2*Sin(gamma)= 0.76536690
X<2*Sin(gamma)
La2= 7.3101610E-007
This is Case 4
X<2*Sin(Gamma) and La<LL
p= 0.0188898
r= 0.3003775
phi= 5.4441530
Sigma= l.7782120E+008
delta= 0.8302509HO= 0.7742257
WO= 0.1000000000E+09 Sigma= 0.1778212000E+09
C( l)=.999999900E-10
L( 2)=,230000300E-05 C( 3)=.117555800E-09
L( 4)=.121437600E-05

140.53320000
Lp= 3.1517370E-007
Ls= 4.2452200E-007
Cp= 8.6458510E-011
Lm= 3.6578430E-007
l.2143µH 2.3µ11
0.3658µH
0.424SµH 0.3l52µH
l17.S6pF son
86.46pF
This shows that Case D applies, and the maximum de gain is found to be G(0) = 0.7742.
RLC LOAD: THE LOW-PASS CHEBYSHEV NETWORKS 343
7.5 RLC Load: The Low-Pass Chebyshev Networks
We now turn our attention to the Chebyshev response. Our objective is to match out the
RLC of Fig. 7.10 to a resistive source and to achieve the nth order Chebyshev transducer power-
gain characteristic
(7.171)
having maximum attainable Kn, where Cn(ro) is the nth order Chebyshev polynomial ofthe first
kind and & < 1.
7.5.1 Basic Constraints for the Low-Pass Chcbyshev Response
Using (7.171) in (7.28), the bounded-real reflection coefficient is obtained as
( ) ( ) (1 K )l+e2C~(-jy) (7.172)
P2 s P2 -s = - n l 2c2 ( . )
+& n -Jy
e
where as before y =s/roc, and =&(l-Knrl/2.
Let f, 2 (s) be the minimum phase solution of (7.172) and express it explicitly as the ratio of
two Hurwitz polynomials:
(7.173)
The most general solution of (7.172) that is analytic in the closed RIIS is given by (7.99). Our
purpose here is to show that a first-order real regular all-pass function is sufficient for the match.
Thus, let
s-a T(s)
P2(s)=--x-- (7.174)
s+a T(s)
cr being real and nonnegative.
The Laurent series expansion of p2 (s) about the zero of transmission at the infinity is
obtained as
(7.175)
where
(7.176a)
(7.176b)
(7.176c)
P, A A A A
- 3 =bn-3 -bn.3 -(bn-2 -bn- 2 Xbn-1 +2cr)+bn-2 (b,,...1 -bn-,)

coc (7.176d)
+(bn•l -bn-1)(b;_I +28-b,,...1+28- 2 )-28-3
in which 8- = cr/coc and

1 'nh-1 -,
a=-s1 1 .. 1 'nh-1 -1
a=-s1 (7.177)
n & n &
b = sinha (7.178a)
n-1 sinyl
b n sinh acosy,
2
- -+--------
n-i - 4 siny siny
(7.178b)
1 2
(7.178c)
y., being given in (7.105d). The b's are obtained simply by replacing a by a.
For the Class 4 zero of transmission, the coefficient constraints are given by (7.106) and
(7 .107). As in the Butterworth response, to satisfy the constraint A, = Pi, we require that
(7.179)
giving
(7.180)
Using (7.179), it is not difficult to confirm that the ·constraint A2 = P2 is also satisfied. Finally, to
fulfill the requirement (7.107), we define the inductance
(7. 181)
Substituting A3 ,F; and P, from (7.101), (7.102) and (7.176d) in (7.181) in conjunction with
(7.178) and (7.179), and after considerable mathematical manipulation, Lp can be simplified and
expressed explicitly in terms of the known parameters. The result is given by
(7.182)
where
f.,(sinha,sinha) = sinh 2 a +sinh 2 a+sin 2 y2 ., -2sinhasinhacosy 2. , m = 1,2, · ·,[n/2] (7.183)
Thus, with Kn as specified in (7.180), the matching is possible if and only if the series inductance
L, does not exceed Lr,. Now we demonstrate that there exists a nonnegative real er such that Lr,
can be made at least as large as the given L1 and satisfies (7.180) with 0 < Kn SI. To this end,
let x = R1C1oor: as in (7.114) and
x(sinha-sinha)
v= .........- - - - - - (7.184)
2siny1
Using (7.179) in conjunction with (7.178) yields
(7.185)
s1.nh a=sm h a 2vsiny 1

A •
(7.186)
X
Substituting (7.185), (7.186) in (7.182), Lr, can be expressed as
which is positive for 0 S v S 1 , as required by (7.185) which dictates that
(7.188)
Like the Butterworth response, two cases are distinguished.
Case I. xsinh a~ 2sin y1. Under this situation, the maximum pennissible v is I.
Substituting v = 1 in (7.187) gives
(7.189)
For an adequate discussion, two subcases are considered:

Subcase I. L1 ~ Lp 1. Then to maximize Kn, we choose v = 1 , yielding er= 0 and Kn as
(7.190)
Subcase 2. L1 > L,i, . To maximize Kn, let Lp = L1 in (7.187), which leads to a cubic
equation in v:
(7.191)
where
(7.192a)
(7.192b)
(7.192c)
(7.192d)
Now we must show that the cubic equation (7.191) possesses a real root in the range 0 ~ v ~ 1.
For this we plot h(v) as a function of v. For v = 0, h(v) = d 0 , which is negative, and for v = 1 by
the very definition of Lp1 we have h(l) ~ 0, as in (7.123). Also, the slope of h(v) is always
positive:
dh(v) = 4(v-1) 2 siny 1siny 3 +4(xsinha-2vsiny 1) 2 sin 2 y1+ x 2 sin 2 y 2 > 0 (7.193)
dv
From these observations, we see that the plot of h(v) versus v must have the form as shown in
Fig. 7.11 with h(v) replacing g(u) and v replacing u. The intersection of this curve with the v-
axis gives the desired value of v, which when substituted in (7.188) in conjunction with (7.180)
yields the maximum attainable constant Kn.
Case 2. xsinha <2siny 1 • As is evident from (7.180) in conjunction with (7.185), the
maximum permissible v is given by
xsinha
v=v1 =--- (7.194)
2siny1
which corresponds to Kn= I. Substituting this value ofv in (7.187) gives

As in Case 1, two subcases are considered:
Subcase l. L1 S 4,2 • Then to maximize Kn , we choose v =v1 , Kn =1 and
~=.!.(
roe X
1 xsinha)>o
2siny 1
(7.196)
Subcase 2 L1 > 4, 2 • As before, we can show that h(0) < 0 and h(v1) ~ 0. Since (7.193)
remains valid, the plot of h(v) versus v must again have the fonn as shown in Fig.7.11 with
h(v). v and v1 replacing g(u), u and u1, respectively.
Thus, we have shown that any RLC load of Fig. 7.10 can be matched to a resistive source
over a frequency band to achieve the equal ripple gain response of arbitrary order.
7.5.2 Explicit Formulas for the Low-Pass Chebyshev Response
In this section, we give explicit formulas for the design of optimum low-pass Chebyshev
impedance matching networks. As in Butterworth response, four cases are distinguished.
Case A. xsinha~2siny 1 and L1 Slp1 • Under this situation, a=O and the maximum
attainable constant Kn is given by (7.190). Since no regular all-pass function is introduced, the
realization is ladder structure as shown in Fig. 7.12, whose back-end impedance can be expanded
explicitly in a continued fraction as indicated in (7.137) with the coefficients given by
C _ 2siny 1
(7.197)
I - rocR,(sinha-sinha)
(7.198)
C L _ 4siny. 1_1 siny. 1• 1

21+1 21 - 2f ( • h inh Q") (7.199)
O)c 21 sm a,s
for ; = 1,2,···,[n/2] and J;(sinha,sinha) is defined in (7.183). The terminating source resistance
is determined by
R =R sinhna-sinhna n odd (7.200)
g I sinh na + sinh na •
R -_ R,cosh na-cosh na
------, neven (7.201)
g cosh na + cosh na
Subroutine: RealLC3
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to realize the ladder part of the Chebyshev matching
network of Fig. 7.12, and is needed in Program P707.
2. Usage.

A: is a defined in (7.177)
E: is g defined in (7.171).
HO: is the de gain of the Chebyshev response.
Output: C(I): are the capacitance values of the network of Fig. 7.13 in farads.
L(I): are the inductance values of the network of Fig. 7. 13 in henrys.
Subroutine RealLC3(N,RL,W0,gamma,E,A,H0,C,L)
Implicit Real (L)
Dimension C(l20),L(l21)
X=Sqrt(l.0-H0)/E
B=l.0/N*LOG(X+Sqrt(X*X+l.0))
C(l)=2*SIN(Gamma)/((Sinh(a)-Sinh(b))*W0*RL)
Write(*,28) C(l)
28 Format(28X,'C( 1)=',E14.9)
Do 10 I=l,N/2
L(2*I)=L(2*I)/(W0*W0*F(gamma,2*I-1,a,b))
L(2*I)=L(2*I)/C(2*I-1)
C(2*I+1)=4*SIN((4*I-l)*Gamma)*SIN((4*I+l)*Gamma)
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)/(W0**2*F(Gamma,2*I,a,b))
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)/L(2*I)
Write(*,38) 2*I,L(2*I),2*I+l,C(2*I+l)
38 Format (2X, 'L(',I2, ')=',E14.9,6X, 'C(',I2, ')=',E14.9)
10 Continue
Goto 50
99 Write(*,48) 2*I,L(2*I)
48 Format (2X, 'L(',I2, ')=',E14.9)
50 IF (N/2*2.EQ.N) Then
Rg=RL*(cosh(N*a)-cosh(N*b))/(cosh(N*a)+cosh(N*b))
Else
Rg=RL*(sinh(N*a)-sinh(N*b))/(sinh(N*a)+sinh(N*b))
Endif
Write(*,60) Rg
60 Format(/,3X, 'The source resistance is required to &
& be',3X,F12.8,3X, 'Ohms')
End
Function F(Gamma,m,a,b)
F=Sinh(a)**2+Sinh(b)**2+Sin(2*m*Gamma)**2
F=F-2*Sinh(a)*Sinh(b)*Cos(2*m*Gamma)
End
Case 2 xsinha~2siny 1 and L1 >I,, 1 • Solving the cubic equation (7.191) yielding the real
regular all-pass function of (7.174), in which
1
er=--
R1C1
(l + "'"
2 r,-k. he 2xsin 2 y1sinha+siny3 )
sm -----:..:-----'"""'
3 3siny 1
(7.202a)
where
k =3d1d 3 -d; =(xsinha-2siny 1) 2 siny 3 +3x 2 siny 1cos2 y1 > 0 (7.202b)
9d; 9siny1
showing thatthe des red root v0 of (7.191) can be expressed explicitly as
2
2xsin y 1 sinha+siny 3 r,- 8
v0 =--....:..:..---~ 2-vksinh- (7.203)
3~ny1 3
where
(7.204)
2
..,J: = 2xsin y 1 sinha+siny
. 3 3 [ 3(
xs1"nh a- 2 smy
. ) 2 smy
1
• •
1smy 3
54sm y 1
(7.205)
2 2 2
+2.25x sin y 2 +(2xsin y1sinha+siny 3 )
2] xR, siny 3
2co c:L, sin y1
The following subroutine computes erof(7.202a).
Subroutine: Pslgma2
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to compute er according to (7.202a), and is needed in

Program P707.
2. Usage.
Input: RI: is the load resistance in ohms.

Gamma: is y.,, defined in (7.105d).
A: is a defined in (7.177).
Output: Sigma: is er defined in (7.202).

Subroutine Psigma2(RL,CL,LL,WO,gamma,a,Sigma)
Real LL
X=RL*CL*WO
p=(x*sinh(a)-2*Sin(gamma))**2*Sin(3*gamma)+3*x*x*&
& sin(gamma)*cos(gamma)**2
p=p/(9*sin(gamma))
r=2*X*sin(gamma)**2*sinh(a)+sin(3.0*gamma)
r=r/(54.0*sin(gamma)**3)
rrl=3.0*(x*sinh(a)-2.0*sin(gamma))**2*sin(gamma)*sin(3.0*gamma)
rr2=2.25*x*x*sin(2.0*gamma)**2+(2*x*sin(gamma)**2*sinh(a)&
&+sin(3.0*gamma))**2
r=r*(rrl+rr2)
r=r-x*RL*sin(3.0*gamma)/(2.0*WO*LL*sin(gamma))
Write(*,*) 'p=',p
Write(*,*) 'r=',r
phi=r/Sqrt(p**3)
phi=log(phi+Sqrt(phi**2+lll
Write(*,*) 'phi=',phi
Sigma=l.0+2.0*Sqrt(p)*sinh(phi/3.0)
Sigma=Sigma-(2*X*sin(gamma)**2 &
& *sinh(a)+sin(3.0*gamma))/(3.0*sin(gamma))
Sigma=Sigma/(RL*CL)
Write(*,*) 'Sigma=',Sigma
return
End
Again, as in the Butterworth response, the realization has the fonn of Fig. 7.13. To obtain
the element values, we define H coefficients as follows:
H 1 =2crsiny 1 (7.206a)
(7.206b)
H3 = 2cr[rocCsinha-sinha) + 2crsin y1]sin y3 (7.206c)
H4 = ro;J; (sinh a, sinh a) (7.206d)
Like (7.153) and (7.154), we obtain the following recurrence relations among the H's:
(7.207)
(7.208)
Subroutine: Hcoeff2
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to compute the H coefficients, in accordance with (7.206)-
(7.208), and is required by Program P707.
2. Usage.
Input: N: is the order of the Chebyshev impedance matching network.

Gamma: is ym defined in (7.105d).
A: is a defined in (7 .177).
B: is a and defined in (7.177).
Sigma: is cr defined in (7.202) and computed by the subroutine Psigma.
Output: H: are 2 * N + 3 dimensional real numbers, the H coefficients defined in

(7.206)-(7.208) and needed in Program P707.
Subroutine Hcoeff2(H,N,WO,Sigma,a,b,Gamma)
Dimension H(300)
SigmaO=Sigma/WO
H(l)=2*sigmaO*sin(gamma)
H(2)=sinh(a)-sinh(b)
H(3)=2*sigmaO*(sinh(a)-sinh(b)+2*sigmaO*sin(gamma))*sin(3*Gamma)
H(4)=F(gamma,l,a,b)
H(5)=2*sigma0*(H(3)+H(4))*Sin(S*gamma)
Do 4 M=3,N+l
H(2*M)=F(Gamma,M-l,a,b)*(H(2*M-5)+H(2*M-4))
H(2*M+l)=2*sigma0*(H(2*M-l)+H(2*M))*sin((2*M+l)*gamma)
4 Continue
End
The clement values are given by
C = 2siny 1 (7.209)
1 R,[(sinha-sinha)roc +2crsiny.]
C L _ 4sin y4,_3 sin "1'4,.; 1+ ii4,_3 / ii4,_2

2;-1 2, - r ( . h . h -) x 1+ H~ ,_ /1~1· 4, (7.210)
., 2,. 1 sm a.sm a 4 1
(7.211)
for i=l,2,···,[n/2].
Subroutine: RealLC4
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to realize the ladder part of the Chebyshev matching
network of Fig. 7.13 for Cases B, C and D, and is required by Program P707.
2. Usage.

Gamma: is ym defined in (7.105d).
A: is a defined in (7.177).
B: is a defined in (7.177).
H: are 2 • N + 3 dimensional real numbers, the H coefficients defined in
(7.206}--{7.208) and computed by subroutine Hcoeff.
Subroutine RealLC4(N,RL,W0,gamma,sigma,A,B,H,C,L)
Implicit Real (L)
Dimension C(l20),L(l21),H(300)
C(l)•(Sinh(a)-Sinh(b))*W0+2*sigma*sin(gamma)
C(l)•2*sin(gamma)/(C(l)*RL)
Write(*,28) C(l)
28 Format(28X,'C(l)•',El4.9)
Do 10 Iml,N/2
L(2*I)•L(2*I)/(W0*W0*F(gamma,2*I-l,a,b))*(l+H(4*I-3)/H(4•I-2))
L(2*I)•L(2*I)/(l+H(4*I-l)/H(4*I))/C(2*I-l)
C(2*I+l)=C(2*I+l)/(W0**2*F(Gamma,2*I,a,b))*(l+H(4*I-l)/H(4*I))
C(2*I+l)•C(2*I+l)/(l+H(4*I+l)/H(4*I+2))/L(2*I)
Write(*,38) 2*I,L(2*I),2*I+l,C(2*I+l)
38 Format (2X, 'L( ', I2, ')•', El4. 9, 6X, 'C( ', I2, ')""' ,El4. 9)
10 Continue
Goto 50
99 Write(*,48) 2*I,L(2*I)
48 Format (2X,'L(',I2,')=',El4.9)
50 IF (N/2*2.EQ.N) Then
Rg=RL*(cosh(N*a)+cosh(N*b))/(cosh(N*a)-cosh(N*b))
Else
Rg•RL*(sinh(N*a)+sinh(N*b))/(sinh(N*a)-sinh(N*b))
Endif
Write(*,60) Rg
60 Format(/,3X,'The source resistance is required to &
& be',3X,Fl2.8,3X,'Ohms')
Return
End
As before, the equalizer back-end impedance can be expanded in a continued fraction, the
last term of which corresponds to a Darlington type-C section
(7.212)
where
(7.213)
nodd (7.215a)
n even (7.215b)
(7.216)
in which
b0 =2.0 1 -n sinhna, nodd
(7.217)
= 2.0 1-n cash na, neven.
b0 =2.01-n s1'nh na,

A A
nodd
(7.218)
= 2.0 1-n cash nii, neven.
In (7.215) b1 can be determined by the roots s*,(k=l,2, .. ·,n) of the denominator polynomial
T(s) of (7.173), which are found to be
s1c = -sinhasiny1c + jcoshacosr1c (7.219)
Likewise, bi, by the roots s k of the numerator polynomial T(s) of (7.163):
(7.220)
It is straightforward to verify that
(7.221)
(7.222)
To compute b1 and b1 of (7 .221) and (7.222), we use following subroutine:

Subroutine: 81 coeff
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to compute b1 and b1 of (7.221) and (7.222), and is
needed in the subroutine Csection in Program P707.
354 BROADBAND MATCHING NE1WORKS
2. Usage.
Gamma: is y m defined in (7 .105d).
A: (or B) is a (or a) defined in (7.177).
Output: Bl: is a real number defined in (7 .221) or (7 .222).
Subroutine Blcoeff(N,gamma,a,bl)
Complex p,S,b
dimension P(40)
S=l.0
Do 10 I=l,N
p(I)=Cmplx(sinh(a)*sin((2*I-l)*gamma),-cosh(a)*cos((2*I-&
& 1) *gamma))
S=S*P(I)
10 Continue
B=(0.0,0.0)
Do 20 I=l,N
B=B+S/P(I)
20 Continue
Bl=real(b)
return
End
With b0 and b0 being determined by (7.217) and (7.218) and b1 and b1 by (7.221) and
(7.222), the corresponding Darlington type-C section of (7.212) can be realized, the element
values of which can again be computed by the formulas (7.158)-(7.161) using the i's of
(7.213}-(7.216).
Subroutine: Csection2
1. Purpose. This subroutine is used to realize the Darlington type-C section of the matching
network of Fig. 7.13 and it is needed in Program P707.
2. Usage.
Gamma: is y m defined in (7. l 05d).
A: is a defined in (7 .177).
B: is a defined in (7. l 77).
Sigma: is cr defined in (7.202) and computed by the subroutine Psigma.
L(I): are the inductances of the network of Fig. 7 .13 in henrys.
Subroutine Csection2(N,RL,W0,sigma,gamma,a,b,L,C)
Implicit real (L)
Dimension C(l20),L(121)
write(*,*) 'a=',a,'b=',b
Pl=0.0
Ql=0.0
Do 10 I=l,N/2
10 Pl=Pl+L(2*I)
IF(N/2*2.EQ.N) Then
Do 20 I=l,N/2
20 Ql=Ql+C(2*I-l)
a0=2.0**(l-n)*cosh(n*a)
b0=2.0**(l-n)*cosh(n*b)
Else
Do 30 I=0,N/2
30 Ql=Ql+C(2*I+l)
a0=2.0**(l-n)*sinh(n*a)
b0=2.0**(l-n)*sinh(n*b)
Endif
write(*,*) 'a0=',a0, 'b0=',b0
al=sinh(a)/sin(gamma)
bl=sinh(b)/sin(gamma)
Call blcoeff(N,gamma,a,al)
Call blcoeff(N,gamma,b,bl)
write(*,*) 'al=',al, 'bl=',bl
write(*,*) 'sigma=',sigma
p=Rl-sigma*Pl
q=l-Rl*sigma*Ql
Cl=p*(a0-b0)+RL*sigma*(al+bl)/W0
C2=RL*sigma*(a0+b0)
C3=q*(a0+b0)+sigma*(al-bl)/W0
C4=sigma*(a0-b0)
Write(*,*) 'Cl=', Cl
write(*,*) 'C2=',C2
write(*,*) 'C3=',C3
write(*,*) 'C4=',C4
Tl=Cl*C3+2*Cl*C4/sigma+C2*C4/Sigma**2
T2=Cl*C3+2*C2*C3/sigma+C2*C4/sigma**2
T3=(C3+C4/sigma)**2
Lp=Tl/(2*sigma*T3)
Ls=T2**2/(2*sigma*Tl*T3)
Cp=2*T3/(sigma*T2)
Lm=T2/(2*sigma*T3)
Write(*,*) 'Lp=',Lp
Write(*,*) 'Ls=',Ls
Write(*,*) 'Cp=',Cp
Write(*,*) 'Lm=',Lm
return
End
Finally the tenninating resistance R11 is detennined by

R _ R sinh na + sinh niz n odd
11 - 1 sinhna-sinh niz'
(7.223)
_ R cosh na + cosh niz n even
- 1 cosh na - cosh niz '
Case C. xsinha < 2siny 1 and L1 S Lp 2 • Then to maximize Kn, we choose v =v1 as defined
in (7.194), giving Kn =1and from cr given in (7.196).
Case D. xsinh a< 2sin yI and L1 > L112 • The desired value of cr can be computed by
(7.202a), the de gain Kn by (7.180).
Program P707: Design of a Chebyshev Lossless Two-port Network to Match an

RLC Load to a Resistive Source
1. Purpose. This program is used to design a lossless two-port network that matches an RLC
load to a resistive source and yields the Chebyshev response.
2. Usage.

RI: is the load resistance in ohms.
Output: HO: is the maximum attainable de gain.

C(I): are the capacitances in farads (see Fig. 7. 12 or Fig. 7.13).
L(I): are the inductances in henrys (see Fig. 7.12 or Fig. 7.13).
Rg: is the required source resistance in ohms.
3. Subroutines.
Hcoeff'2(H,N,WO,Sigma,delta,Gamma)
RealLC3(N,RL,WO,HO,gamma,delta,sigma,H,C,L)
RealLC4(N,RL,CL,WO,gamma,C,L)
Csection2(N,RL,WO,sigma,gamma,delta,L,C)
Psigma2(RL,CL,LL,WO,gamma,Sigma)
Program CheRLC
Implicit Real (L)
Dimension C(12O),L(121),H(3OO)
Write(•,•) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(*,*) 'This Program is to match RLC Load to a '
Write(*,*) ' resistive source and to yield a Chebyshev response'
Write(*,*) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Write(•,*) 'Input N and Amax'
Read(*,*) N,Amax
Write(*,*) 'Input Load impedance R, Land C'
Read(*,*) RL,LL,CL
Read(*,*) WO
Pi•3.1415926535
GammaaPi/(2*N)
X•RL*CL*WO
E=Sqrt(lO**(O.l*Amax)-1.0)
A=l.0/N*LOG(l.0/E+Sqrt(l.0/(E*E)+l.O))
Write(*,2) A,x*sinh(a)
2 Format(/,3X, 'A=',Fl6.10,6X, 'x*sinh(a)=',Fl6.10)
! Four Cases are distinguished.

IF(x*sinh(A).GE.2*sin(gamma)) Then
Write(*,*) 'X*sinh(a)>=2*sin(gamma)'
Lbl=X*RL*sin(3*gamma)
Lbl=Lbl/(sin(gamma)*WO)
Lbl=Lbl/((l-x*sinh(a)*sin(gamma))**2+(x*cosh(a)*cos(gamma))**2)
Write(*,*) 'Lbl=',Lbl
IF(LL.LE.Lbl) then
Write(*,*) 'This is Case A'
HO=sinh(a)-2*sin(gamma)/x
HO=LOG(HO+Sqrt(HO*HO+l.O))
HO=l-(E*sinh(n*H0))**2
Write(*,*) 'HO=',HO
Call RealLC3(N,RL,WO,gamma,E,A,HO,C,L)
Else
Write(*,*) 'This is Case B'
Call Psigma2(RL,CL,LL,WO,gamma,a,Sigma)
H0=2*(1.0-RL*CL*Sigma)*sin(gamma)/X
HO=sinh(a)-HO
HO=LOG(HO+Sqrt(HO*HO+l.Ol)
HO=l-E*E*(sinh(N*H0))**2
Write(*,*) 'HO=', HO
b=Sqrt(l.0-HO)/E
b=l.0/N*LOG(b+Sqrt(b*b+l.O))
write(*,*) 'b=',b
Call Hcoeff2(H,N,WO,Sigma,a,b,Gamma)
Call RealLC4(N,RL,WO,gamma,sigma,A,B,H,C,L)
Call Csection2(N,RL,WO,sigma,gamma,a,b,L,C)
Endif
Else
Write(*,*) 'X*sinh(a)<2*Sin(gamma)'
La2=8.0*RL*Sin(gamma)**2*Sin(3.0*gamma)/WO/sinh(a)
La2=La2/((x*sinh(a)-sin(3.0*gamma))**2+(1+4*Sin(gamma)**2)*&
& sin(gamma)*sin(3.0*gamma)+x*x*sin(2*gamma)**2)
Write(*,*) 'La2=',La2
IF(La2.GT.LL) Then
Write(*,*) 'This is Case C'
HO=l.O
sigma=l-X*sinh(a)/(2*sin(gamma))
sigma=sigma*WO/X
Write(*,*) 'HO=',HO, 'sigma=',sigma
b=Sqrt(l.0-HO)/E
b=l.0/N*LOG(b+Sqrt(b*b+l.O))
write(*,*) 'b=',b
Call Hcoeff2(H,N,WO,Sigma,a,b,Gamma)
Call RealLC4(N,RL,WO,gamma,sigma,A,B,H,C,L)
Call Csection2(N,RL,WO,sigma,gamma,a,b,L,C)
Else
Write(*,*) 'This is Case D'
Call Psigma2(RL,CL,LL,WO,gamma,a,Sigma)
H0•2*(1.0-RL*CL*Sigma)*sin(gamma)/X
H0•sinh(a)-H0
H0=LOG(H0+Sqrt(H0*H0+l.0))
H0•l-E*E*(sinh(N*H0))**2
Write(*,*) •HO•', HO
b•Sqrt ( 1. 0-H0) /E
b•l.0/N*LOG(b+Sqrt(b*b+l.0))
write(*,*) 1 b• 1 ,b
Call Hcoeff2(H,N,W0,Sigma,a,b,Gamma)
Call RealLC4(N,RL,W0,gamma,sigma,A,B,H,C,L)
Call Csection2(N,RL,W0,sigma,gamma,a,b,L,C)
Endif
Endif
End
Example 7.10 Let
R1 = I00Q, L1 = 1.4 µH, C, = 120pF (7.224a)
cxnm: =0.SdB, coc =l.0xl01 rad/s, n=S (7.224b)

Input N and Amax
5
0.5
100.0
l.4e-06
120.0e-12
Input WO in Rad/s
l.0e8
Aa 0.3548270166 x*sinh(a)= 0.4347835183
X*sinh(a)<2*Sin(gamma)
La2• l.7351817E-06
This is Case C
HO• 1.0000000 sigma• 2.4708794E+07
b• 0.0000000E+00
C(l)•.119999996E-09
L( 2)•.173518151E-05 C( 3)=.157936650E-09
L( 4)a.216380863E-05 C( 5)•.104211695E-09
The source resistance is required to be 100.00000000 Ohms

a• 0.3548270 b• 0.0000000E+00
ao- 0.1789234 b0- O.0000000E+00
al• 0.7525181 bl• 0.3125001
sigmaa 2.4708794E+07
Cla 26. 9702911
C2• 4.4209824E+08
C3• 0 .1186995
C4• 4.4209825E+06
Lp• 3.6674796E-06
Ls• l.6141016E-06
Cp• 6.7320549E-10
Lm• 2.4330402E-06
This shows that Case C applies. The de gain is found to be G(0) = 1.0. The final realization
together with its transducer power-gain characteristic is presented in Figs. 7.18(a) and 7.18(b).
21638µH 033S2µH l.4µH

2.4330µH
100n l.6141µH 3.667SµH

104.21pF 100n
J'1 (s)
67321pF
1.2
v'
5.20E+07 1.02E+08 1.52E+08 2.02E+08 2.52E+()(

Frequency Ras/a
Fig. 7.18(b) The transducer power-gain characteristic of the equalizer of Fig. 7.18(a)
Example 7.11. Let
R1 = l00Q, L1 = 2.3µH, C 1 = 120pF (7.225a)

Ctawc = 1.0 dB, O>'" =1.0xl08 rad/s, n =6 (7.225b)

Input N and Amax
6
1

100
2.3e-6
120e-12
Input WO in Rad/s
l.0e8
This is Case D
Sigma= 4.4029310E+007
HO= 0.9871787
C(l)=.120000000E-09
L( 2)=.230000000E-05 C( 3)=.119109900E-09
L( 4)=.324343600E-05 C( 5)=.101955400E-09
L( 6)=.269905400E-05

273.55470000 Ohms
a= 0.2379959b= 0.0367881
Lp= l.1809080E-006
Ls= 4.0311700E-006
Cp= 2.3642460E-010
Lm= 2.1818430E-006
The final realization together with its transducer power-gain characteristic is presented in Figs.
7.19 and 7.20.
2.699lµH 3.2434µH 2.JµH
119.11 pF l000
Fig. 7. 19 A realization of Example 7 .11.
C
.;c, o.8-------f-t-------
.
~ 0.6.-------------
.g
D.
0.4.-------1~-----
"D
en
C
~ 0.2-------------
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Frequency MRacl/s
Fig. 7.20. The transducer power-gain characteristic of the equalizer of Fig. 7.19.
LADDER IMPEDANCE MATCHING NETWORKS FOR THE RLC LOAD 361
7.6 Ladder Impedance Matching Networks for the RLC Load
In this section we establish conditions under which a lossless ladder two-port network
exists that matches a given RLC load to a resistive generator to achieve the Butterworth or
Chebyshev response. In order to obtain a ladder realization, we can employ a higher order real
regular all-pass function instead of using the first-order. However, the zeros of the all-pass
function are not arbitrary, and can only be chosen from the zeros of the minimum-phase
reflection coefficient.
7.6.1 The Buttenvorth Ladder Impedance Matching Networks
Express the Butterworth minimum-phase reflection coefficient (7.97) as
(7.226)
where
.. s.,
Y1: =-=uex
~ {j(2k+n-1)1t] , k = 1,2,·•,n (7.227)
w" 2n
S,:
Y1: =-=ex
{j(2k+n-l)7t], k = 1,2,·•,n (7.228)
w" 2n
and 6 is defined in (7.98). Except for the de gain Kn = 1, or 6 = 0, where all zeros of (7.226) are
located at the origin, we can choose a real regular all-pass function from (7.226) and expand it
about infinity as
(7.229)
where u Sn and the s, are chosen from s,:(k= 1,2,-··,n). If the matching conditions (7.106) and
(7.107) are satisfied for the reflection coefficient p2 (s)=Tt(s)p 2 (s), a Butterworth ladder
equalizer can be realized. Since Tt(s) is a real rational function, its zeros must be chosen in
complex conjugate pairs. There are 2"12 or 2<n+IJ/2 possible combinations for the zeros,
depending on whether n is even or odd.
From the basic constraints (7.106) and (7.107), we have
-2 6-1 _ 2 a.u-1
(7.230)
R1C 1w" siny1 w"
K = 1-[1- 2(1- R,c,a. __ ,) sin y I]ln (2.231)

n R1C1roc
L _ 4R1 siny, siny3

"° - (1-R,C,a..,_ )[R,C,ro!(6
1
2 -26cosy2 +1)+4a.,,_1siny1 siny3 ]+4R,2C,2(cx,,_1cx.,_2 -cx.,_3 )siny, siny3
(7.232)
To facilitate our discussion, three cases are distinguished.
Case 1. R1C1roc >2siny 1 • Under this situation, we first examine the maximum obtainable
de gain Kno and the series inductance Lao by letting cx.,_1 =0, and obtain ri(s) =1. From (7.231)
and (7.232) we have
Kno =1-(1- 2sin Y, )2n (7.233)

R1C1roc
(7.234)
When the load inductance L1 S Lao• the match can be achieved by a minimum-phase Butterworth
network, being the Subcase 1 of Case 1 in Section 7.4. From (7.230), we can compute the
maximum attainable de gain Kn for a fixed load capacitance C,. When L, >Lao, we decrease
Kn in order to accommodate an all-pass function. Substituting (7.227) in (7.229) gives
(7.235)
where A is a trigonometric function, depending on the locations of the chosen zeros. For
example, ')... = 1 corresponds to the introduction of a first order all-pass function, whereas
A.= 2 cosy°', m Sn, corresponds to a second order all-pass function, etc. Substituting (7.235) in
(7.230) gives
6 1-2siny1/R,C,roc (7.236)
l-2Xsiny 1
For 0 < 6 < 1 in (7.236), it is necessary that
(7.237)
Under this condition, Kn is determined by (7.231) and La by (7.232). For L1 S La, a match is
always possible. When there is more than one solution, we choose the one with the largest Kn.
When R1C1roc ~ lj')... or L1 >La, no match is possible.
Case 2. R,C,roc =2sin y1 • Substituting R1C1roc =2siny 1 in (7.233) shows that 6 is null and
Kn can be unity except for
2siny 1 =1/'A (7.238)
When 6 == 0and C, = 2siny 1/ R,roc, (7.234) becomes
(7.239)
For n > 3 and L, ::; Lal, the matching can be achieved by a ladder network with unity de
gain, and its normalized element values ( R1 = 1n, roe = 1rad/s) are given by
(2m-fL
g = 2sin-'----'-'-'~ m = 1,2.-·•,(n-1)/2 (7.240a)
m 2n '
gm =r-+-l s. m
(2m - 1)1t "f . dd
- - - , 1 m1so
r 2n
form= (n + 1)/2 (7.240b)
. (2m-1)7t ·r .
gm= ( r+ 1) s m - - - , 1 m 1seven
2n
2 . (2m-1)1t , 1"f m1so

gm =-Sm . dd
r 2n n+3 n+5
form=-- - - ··· n (7.240c)
2 ' 2 ' '
. (2m -1 )7t "f .
gm= 2rsm , I m1seven
2n
where the source resistance is Rx = rR1 •
If L, >Lal, a ladder match is not possible. For n = 3, C, = 1/(R,roc), and any value of L,,
the element values of the matching network can be obtained by means of Weinberg's
transformation [7]
1
C,=-- (7.241a)
R,roc
R, (7.241 b)
L1 =(r+l)-
roe
1
Cl=-- (7.241c)
rR,roc
Rx =rR1 (7.241d)
Finally, substituting (7.238) in (7.236) shows Kn is independent of the load impedance.

The zero locations are found by considering (7.238), resulting in a series of useful trigonometric
identities:
7t
2cos- (7.242a)
2sin(1t/6) 3
1 7t
----=2cos- (7.242bi
2sin(1t/l0) 5
1 l<n~4I (2m + l)1t

- - - - = 2 L.J c o s - - - (7.242c)
2sin(1t/2n) m•O n
where n and mare integers and n is odd and larger that or equal to 3, and [(n-3)/4] denotes the
largest integer not greater that (n-3)/ 4.
Weinberg gave a transformation resulting in zeros alternating between the LHS and RHS.
The zero locations of his transformation is obtainable from (7.242) in that the right-hand side of
(7.242) is the sum of abscissas of all the zeros in the RHS or the LHS, determined solely by
r <l or r > 1.
Case 3. R,Ci<f)c <2siny 1 • To satisfy (7.230) and 0dkl, we substitute R,C,ro.: <2siny 1
in (7.236) and obtain
(7.243)
where the de gain Kn is determined by (7.231) and La by (7.232). For L1 ~la, a match is
always possible. To satisfy (7.243), the majority of the zeros should be restricted to the RHS.
Restricting all of the zeros to the RHS imposes a minimum allowable load capacitance C,.
Example 7.12 Let
R1 = 100 n, C, = 90 pF , L, = 2 µH (7.244a)
(7.244b)
We first compute
R1C1roc = 0.9 > 2sin~= 0.618034 (7.245)
10
t 1/(2sin(rr/2n),;. 2cos(rc/n), for n > 5.

Thus, Case 1 applies. Without the introduction of any all-pass function, from (7.233) and (7.234)
we obtain
K so = 0.9999908895 (7.246a)
Lao =1.879317µH (7.246b)
Since L1 >Lao, we have to decrease K5 by introducing an all-pass function meeting the

following constraint:
1/')... > R1C1roc = 0.9 (7.247)
As mentioned above, for n = 5 there are eight possible zero combinations. Substituting (7.227)
in (7.229) and comparing the resulting function with '). . < 1/0.9 show that only two of the eight
combinations are permitted. One of which is given by
(7.248)
showing
(7.249a)
(7.249b)
(7.249c)
o, = 0.8202185 (7.250a)
K 5 =0.8621853717 (7.250b)
La = 3.3764243 µH (7.250c)
Another possible solution satisfying (7.247) is
(7.251)
where
(7.252a)
(7.252b)
(7.252c)
A=2cosy 4 (7.252d)
Substituting (7.252) in (7.236) and (7.232) yields
02 = 0.5069229 (7.253a)
Ks= 0.99887948 (7.253b)
La =1.7469966 µH (7.253c)
Comparing L, with (7.250c) and (7.253c) shows that a first-order all-pass function is required.
A ladder realization together the zero locations of its reflection coefficient is presented in Fig.
7.21.
2.660µH l.376µH 2.0µH
2l.58pF 83.62pF 1000
Joo
0 a
6 = 0.8202185
Fig. 7.21 A 5th-order Butterworth ladder broadband impedance matching network

together with the zero locations of its reflection coefficient.
7.6.2 The Chebyshev Ladder Impedance Matching Networks
Express the Chebyshev minimum-phase reflection coefficient (7.173) as
(7.254)
where the zeros and poles are located at

LADDER IMPEDANCE MATCHING NElWORKS FOR THE RLC LOAD 367
h = 1,2, .. ,n (7.255)
h = 1,2,··,n (7.256)
and a, a,and y are defined in (7.177) and (7.105d), respectively. Except for Kn = 1, where all
reflection coefficient zeros are located on the jro-axis, a real regular all-pass function can be
constructed from (7.229).
From the basic constraints, similar results can be obtained, as follows:
(7.257)
Kn =1- e2SI•nh2{nSI.nh - 1[.Sm h a 2(1-R,C,a.u_1)siny 1]} (7.258)

R,C,roc
4= 4R1 siny1siny
(1-R,C.~<J.u-1)[1?iCiro;J;(sinha,sinha)+4<J.u-l siny, siny3]+4R,2Ci2{a.u-l(J.u-2 -(J.u-J)sinyl siny3
(7,259)
Like Butterworth response, three cases are distinguished.
Case 1. R,C,ro,. sinha > 2sin y1 • In this case, with <J.u-J = 0, the de gain Kno and the series
inductance Lr,o are found to be
Kno =l-e 2 sinh 2{nsinh-1[sinha- 25i?y 1]} (7.260)

R,C,roc
L _ 4siny 1 siny 3
(7,261)
r,o - C,ro; (sinh a+ sinh a+sin 2 y 2 -2sinh asinhacosy 2)
2 2
For L, ~ Lpo, a match can be achieved by a minimum-phase network. If L, > Lr, 0 , we must
decrease the de gain Kn in order to achieve a match by introducing an all-pass function. Using
(7.255) in (7.229) gives
a.u-i = ro,.µsinh a (7.262)
where µ is a trigonometric function, depending on the zero locations. For example, introducing
a first order all-pass function yields µ = 1; a third order gives µ = 1+ 2 sin y,., where m ~ n/2,
etc.
Substituting (7.178a) and (7.262) in (7.257) shows
. h"'a = _
sm sinha/(2siny 1)-l/R,C1roc
_:......:...._....:....:..;;___.,__.:....-:.---=- (7.263)
l/(2sin y 1) - µ
According to (7.177), we set sinha < sinha and obtain
(7,264)
where Kn is determined by (7.258) and Lr, by (7.259). Under the restriction (7.264), if L1 S LP, a
match is possible. Otherwise, there is no match with a Chebyshev ladder network.
Case 2. R1C1roc sinh a= 2sin y 1 • Substituting R1C1roc sinh a= 2sin y1 in (7.263) shows that
sinha =0 or Kn= l except for
l
µ=-- (7.265)
2sin y 1
We substitute sinh a= 0 and RP,roc sinh a= 2sin y1 in (7.259), and obtain the series inductance
L _ 2R,siny 3 sinha
(7.266)
P2 - roclsinh 2 a+sin 2 y 2 ]
For n > 3, C, = 2siny 1/(R,rocsinha), and L1 S L112 , there is a match by a Chebyshev ladder
having Kn= l. The normalized element values Km are determined by
n-l n+5 n+7

for m =2 3 · .. - - - - - - .. · n (7.267a)
,, ' 2 ' 2 ' 2 ' '
g m g m-1 = 2(r+l)q,,,qm-l '

ifmisodd
rpm-I
for m=n+l n+3 (7.267b)
2 ' 2
g m g m-1 = 2(r + l)q,,,qm-l '
if mis even
Pm-I
and Rx = rR,; where the initial value and the related parameters are given by
2 . 1t
g1 =--sm- (7.268a)
sinha 2n
. (2m-1)n
qm =sm---'-- (7.268b)
2n
'nh2 • 2 mn
Pm =SJ a+sm - (7.268c)
n
For L1 > Lp 2 , ladder matched is not possible. For n = 3, C1 = 1/(R,roc sinh a), and any value
of L1 , the element values of the equalizer arc given by
1
C,=---- (7.269a)
R1roc sinha
_ (1 +r)R1 sinha
L2- (7.269b)
coc(sinh 2 a+¾)
I
C3=---- (7.269c)
R1rro csinh a
(7.270)
From (7.265), we obtain the following trigonometric identities:
I - = I = 2·
--- 1t
sm-- (7.271a)
2sinn/(2x3) 2x3
--- I - = I + 2 sm--=
. 1t . 31t
2 sm-- (7.271 b)
2 sin 1t/ (2 x 5) 2 x5 2x5
--- . 3n 2sin--+
l - = 1+ 2 sin--= . 1t . 5n
2 s1n-- (7.271c)
2sinn/(2x7) 2x7 2x7 2x7
l = 1+ 2 sm--+
. 1t 2 sm--= . 3n 2 sm--
. 5n 2 sm--+ . 7n (7.271d)
2sinnI (2x9) 2x9 2x9 2x9 2x9
[(n-S)/4) • ( 4m + 1)7t ((n-3)/41 • ( 4m + 3)7t

1+2 L sm---=2 L
sm..;..__----'-, 5,9,J3, ...
m=O 2n m=O 2n
----= (7.271e)
2sin(n/2n)
• ( 4m + 3)7t [(n~~/4] • ( 4m + 1)7t
1+2 I
((n-Sl/ 4l
m•O
sm....;....__ _;__=2 L sm-'-----,
2n m•O 2n
n=7,11, .. ,
370 BROADBAND MATCHING NE1WORKS
where [(n-5)/4] is the largest integer not exceeding (n-5)/4. The zero locations of Case 2 can
be determined from the right-hand side of (7.271) times sinha, because the product is equal to
the sum of the abscissas of all the reflection coefficient zeros in the RHS or the LHS.
Case 3. R,Ci<J)c sinh a< 2sin y1• Under this condition, form (7.263) and the restriction
sinh a< sinh a, we obtain the following inequality
2siny 1 > R,C,rocsinha > _!_ (7.272)

µ
where Kn is determined by (7.258) and Lfl by (7.259). For L1 <Lil, a match is always possible.
In this case, the majority of the zeros should be restricted to the RHS.
Example 7.13 Let

R,=100O, C,=120pF, L,=1.4µH (7.273a)
E = 0.3493114, ro,. = 108 rad/s, n=5 (7.273b)
With these values of E and n, we compute from (7.177)
sinh a= 0.3623196 (7.274)
R1C1roc sinha = 0.43478352 < 2siny 1 = 0.618034 (7.275)
Thus, Case 3 applies. To satisfy constraint (7.272), µ should be made larger than 2.299995. Two
of the eight possible combinations are acceptable, one of which is given by
. 31t
µ= 1+ 2 sm- (7.276)
10
( ) _ (y-sinh a)[y 2 -2ysin(3n/1 0)sinh a+ sinh 2 a+ cos 2 (3n/1 0)]

(7.277)
TJ y - (y+sinha)[y 2 +2ysin(3n/10)sinha+sinh 2 a+cos 2 (3n/10)]
where
(7.278)
cx 1 = (sinh 2 a+ 2sin 3n sinh 2 a+ cos 2 3n)ro~ (7.279)

10 10
CXo =sinh a(sinh 2 a+ cos 2 ~~ )ro: (7.280)

Using (7.274) and (7.276) in (7.263) and (7.177), we obtain
sinh tz = 0.2470879 (7.281)
Substituting (7.278)-(7.280) and (7.281) in (7.258) and (7.259) yields
Ks = 0.7061384 (7.282a)
1,, = 1.73518 µH (7.282b)
Another possible solution is found to be
. 7t 2 . 31t
µ= 1+ 2 sm-+ sm- (7.283)
10 10
(y) = (y-sinhtz)[y 2 -2sin(1t/10)sinhtz y+sinh 2 tz+cos 2 (7t/10)] x

Tl (y+sinhtz}[y 2 + 2sin{1t/10)sinhtz y+sinh 2 tz+cos 2 {1t/l0)]
(7.284)
[y2 -2sin(31t/l0)sinhtz y+sinh 2 tz+cos 2 {31t/l0)]
[y2 +2sin{31t/l0)sinhtz y+sinh 2 tz+cos 2 (3rr/10)]
where
(7.285a)
a 3 = [2 sinh 2 a"(1 +sm-+sm-+

. 7t • 31t 2 sm-sm-
. 7t • 31t) +cos 2 -+cos
7t 2 31t] 2
- roe (7.285b)
10 10 10 10 10 10
~ . 1t . 31t 2 sm-sm-
= [2 s1°nh2 {1 +sm-+sm-+
10 10 10 10
. 31t) cos-+
. 1t . 31t) + (1 + 2 sm-
10
.2 1t
10
(1 2. 10
....2 31t}Jcs11wu
7t) cos-
+ sm-
10
•-t.!.
(7.285c)
Using (7.274) and (7.283) in (7.263) gives
sinhtz = 0.1527087 (7.286)
This together with (7.274), (7.285) and (7.286) yields from (7.263)
Ks =0.9147023 (7.287a)
1,, = 1.413359 µH (7.287b)
Thus, from (7.282b}, (7.287b) and L1 , we recognize that both solutions are pennitted. We choose
(7.287b) because it results in a higher de gain. The final realization together with the zero
locations ofits reflection coefficient is presented in Fig. 7.22.
l.5077µH 0.0134µH 1.40µH
161.55pF 209.42pF 1000
}Ol
0 a
Yu= 0.0471896±/0.9620819
Yz.• = 0.1235439±}0.5945993
Y, = 0.1527087
Fig. 7.22 A 5th-order Chebyshev broadband impedance matching ladder network together
with the zero locations of its reflection coefficient.
7.7 RCR Load
In this section, we shall apply Youla's theory of broadband matching to determine the gain-
bandwidth limitations and discuss the design of a lossless matching network that equalizes the
RCR load of Fig. 7.23 to a resistive source, and to achieve the nth order Butterworth or
Chebyshev low-pass transducer power-gain characteristic.
R,.
Fig. 7.23 The RCR load.

RCR LOAD 373
7.7.1 Buttenvorth Transducer Power-Gain Characteristic
Given the load impedance of Fig. 7.23, which can be expressed as
(7.288)
To obtain the basic constraints imposed by the RCR load, we compute
(7 .289)
(7.290)
F(s) = 2R11 Rf2C,2s 2 -2(R11 +R12 )

(7.291)
(l+R 12 C1s) 2
~(s) = R,l--',s 2 -(R11 + R12 )/R11 R12 C1 (7.292)

(R 12 C,s-l)[s+(R11 +R12 )/R11 R12 C1 ]
From (7.292) we confirm that z1 (s) has a Class 1 zero of transmission of order 1 at
(7.293)
For the Butterworth response, we rewrite the unique minimum-phase factorization (7.52) as
(7.294)
where x and y are defined in (7.54) and (7.55). The general reflection coefficient is the same as
(7.59). Since z1 (s) has only a real Class 1 zero of transmission of order 1, no series expansions
are needed. The constraint for the Class 1 zero of transmission of order 1 at s 0 =cr 0 is simply
A0 = P0 from (7.35a), which is equivalent to A( cr0 ) = p2 ( cr0 ) or more generally
(7.295)
Substituting (7.290) and (7.294) in (7.295) yields the basic limitation on the gain bandwidth as
(7.296)
where
(7.297)
(7.298)
Form (7.57) and Program P402, we can show that
(7.299)
in which we have used the fact that the coefficients of q(x) at equal-distance from the ends are
equal, as previously proved in Program P402. Substituting (7.299) in (7.296) results in the basic
limitation on the gain bandwidth imposed by the load z1(s):
(7.300)
where
(7.301)
Since q( cr) increases monotonically for real cr ~ 0, and q(0) = 1 for all n, we have the inequality
(7.302)
since OS~ S 1. To facilitate our discussion, two cases are considered.
Case 1. A{cr 0 )q(l/y0 )<1. The condition (7,300) cannot be satisfied if ri(cr 0 )=1, since
q(~/ y 0 ) ~ 1. Thus, we must consider nontrivial ri(s), and for simplicity let
(7.303)
be a first order all-pass function with cr 1 to be determined. In order to achieve the maximum
attainable de gain, let ~ = 0, which corresponds to Kn = 1 . Substituting these in (7 .300) yields
(7.304)
which indicates that such cr I always exists. Therefore, it is never necessary to use higher order
all-pass function ri(s); the first order is sufficient.
RCR LOAD 375
Case 2. A(a 0 )q(1/y0 )~l. Since lri(cr 0 )1 is less than unity, from (7.300) we conclude that
the maximum de gain is obtained if we choose ±l](s) =I. Under this condition, (7.300) becomes
(7.305)
and the corresponding de gain is given by
K n = 1-i:2n
":>m (7.306)
Since A(cr 0 )<1, (7.305) implies that q(1/y0 )>q(c.,m/Yo), which after invoking the monotonic
character of q(cr) for real nonnegative cr, shows that
(7,307)
or Sm < 1. Thus, the solution for Kn in (7.306) is always physical. According to Theorem 7.1 the
back end impedance
Z (s) _ F(s) ( )
(7,308)
22 - A(s)-P2(s) z, s
is positive real. This impedance can be realized as a lossless two-port terminated in a resistor. To
determine the de gain and the bounded-real reflection coefficient of the Butterworth response to
match RCR load to a resistive source, we give following program:
Program P708: Determine de Gain of the Butterworth Network to Match RCR load
to a Resistive Source
1. Purpose. This program is used to determine the de gain and the bounded-real reflection
coefficient of the Butterworth response of a lossless equalizer that matches the
RCR Joad to resistive source.
2. Usage.
Input: N it the order of the Butterworth equalizer.

RI: is the Joad resistance in ohms as defined in Fig. 7. 23.
R2: is the load resistance in ohms as defined in Fig. 7.23.
C: is the load capacitance in farads as defined in Fig. 7.23.
Output: SigmaO: are the zeros of transmission defined by the load.

Sigma I: are the zeros of the inserted real regular all-pass function.
Kn: is the maximum attainable de gain.
P( I ): is the denominator polynomial of a bounded-real reflection coefficient.
Q(I): is the numerator polynomial of a bounded-real reflection coefficient.
3. Subroutines.
Co(N,A): Find real coefficients of the Butterworth response.
Eval (N,X,A,Sum): Compute the value of real polynomial at X.
DDHRT (A,B,H,EPS,X,N,M,T): Find a real root of a real polynomial [8].
Dimension P(0:30),Q(0:30),T(30),X(30)
Write(*,*) '***************************************************'
Write(*,*) 'This Program is to match RCR Load to a '
Write(*,*) ' resistive source and yield a Butterworth response'
Write(*,*) '***************************************************'
Write(*,*) 'Input N,W0'
Read(*,*) N,w0
Write(*,*) 'Input Rl,R2,C'
Read(*,*) Rl,R2,C
Sigma0=Sqrt(l+R2/Rl)/(R2*C)
Write(*,*) 'Sigma0=',sigma0
A0=(R2*C*sigma0-l.0)/(R2*C*sigma0+1.0)
Write(*,*) 'A0=',A0
Call Co (N, P)
y0=sigma0/w0
y0=l.0/y0
Write(*,*) 'y0=',y0
Call Eval(N,y0,P,Sum)
Write(*,*) 'A0*Sum=',A0*Sum
IF (A0*Sum.LT.1.0) Then
Write(*,*) 'A0*q(l/y0) < l'
Write(*,*) 'This is Case 1 and de gain Kn=l'
Sigmal=(l.0-A0*Sum)/(1.0+A0*Sum)*Sigma0
Write(*,*) 'Sigmal=',Sigmal
Write(*,*)
Write(*,*) 'Numerator Polynomial of Reflection Coefficient'
Write(*,8) N,1.0
8 Format(3X, 'Q(',I2, ')=',Fl4.8)
Write(*,*) 'Denominator Polynomial of Reflection Coefficient'
Do 10 I=N,0,-1
Write(*,12) I,P(I)
12 Format(3X,'P(',I2,')=',Fl4.8)
10 Continue
Goto 100
Else
Write(*,*) 'A0*q(l/y0) >=l'
Write(*,*) 'This is Case 2. Following is to decide de Gain Kn'
P(0)=P(0)-A0*Sum
Do 30 Kal,N
T(K)cP(N-K)/P(N)/y0**K
30 Continue
P(0)cP(0)+A0*Sum
CALL DDHRT(0.o,1.o,o.01,1.0E-06,X,N,M,T)
WRITE(*,52) M
52 FORMAT(lX,'M=',I2)
DO 60 I=l,M
60 WRITE ( *, 62) I, X(I)
62 FORMAT(lX,'X(',I2,')=',El5.6)
RCR LOAD 377
Xi=l.0
Do 40 J=l,M
IF(X(J).LT.Xi) Xi=X(J)
40 Continue
Write(*,*) 'Xia',Xi
H0=l.0-Xi**(2*N)
Write(*,*) 'H0=',H0
Write(*,*) 'The denominator polynomial of reflect coefficient'
Do 20 I=N,0,-1
Write(*,22) I,P(I)
22 Format (3X, 'P(', I2, ')=', Fl2.8)
20 Continue
Write(*,*) 'The numerator polynomial of reflect coefficient'
Do 70 I=N,0,-1
Q(I)=P(I)*Xi**(N-I)
Write(*, 72) I,Q(I)
70 Continue
72 Format(3X,'Q(',I2,')=',E20.10)
Endif
100 Stop
End
Subroutine Co(N,A)
Dimension A(0:N)
Pi=3.1415926535
A(0)=l.0
Do 100 I=l,N
A(I)=A(I-l)*COS((I-l)*Pi/(2*N))/SIN(I*Pi/(2*N))
100 Continue
End
Subroutine Eval(N,X,A,Sum)
!Evaluation of a polynomial
!Polynomial coefficients A(0:30)
!Degree of the polynomial N
Dimension A(0:N)
Sum=A(N)
Do 10 I=N-1,0,-1
Sum=Sum*X+A(I)
10 Continue
Write(*,*) Sum
End
Subroutine Fl(X,T,N,F)
Dimension T(N)
F-1.0
Do 10 I=l,N
F=F*X+T(I)
10 Continue
RETURN
END
SUBROUTINE DDHRT(A,B,H,EPS,X,N,M,T)
DIMENSION X(N),T(N)
M=0
z.. A
Call Fl(Z,T,N,Y)
10 IF ((Z.GT.B+H/2.0) .OR. (M.EQ.N)) RETURN
IF (ABS(Y) .LT.EPS) THEN
M=M+l
X(M)=Z
Z=Z+H/2.0
Call Fl(Z,T,N,Y)
GOTO 10
END IF
Zl=Z+H
Call Fl(Zl,T,N,Yl)
IF (ABS(Yl).LT.EPS) THEN
M=M+l
X(M)=Zl
Z=Zl+H/2.0
Call Fl(Z,T,N,Y)
GOTO 10
END IF
IF (Y*Yl.GT.0.0) THEN
Y=Yl
Z=Zl
GOTO 10
END IF
20 IF (ABS(Zl-Z) .LT.EPS) THEN
M=M+l
X(M)=(Zl+Z)/2.0
Z=Zl+H/2.0
Call Fl(Z,T,N,Y)
GOTO 10
END IF
Z0= (Zl+Z) /2. 0
Call Fl(Z0,T,N,Y0)
IF (ABS(Y0).LT.EPS) THEN
M=M+l
X(M)=Z0
Z=Z0+H/2.0
Call Fl (Z, T, N, Y)
GOTO 10
END IF
IF (Y*Y0.LT.0.0) THEN
Zl=Z0
Yl=Y0
ELSE
z.. zo
Y=Y0
END IF
GOTO 20
END
We illustrate the above procedure by the following numerical examples.
Example 7.14 Let

R11 =l00n, R,2 =300n, c, =120pF (7.309a)
roe =10 8 rad/s, n =4 (7.309b)
RCR LOAD 379
Running Program P708 yields
Input N,WO
4
l.Oe8
Input Rl,R2,C
100
300
120e-12
SigmaO• 5.5555560E+007
AO• 0.3333333
yQa 1.8000000
x- 1.8000000
42.5030300
AO*Sum• 14.1676800
M• 1
X ( l) • 0.637318E+OO
Xi• 0.6373179
HQa 0.9727825
P( 4) .. 0.99999990
P( 3)a 2.61312600
P( 2)• 3.41421300
P( 1)• 2.61312600
P( 0)• 1.00000000
Q( 4 >- 0.9999999000E+OO
Q( 3) a 0.1665392000E+Ol
Q( 2)a 0.1386765000E+Ol
Q( l)a 0.6764390000E+OO
Q( O)• 0.1649774000E+OO
Showing that is Case 2 and

~ ..
= 0.6373179 (7.310a)
Kn = 0.9727825 (7.310b)
The bounded-real reflection coefficient is obtained as
(s) = s 4 + 1.665392s3 + 1.386765s 2 + 0.676439s+ 0.1649774

(7.310c)
P2 s 4 +2.613126s 3 +3.414213s 2 +2.613126s 2 +1
Substituting (7.310c) in (7.308) gives
Z22 (s) _ s 4 +2.694815s3 +3.3710859s 2 +2.3912497s+0.835023

509.9717 - s 3 +2.6948126s 2 +3.034893220s+l.485263175
1
=s+-----------------
2.9744540s+------1--1----
(7.311)
0.6099837 s + l
0.6600490s+---
0.5622054
After denonnalization, a ladder realization together with its transducer power-gain characteristic
is presented in Fig. 7.23.
3.1l07µH S.0997µH IOO!l
l2.94pF S8.33pF 3000
~ 0.8 +------4---------1
...
C)
I o.6
GI
...
GI
!:l 0 . 4 - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - l
.,
'Cl
C
fE_ 0.2---------'------l
O"-----------~:::a---.1
0.01 0.21 0.41 0.61 0.81 1.01 1.21 1.41 1.61 1.81
Frequency 100M Rad/s
Fig. 7 .25 The transducer power-gain characteristic of Example 7.14.
Example 7.15 Let
R11 = 100 n, R,2 = 300 n, c, = 200/3 pF (7.312a)

co., =0.5xl0 8 rad/s, n=2 (7.312b)

Input N,W0
2
0.5e08
Input Rl,R2,C
100
300
66.666667e-12
Sigma0= 1.0000002E+08
AO= 0.3333333
y0= 0.4999999
1. 9571066
A0*Sum• 0.6523688
RCR LOAD 381
AO*q(l/y0) < 1
This is Case 1 and de gain Kn=l
Sigmal= 2.1038354E+07
Numerator Polynomial of Reflection Coefficient
Q( 2)= 1.00000000
Denominator Polynomial of Reflection Coefficient
p ( 2) = 0.99999994
P( l)= 1. 41421354
p ( 0) = 1.00000000
Thus, Case 1 applies. For K 4 = 1.0 , we need to insert the all-pass function
(s)= s-2.1038354xl0 7
11 (7.313)
s+2.1038354xl0 7
obtaining the bounded-real reflection coefficient as
s2
p 2 (s) = ll(s)x s 2 + 1.41421354s + 1.0 (7.314)
Finally, the equalizer back-end impedance normalized to co,. and Rg can be computed by means
of Program P7083. The result is given by
Z 22 (y) y 3 +2.708y 2 +1.697y+0.422

(7.315)
T= y 2 +2.108y+o.818
where
(7.316)
and y = sf roe ,which can be realized by the technique outlined in Chapter 3 and will contain a
Darlington typc-C section.
7.7.2 The Chebyshev Transducer Power-Gain Characteristic
Consider the same problem discussed in the preceding section except that we now wish to
achieve the nth order low-pass Chebyshev transducer power-gain characteristic for the RCR
load. We continue to use the terms and symbols defined in (7.289) to (7.293).
The minimum-phase factorization of (7.76), as previously given in (7.80), is expressed
explicitly as
(7.317)
where p(y) and p(y) denote the numerator and denominator polynomials of (7.80) with
y = sf roe, respectively.
Like the Butterworth case, no series expansions are required and the basic constraint can
easily be deduced from (7.295) and is given by
(7.318)
where
(7.319)
We remark that since the coefficients of j;(y) have not yet been determined at this point,
depending on Kn through (7.77), p(y0 ) is a function of Kn. Our objective is to maximize Kn in
the range O<Kn~ 1, so that it satisfies (7.318). For this reason, we first determine the condition
under which Kn= 1 can be achieved. To this end, let Kn= 1. Then the numerator polynomial of
(7.76) becomes &2 C;(-jy), and the corresponding Hurwitz factorization j;(y), denoted by
Pm(Y), is given by
(7.320)
which is a real polynomial. For example, from Program P404 we have
4 2 25
Pm=y+y+0.1,
A
n=4
For an adequate discussion of (7.318), two cases are considered.
Case l. A(cr 0 )p(y0 )<Pm(Y0 ). Then from (7.318) we conclude that Kn=l is not
attainable without the insertion of open RHS zero in p2 (s). Fortunately, it is never necessary to
insert anything but a single positive real axis zero. For if we let
(7.321)
where cr1 is to be determined from the constraint (7 .318), we obtain
cr, =cro Pm(Yo)-A(cro)P(Yo) >0 (7.322)

Pm(Yo) + A(cro)P(Yo)
Case 2. A(cr 0 )p(y0 )~Pm(Y0 ). From (7.318), we see that 11(cr0 )<1 increases p(y0 ) over
its value for ± 11(cr 0 ) = 1, and consequently a of (7.84) increases or equivalently e decreases.
RCR LOAD 383
According to (7.77) this decrease in E decreases Kn. Thus, the best we can do is to have
± TJ(s) = 1 . Under this condition, (7.318) becomes
(7.323)
where p(y0 ) is a polynomial in sinha. This equation can be solved to yield a real positive
sinh a. That there exists such a solution will now be demonstrated.
For Kn= 0, p(y0 ) =p(y0 ) and we have p(y0 ) > A(a 0 )p(y0 ). For Kn= l, p(y0 ) =Pm(Y0 )
and we have j,(y0 ) ~ A(a0 )p(y0 ). A plot of p(y0 ) versus Kn is given by Fig. 7.26, which
shows that, for a given n and a prescribed e, j,(y0 ) decreases monotonically from p(y0 ) to
Pm(y 0 ) as K,. is increased from O to 1. On the same coordinates, let us plot the constant line
A(a 0 )p(y0 ), which lies between the lines p(y0 ) and Pm(Y0 ). The intersection of the curve
p(y0 ) and the constant line A(cr0 )p(y0 ) yields the desired value for Kn. In other words, the
solution of (7.323) is always physical, and gives the maximum attainable Kn.
I
I
I
I
I
------------------------y---
I
I
1 I
I
I I
I I
I I
0
K. I
Fig.7.26 p(y0 ) versus Kn curve to determine a desired value of Kn.
Program P709: Determine DC Gain of Chebyshev Network to Match RCR Load to

a Resistive Source
1. Purpose. This program is used to determine the de gain and bounded-real reflection
coefficient of the Chebyshev response to match the RCR load to a resistive
source.
2. Usage.
Input: N: is the order of the Butterworth equalizer.

Amax: is the maximum allowable ripple in dB in the pass-band.
Rl: is the load resistance in ohms as defined in Fig. 7. 23.
R2: is the load resistance in ohms as defined in Fig. 7.23.
C: is the load capacitance in farads as defined in Fig. 7.23.
Output: SigmaO: are the zeros of transmission defined by the load.

Sigma I: are the zeros of an inserted real regular all-pass function.
Kn: is the maximum attainable de gain.
P(I): is the denominator polynomial of a bounded-real reflection coefficient.
Q(I): is the numerator polynomial of a bounded-real reflection coefficient.
3. Subroutines.
Chebpoly(N, A, B, P, Q): Find real coefficients of a Chebyshcv polynomial.
Eva! (N, X, A, Sum): Compute the value of a real polynomial at X.
Findroot (N, gamma, yO, pO, Xi): Find a real root of a real polynomial.
Dimension P(0:30),T(0:30),G(31),H(31),A(30),B(30)
Write(*,*) '***************************************************'
Write(*,*) ' This Program is to match RCR Load to a'
Write ( *, *) ' resistive sourc'e and yield a Chebyshev response'
Write(*,*) '***************~***********************************'
Write(*,*) 'Input N,W0,Amax'
Read(*,*) N,W0,Amax
Write(*,*) 'Input Rl,R2,C'
Read(*,*) Rl,R2,C
Pi=J.1415926535
Gamma=Pi/(2*N)
Sigma0=Sqrt(l+R2/Rl)/(R2*C)
Write(*,*) 'Sigma0a',Sigma0
A0=(R2*C*sigma0-l.0)/(R2*C*sigma0+1.0)
Y0=Sigma0/W0
Write(*,6) A0,Y0
6 Format(3X, 'A0=',Fl4.7,6X, 'Y0•',Fl4.7)
Pi=J.1415926535
gamma=Pi/(2*N)
Ae=l.0/N*LOG(l.0/E+Sqrt((l.0/E)**2+1.0))
Do 7 K=l,N
A(K)=-sinh(AE)*sin((2*K-l)*gamma)
B(K)=cosh(AE)*cos((2*K-l)*gamma)
7 Continue
Call Chebpoly(N,A,B,G,H)
Do 10 I=N,0,-1
10 P(I)=~iI+l). .
Call Eval(N,y0,P,Sum)
P0•A0*Sum
Write(*,*) 'A0*Sum=',P0
Call P404 (N, T)
DO 40 J=N,0,-1
40 T(J)=2.0**(l-N)*ABS(T(J))
Call Eval(N,y0,T,Pm)
Write(*,*) 'Pm=',Pm
IF(Pm.GT.P0) Then
Write(*,*) 'This is Case l'.
Write(*,*) 'Pm> A0*P(y0)'
Write(*,*) 'Knal.0'
Sigmala(Pm-P0)/(Pm+P0)*Sigma0
Write(*,*) 'Sigmal•',Sigmal
RCR LOAD 385
Write(*,*) 'Denominator Polynomial of reflect Coefficient'

Do 30 I=N,0,-1
30 Write(*,32) I,P(I)
32 Format(3X, 'P(',I2, ')=',Fl4.8)
Write(*,*) 'Numerator Polynomial of reflect Coefficient'
Do 50 J=N,0,-1
50 Write(*,52) J,T(J)
52 Format (3X, 'Q(', I2, ')=', Fl4 .8)
Else
Write(*,*) 'This is Case 2'
Write(*,*) 'Pm<= A0*P(y0)'
Write(*,*) 'Following we are decide Kn'
CALL Findroot(N,gamma,y0,P0,Xi)
Write(*,*) 'Xi=',Xi
Ea-1.0/sinh(N*LOG(Xi+Sqrt(Xi*Xi+l.0)))
H0=l.0-(E/Ea)**2
Write ( *, *) 'H0=' , HO
Do 70 K=l,N
A(K)=-Xi*sin((2*K-l)*gamma)
B(K)=Sqrt(l+Xi*Xi)*cos((2*K-l)*gamma)
70 Continue
Write(*,*) 'Denominator Polynomial of Reflect Coefficient'
Do 20 I=N,0,-1
Write(*,22) I,P(I)
22 Format(3X, 'P(',I2, ')=',Fl2.8)
20 Continue
Call Chebpoly(N,A,B,G,H)
Write(*,*) 'Numerator Polynomial of Reflect Coefficient'
Do 90 I=N,0,-1
Write(*,92) I,G(I+l)
92 Format(3X, 'Q(',I2, ')=',Fl2.8)
90 Continue
100 Stop
Endif
End
Subroutine Chebpoly(N,A,B,P,Q)
!Chebyshev Polynomial from Its complex Zero
Dimension A(30),B(30),P(N+l),Q(N+l)
p (1) =l. 0
P(2)=0.0
Q(l)aQ.0
Q(2)=0.0
Do 4 J=l,N
P(J+l)=P(J)
Q(J+l)=Q(J)
IF(J-1.GT.0.0) Goto 2
2 Do 3 L=2,J
K=J-L+2
X=P(k-1)-A(J)*P(K)+B(J)*Q(K)
Y=Q(K-1)-A(J)*Q(K)-B(J)*P(K)
P(K)=X
Q(K)-Y
3 Continue
1 X=-P(l)*A(J)+Q(l)*B(J)
Q(l)=-Q(l)*A(J)-P(l)*B(J)
P(l)=X
4 Continue
Return
End
Subroutine Eval(N,X,A,Sum)
Dimension A(0:N)
Sum=A(N)
Do 10 I=N-1,0,-1
Sum=Sum*X+A(I)
10 Continue
Write(*,*) Sum
End
Subroutine Findroot(N,garnma,y0,P0,Xi)
Complex Z,FZ
J=l
X0=0.0
T=0.001
77 Do 20 I=l,1000
X=X0+T*I
FZ=(l.0,0.0)
Do 10 K=l,N
Z=Cmplx(-X*sin((2*K-l)*garnma),Sqrt(l+X*X)*cos((2*K-l)*garnma))
10 FZ=FZ* (y0-Z) :
F=Real(FZ)
F=F-P0
IF(F.GT.0.0) goto 99
20 Continue
99 X0=X-T
T=T* (l0**J) *T.
J=J+l
If(J.EQ.4) Goto 199
Goto 77
199 Xi=X
Return
End
Subroutine p404(N,P)
Dimension T(0:30),P(0:N)
T (0) =l. 0
Do 10 I=0,Int(N/2)
T (I) =l. 0
Do 20 J=l,N-I-1
20 T(I)=T(I)*J
Do 30 J=l,I
30 T(I)=T(I)/J
Do 40 J=l,N-2*!
40 T(I)=T(I)/J
T(I)=2**(N-2*I)*(-l)**I*T(I)*N/2
10 Continue
Do 60 I=N, 0, -1
60 P(I)=0.0
Do 62 I=N,0,-2
62 P(I)=T((N-I)/2)
End
RCR LOAD 387
Example 7.16 Let
R11 = 100 n' R,2 = 300 n , c, = 120 pF (7.324a)

(J)c = 105 rad/s, (lllWI = 0.1 dB, n=5 (7.324b)

Input N,WO,Amax
5
l.Oe8
0.1
Input Rl,R2,C
100
300
120e-12
AO .. 0.3333333 YO• 0.5555556
2.6409850
AO*Sum.. 0.8803284
0.4408680
Pm• 0.4408680
This is Case 2
Pm <• AO*P (yO)
Following we are decide Kn
Xi= 0.2025517
HO• 0.9673237
Denominator Polynomial of Reflect Coefficient
P( 5)• 1.00000000
P( 4)• 1.74396300
P( 3)• 2.77070400
P( 2)• 2.39695800
P( l)• 1,43555800
P( O)• 0.40951260
Numerator Polynomial of Reflect Coefficient
Q( 5)• 1.00000000
Q( 4)• 0.65547100
Q( 3)• l.46482100
Q( 2)• 0.63639160
Q( l)• 0.43803600
Q( OJ• 0.07402606
Thus, the maximum attainable de gain is K 5 = 0.9673237, and the reflection coefficient of the
equalizer is found to be
.. (s)= s5 +0.65547ls 4 +l.46482ls 3 +0.6363916s 2 +0.4380360s+0.07402606 ( 7_325 )

Pi s 5 +l.7439630s 4 +2.770704s 3 +2.3969580s 2 +1.4355580s+0.4095126
Finally, the equalizer back-end impedance Z 22 (s) is computed as
Z 22 (s) _ s5 + l.75527286s 4 +2.48819589s 3 +2.17351484s 2 +l.16621256s+0.33548647

375.2793 - s4 +l.75527406s3 +2.07102799s 2 +l.44127154s+0.453655213
(7.326)
A ladder realization together with its transducer power-gain characteristic is shown in Fig. 7.27.
I.S81 lµH 4.313SµH J.7528µ11 1000
S0.60pF 63.BSpF l20pF 3000
.5 0 . 8 + - - - - - - - - - \ - - - - - - - - - - 1
.i o.6+---------1------~
~
CL
.
8 0.4----------------
:,
~
e 0.2----------------1
1-
0-1----.--.---------.::=,,---~
0.01 0.21 0.41 0.61 0.81 1.01 1.21 1.41 1.61 1.81
Frequency 100M Ras/a
Fig. 7.28 The transducer power-gain characteristic of Example 7.16.
Example 7.16 Let
R11 = 1000, R12 = 3000, C, = 200/3 pF (7.327a)

roc=l01 rad/s, amu=l.0dB, n=2 (7.327b)

Input N,WO,Amax
2
l.Oe8
1.0
Input Rl,R2,C
100.0
300.0
66.666666e-12
SigmaO• l.OOOOOOOE+OB
RCRLOAD 389
AO• 0.3333333 1.0000000

3.2002444
AO*Sum• 1.0667481
1.5000000
Prna 1.5000000
This is Case 1
Pm> AO*P(yO)
Kn•l.O
Sigmala l.6879406E+07
Denominator Polynomial of reflect Coefficient
P( 2)• 1.00000000
P( 1)= 1.09773421
P( 0)= 1.10251033
Numerator Polynomial of reflect Coefficient
Q( 2)a 1.00000000
Q( l)• 0.00000000
Q( O)a 0.50000000
Thus, Case 1 applied and K 4 = 1 . The real regular all-pass function is found to be
(s) = s-1.6879406xl0 7
(7.328)
Tl s + 1.6879406 X 107
The equalizer back-end impedance normalizing to cutoff frequency co"= 1.0xl01 rad/s and to
the generator resistance R8 = 458.7 Q is determined as
Z 22 (y) y 3 +l.549y 2 +l.006y+0.27

(7.329)
Rg y 2 +l.550y+0.117
7.8 Constant Transducer Power Gain
In this section, we show that it is always possible to design a lumped lossless matching
network that equalizes a load impedance containing only Class 1 zeros of transmission to a
resistiv~ generator and to achieve a constant transducer power gain over the entire sinusoidal
frequency spectrum.
Theorem 7.2 Assume that a load impedance has only one pair of Class 1 complex
conjugate zeros or one Class 1 real zero of transmission. Then it is always possible to match this
load to a resistive source by a lossless equalizer and to achieve a constant transducer power gain
over the entire sinusoidal frequency spectrum.
Proof Let z1 (s) be the given load, and let
(7.330)
(7.331)
whose general solution is given by

(7.332)
with
(7.333)
11(s) being an arbitrary real all-pass function. Our objective is to show that a value of y in the
range 0 Sy < 1 can always be found subject to the constraints of Class 1 zeros. In order to
maximize Kn, we shall look for minimum y that can be attained. To this end, we consider two
cases.
Case 1. cr0 is a real and positive zero of transmission. The corresponding coefficient is
/4, =Po, which implies that
(7.334)
Substituting (7.332) in (7.334) shows
(7.335)
Since IA(cr 0 )l<l and lri(cr0 )lst, a value of y in the range 0Sy<l can always be found by the
proper choice of ri(s). The minimum value of y, denoted by ymin is obtained by setting
ri(s) = 1, which gives
(7.336)
or
(7.337)
Case 2. s0 = cr0 + jro 0 and s0 = cr 0- jro0 are a pair of Class 1 zero of transmission with
cr0 > 0 and ro 0 :;t: 0. Because of reality of A(s) and p 2 (s), which implies A (s) = A(s) and
j5'2 (s) = p 2 (s), the restriction at s0 is automatically satisfied if it is satisfied at s0 • For an
adequate discussion, we further divide this case into two subcases.
Subcase 1. A(s0 ) is real. Following Case 1, the minimum y is attained by setting T)(s) = 1,
which results in
(7.338)
Subcase 2. A(s0 ) is complex. For the sake of definiteness, we choose the plus sign in
(7.332), incorporating the possible minus sign in T)(s). Define
CONST ANT TRANSDUCER POWER GAIN 391
z(s) = 1 +11(s) (7.340)

I-11(s)
which is the familiar bilinear transformation possessing the properties thatt
Rez(s) 2: 0 if and only if lll(s)l S 1 (7.341)
Since lll(s)I S 1 , Res 2: 0, being bounded real, z(s) is positive real. As a matter of fact, z(s) is a
reactance function. For a rational positive real function, it is necessary and sufficient that
largz(s)I S jargsl for !argsJ $ n/2 (7.342)
as stated in Corollary 1.2. At s =s 0 , the coefficient constraint is A(s0 ) = p 2 (s0 ), which from
(7.339) is equivalent to the condition
(7.343)
Let
z(s0 ) = r0 + jx0 (7.344)
A(s0 ) =a 0 + jb0 (7.345)
Using (7.344) and (7.345) in (7.343), we get
(7.346)
(7.347)
Since z(s) is required to be positive real, (7.342) applies for s = s 0 , which is equivalent to the
inequality
(7.348)
Combining (7.346), (7.347) and (7.348) yields the inequality
•chen. W. K. (1988) Broadband Matching: Theory and Implementations (Second edition) Singapore: World Scientific. Chap.I.
(7.349)
Now we show that we can always find a value of y in the range OS y < 1 satisfying the above
inequality. The minimum of such values satisfying (7.349) occurs when the equality is attained,
which yields the value
(7.350)
To show that y min S 1, we observe that the function
l+A(s)
(7.351)
1-A(s)
having the same functional form as (7.340), is positive real. Following the same procedure
outlined in (7.343)-(7.348), we conclude that (7.349) is valid with y =1, which in conjunction
with (7.350) yields precisely the condition O< y min s 1 . Q.E.D.
Several points are worth mentioning that might go unnoticed. First of all, in Case I and
Subcase 1 of Case 2, the equalizer turns out to be an ideal transformer, since p 2 {s) and Z22 {s)
are constants. To show that Z22 (s) is indeed a constant, we consider the even part of Z22 {s):
(7.352)
Under the described situation, we have p 2 (s)p 2 (-s) =y 2 < 1. Thus, the closed RHS zeros of
R22 (s) can only be those of r,(s)/[A(s)-p 2 (s)]. Notice that the poles of A(-s) cannot be zeros
of R22 (s), since they are also poles of r,(s). But the closed RHS zeros of r,(s), being the same
as the zeros of transmission of z1(s), are also those of A(s}-p 2 {s). This means that R22 (s),
being even function, is devoid of zeros in the entire complex plane. Thus, R22 (s) must be a
constant, so does Z 22 (s) since it has neither a pole nor zero on the jro-axis.
Secondly, in Subcase 2 of Case 2, if we choose y =ymin, then (7.348) is satisfied with the
equality sign, and z(s) represents either a pure inductor or a pure capacitor, i.e. z(s) = Ls or
1/Cs, where L and C are nonnegative. For z(s) =Ls, the inductance can be deduced from
(7.346) and (7.348) and is given by
(7.353)
CONSTANT TRANSDUCER POWER GAIN 393
and the corresponding bounded real reflection coefficient is obtained from (7.339) as
Ls-1
P2 (s)=r. -- (7.354)
nun Ls+l
For z(s) =I/Cs, the values are given by
!cool [Cr mm -ao) 2 +b:] (7.355)

2ymin~ollsol2
1-Cs
P2(s)=y · - - (7.356)
mm l+Cs
Finally, we mention that in Case 2 we assume that ro 0 :;e 0. However, ifwe pennit ro 0 ➔ 0, then
in the limit, s0 ➔ Go, and z, (s) has a double order zero of transmission at G 0 • The
corresponding fonnulas can then be obtained from those of Subcase 2 by the limiting process.
For this pwpose, we first expand A(s) by Taylor series about the point G 0 :
(7.357)
where
(7.358)
In (7.357), set s = s0 • As s0 ➔ G 0 , A(s0 ) approaches to A(G0 ) = a0 , where A(s0 ) = a0 + jb0 , and

(7.357) becomes
(7.359)
Substituting (7.359) in (7.350), (7.353) and (7.355) gives the desired fonnulas:
(7.360)
(7.361)
(7.362)
Example 7.18 Suppose that we wish to design an equalizer that matches the load
impedance
z,(s) = 3s+l (7.363)
s+3
to a resistive generator to achieve a maximum truly-flat transducer power gain over the entire
sinusoidal frequency spectrum.
Wefirstcomputetheevenpartof z,(s), r,(s)/z,(s),and A(s) which are given by
r,(s)= 3(~2 -1) (7.364)

s -9
c;(s)=r,(s)= 3(s 2 -l) (7,365)

z1 (s) (3s+ l)(s-3)
s-3
A(s)=- (7,366)
s+3
Thus, z,(s) has a simple zero of transmission in the open RI-IS at s0 =I, and Case I applies.
From (7.336), the minimum y is obtained as
Ymin =IA(I)I =½ (7.367)
From (7.332) in conjunction with (7.334), we get
(7,368)
and by (7,334) the maximum attainable constant transducer power gain is determined by the
relation
K nmax -- l -y min
2 -1 -
- J.
4 -- 0• 75 (7.369)
Using (7.364)-(7.366) and (7.368) yields the equalizer back-end impedance
Z 22 ( S·)- 21j (s)A(s) _ ( ) _ 4(s + 1) 3s + I _ 1

- z, S - --- (7.370)
A(s)-p 2 (s) s+3 s+3
a result that was expected. If the internal resistance of the source is R8 , the matching network is
simply an ideal transformer with turns ratio .[if;: I, as depicted in Fig. 7.29.
!n
3
Fig. 7.29 An equalizer together with its terminations possessing a maximum truly-flat
transducer power-gain characteristic over the entire sinusoidal frequency spectrum.
As a check, we compute the transducer power gain of the network of Fig. 7.29, showing
(7.371)
Example 7.19 Match the load impedance
2s 2 +3s+2
z (s) =------ (7.372)
' s2 +s+l
to a resistive source to achieve the largest flat transducer power gain over the entire sinusoidal
frequency spectrum.
From (7.372), we find that
(7.373)
(7.374)
Thus, z,(s) hasapairofClass I zerosoftransmissionoforder 1 at
s0 ,s0 = 0.61237244±j0.79056942=cr0 ±joo0 (7.375)
Substituting s0 in (7.374) gives

A(s0 ) = 0.1010205 (7.376)
and Subcase 1 of Case 2 applies. Using (7.329), we get

Ymin = IA(so)I = 0.1010205 (7.377)

which yields
Knmu =l-y~,n =0.98979486 (7.378)
The bounded-real reflection coefficient is chosen as p 2 (s) = y mm = 0.1010205, and
(7.379)
showing Z 22 (s) = 2.44949.
Example 7.20 It is required to equalize the load impedance
(7.380)
to a resistive source to achieve the largest flat transducer power gain over the entire sinusoidal
frequency spectrum.
The needed functions are computed as follows:
(s 2 -1)2 (s+I)2(s-1)2
r1 (s) =- 4---"- (7.381)
s +4 s 4 +4
A(s) = s 2 -2s+2
(7.382)
s 2 +2s+2
o(s) = dA(s) = 4{s 2 - 2)

(7.383)
ds (s 2+2s+2) 2
Thus, z1 (s) has a Class 1 zero of transmission of order 2 at s0 =a 0 = I . At this zero, wc obtain
(7.384)
(7.385)
Substituting (7.384) and (7.385) in (7.360) and (7.362) gives
r
Ymin =2x0.16+L0.16 +0.22 2]''2 =0.4161250 (7.386)
C = [0.4161250-0.2]2 = 0.350781 I (7.387)
2x 0.4161250x 0.16
(s) = 0.4 161250 1-0.350781 ls (7.388)

p2 1+ 0.3507811s
We next compute Z 22 (s) by means of (7.36). Observe that there is a common factor (s-1) 2
between the numerator and denominator of the first term of (7.3 89) as required:
2 2 2
2 (s+l) (s-1) s -2s+2
s 2 -.2.s+J.
Z22(s) = 2 s4 +4 s2 +2s+2 4 2
s -2s+2 0.4l 61250 1-0.3507811s s 2 +2s+2

s 2 +2s+2 l+0.3507811s
(7.389)
0.2048123s + 0.7080625
= --------
0.4967499s+ 1.1677500
which can be realized as the input impedance of a Darlington type-C section terminating in a
resistor, as discussed in Chapter 3.
References
1. Bode, H. W. (1945) Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design. Princeton N. J.: Van
Nostrand.
2. Carlin, H.J. and Crepeau, P. J. (1961) "Theoretical limitations on the broadband matching of
arbitrary impedance," IRE Trans. Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-8, No. 2, p. 165.
3. Chen, W. K. and Kourounis, K. G. (1978) ''Explicit formulas for the synthesis of optimum
broadband impedance matching networks 11," IEEE Trans. Circuits and Systems, Vol. CAS
25, No. 8, pp. 609-620.
4. Chen, W. K. (1988) Broadband Matching: Theory and Implementations. Singapore: World
Scientific.
5. Fano, R. M. (1950) "Theoretical limitations on the broadband matching of a frequency-
dependent generator and load," J. Franklin Inst., Vol. 249, Nos. 1 and 2, pp. 57-83 and 139-
154.
6. Takahasi, H. ( 1951) "On the ladder-type filter network with Tchebysheff response," J. Inst.
Elec. Commun. Engrs. Japan, Vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 65-74.
7. Weinberg, L. (1957) "Explicit formulas for Tschebysheff and Butterworth ladder networks,''
J. Appl. Phys., Vol. 28, pp. 1155-1160.
8. Xu, S. L. (1995), Fortran Programs, Beijing: Tsinghua Univ. Publications (in Chinese).
9. Youla, D. C. (1964) "A new theory of broadband matching," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory,
Vol. CT-11, No. 1, pp. 30-50.
10. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1990) "On the design of Butterworth or Chebyshev broad band
impedance matching ladder networks," Circuits, Systems and Signal Processing. Vol. 9, No.
1, pp. 55-73.
Chapter 8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Theory of
Compatible Impedances
and Applications
Given two rational positive real functions z,
(s) and z2 (s), we say that Z1(s) is
compatible with z 2 (s) if there exists a lumped reciprocalt reactance two-port network N such
z,
that (s) is the impedance looking into its input port 11' when the output port 22' is terminated
in z 2 (s), as shown in Fig. 8.1. The problem arises in broadband matching, filter design, and
cascade synthesis. Many papers have been published in this area.
2
Lossless two-
port network
N
2'
Fig. 8.1 The problem of compatible impedances.
Schoeffler [7] was first to study the conditions of compatible impedances. His conditions
were obtained through Darlington theory and cascade synthesis, and are restricted to the
situation, where no common factors can be inserted into the numerator and denominator of
Z 1(s). To obtain a more general solution, Wohlers [9] gave an existence theorem in the form of
a scattering matrix. The scattering matrix of the required two-port network N normalizing I Q
and z2 (s) is first expressed in terms of z, (s), z2 (s) and the admittance matrix YaCs) of the
augmented network N O of Fig. 8.2, from which a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for
two impedances to be compatible are derived. Wohlers' approach however does not concern
itself with the actual synthesis of the coupling network but is satisfied with the determination of a
realizable scattering matrix.
' Later the definition of compatible impcdnnccs will be extended to nonreciprocal lossless two-port networks, [S, 12).
399
400 THEOREM OF COMPATIBLE IMPEDANCES AND APPLICATIONS
r---------------------------~
I I
: 10 r-------.... =z(s) I 2
Lossless two-
port network
N
;
I
2'
I' II ------- Na II
L--------------------------- I
Fig. 8.2 An augmented two-port network for the study of compatible

impedances problem.
By inserting common factors into the numerator and denominator of Z1(s), we can
introduce additional flexibility in realization. These common factors arc referred to as the
augmenting/actors. Using different augmenting factors, a set of output reflection coefficients are
obtained, all of which have the same joo-axis magnitude but different angles. This is equivalent
to inserting different real regular all-pass functions in the output reflection coefficient. The
procedure may lead to the realization of a two-port for two compatible impedances or the
realization of an equalizer that matches two complex impedances to yield a preassigned
transducer power-gain characteristic. Ho and Balabanian [S] considered the relations between the
augmenting factors and a real regular all-pass function used in the analysis of two compatible
impedances.
On the other hand, in the design of a communication system, a basic problem is to design a
matching network between a given source and a given load so that the transfer of power from the
source to the load is maximized over a given frequency band of interested. When only the load is
frequency dependent, the problem is known as the single match. However, in many practical
situations, both the source and load impedances are frequency dependent. For example, in the
design of an inter-stage coupling network, especially at high frequencies, the output and the input
impedances of each stage may not be approximated by pure resistances. In theses cases, the
design of a lossless equalizer to match out two passive frequency dependent impedances is
necessary and this problem is referred to as the double match.
Chen and Satyanarayana [3] showed that Youla's theory of broadband matching between a
passive load and a resistive generator having a preassigned transducer power-gain characteristic
is completely equivalent to Wohlers' solution to the problem of compatible impedances, which
transforms a given passive impedance by a lossless coupling network into another specified one.
Based on this, a new approach to double match is possible (8,12,13]. Most recently, Youla et al.
[11] gave a sufficiently simple solution, both in concept and in numerical computation, based on
the existence of an open-circuit impedance matrix of N.
As mentioned before, according to Darlington theorem, every rational positive real function
Z 1(s) is realizable as the input impedance of a lumped reciprocal reactance two-port network N
terminated in I Q resistor. Thus, every rational positive real impedance is compatible with a
resistance. Toe theorem is evidently false if the 1Q resistor is replaced by some prescribed non-
PRELIMINARIES 401
constant positive real impedance z2 (s). For simplicity, in the following, we write Z1(s) ~ z2 (s)
to mean that Z1(s) is compatible with z2 (s). Evidently, we have
(1) Z1(s) ~ c, where c is real and positive.

(2) Z1(s)~Z1(s).
(3) if Z1(s) ~ z 2 (s), z2 (s) ~ z3 (s), then Z1(s) ~ z3 (s).
Property 3 is true because a cascade of two reactance two-ports is a reactance two-port, as

shown in Fig. 8.3. Note that, Z1(s)~z2 (s) does not imply z2 (s)~Z1(s). As a simple counter-
example, we see that I+ 1/s ~ 1 but not in reverse, because I~ 1+ 1/s would imply the existence
of a two-port network N that matches a source with 1Q resistance to a 1+1/s load to achieve a
transducer power-gain G(00 2 ) =I for all real oo. But, this load is an open circuit at oo =0
implying G(O) = 0, a contradiction. Consequently, the compatibility property is not symmetric
and the pairing Z1(s) ~ z2 (s) is not an equivalence relation.
r---------------------------
-
Fig. 8.3 A cascade of two reactance two-ports is a reactance two-port network.
8.1 Preliminaries
Before considering the compatibility impedance problem, we first investigate the zeros of
the even parts of the compatible impedances. To this end, assume Z 1(s) is realizable as a
lossless two-port network N terminated in z2 (s) as depicted in Fig. 8.1 and let Z(s) be the open
circuit impedance matrix of N. Write
(8.1)
and z 12 (s)=z 21 (s) ifNisreciprocal, and zu(-s)=-z11 (s),(i=l,2;j=l,2) ifNislossless. Thus

(8.2)
The even part of Z 1( s) is
(8.3)
(8.4)
where
(8.5)
With these we can now state and prove a fundamental restriction on Z 1(s): All zeros ofthe
even part of z 2 (s), including those at infinity, are also zero of the even part of Z1(s) to at least
the same multiplicity.
To prove, consider the even part of Z1(s) at the zeros of the even part of z2 (s). From
(8.4), we can draw the following conclusions:
(1) No RHS zeros of r2 (s) can be cancelled in (8.4) because z12 (s) must have all of its
poles on the jco-axis, and z 22 (s)+z2 (s) =-[z22 (-s)+z2 (-s)] at any zero of r 2 (s), and
z 22 (s) + z2 (s) can only have LHS zeros.
(2) No jco-axis zeros of r2 (s) can be cancelled if Z1(s) and z2 (s) arc assumed to be
minimum reactive. Therefore z22 (s) +z 2 (s) cannot have any jco-axis zeros.
(3) No zeros at infinity can be cancelled in (8.4) because z22 (s) must contain all the poles
of z12 (s), infinity included.
These are important restrictions if Z 1(s) ~ z 2 (s). Although necessary, they are not sufficient.
The remaining zeros of the even part of Z1(s) must be contributed by the lossless two-port
network. To investigate this, define
(8.6)
(8.7)
where M(s) 's, m(s) 's, and N(s) 's , n(s) 's stand for the even and odd parts of the relatively
prime polynomials, respectively. Define
PRELIMINARIES 403
R (s) = M,(s)M 2 (s)-N,(s)N 2 (s) T.(s) (8.8a)

' Q1(s)Q1(-s) Q1(s)Q1(-s)
(8.8b)
where
(8.9a)
(8.9b)
Observe that from (8.4) any zero of R1(s) which is not a zero of r2 (s) must be contained in
z12 (s). The polynomial T.(s) must contain t 2 (s) as a factor in addition to the remaining finite
zeros of R1(s). These remaining zeros can be realized by a reciprocal lossless two-port network
and are of even order. For if not, Z1(s) can be augmented as in Darlington synthesis to make
them even. Thus, the ratio of 7i(s) to l 2 (s) must be a perfect square except perhaps for the sign.
If 7;(s)/t2 (s) is a perfect square, then the numerator of z12 (s) is an even polynomial defined by
(8.10)
Likewise, if the ratio T;(s)/t2 (s) is the negative of a perfect square, the numerator of z12 (s) is an
odd polynomial defined by
(8.11)
These two possibilities lead to two separate cases as in Darlington synthesis, where the open-
circuit impedance parameters of the reciprocal lossless two-port network are the ratios of even-
to-odd polynomials in one case and odd-to-even in another. In Darlington realization, (see
Section 3.3.2), Case A (3.85a) corresponds to (8.10) and Case B (3.85b) to (8.11). Since the two
situations arc very similar, the derivation will be carried out in detail only for one, leaving the
other as obvious.
Define the open-circuit impedance parameters of a reciprocal lossless two-port network as:
Z (s) = a.11(S) z (s) = a.,2(s) z (s) = a.22(s) (8.12)

11 P(s) , ,2 PCs) , 22 PCs)
where cx!/(s) are assume to be even polynomial and P(s) odd for Case I. Rearranging (8.2)
gives
(8.13)
Factor this equation in the usual manner into two equations:
(8.14)
(8.15)
The placement of the various factors comes about from the following reasoning. Each equation
must have the polynomial P(s) in the denominator since the left-hand side of each equation has
poles at the zeros of P(s). Since Z 1(s) and z 2 (s) have poles at the zeros of Q1 (s) and q 2 (s).
respectively, these polynomials must appear in the denominators of the corresponding equations.
Since they do not appear on the right-hand side of (8.13), they must also appear in the
numerators of the other equations. Therefore, these factors are permitted. The only other term to
be taken care of is a~2 (s). Since z 22 (s)+ z 2 (s) is a positive real function, none of the RHS zeros
of a~2 (s) can appear in the numerator of (8.15). So, they must be placed in the numerator of
(8.14). At these RHS zeros, equation (8.14) is zero on both sides. We remark that the even part
of z11 (s) is identically zero and R1 (s) is zero at these frequencies by hypothesis. Hence the even
part of each side of (8.14) is zero. This requires that the odd part be zero at these frequencies. In
other words, (8.14) must have zeros at each zero of a. 12 (s), not only RHS ones. Therefore,
a 12 (s) must be placed in the numerator of (8.14).
Now, we express Z 1(s) and z 2 (s) in terms of the even and odd polynomials of (8.6) and
(8.7), separate (8.14) and (8.15) into even and odd parts, and we obtain
(8.16a)
(8.16b)
(8.16c)
(8.16d)
(8. l 6e)
The solution of (8.16) can be written more conveniently as:
(8.17a)
(8.17b)
PRELIMINARIES 405
With the solution of (8.17), we obtain the open-circuit impedance parameters of N for Case I.
Similarly, we obtain these parameters for Case II. The results are tabulated in Table 8.1.
Z (s) = ,P.(s) z (s) = P2(s)

I Q,(sf 2 q2(s)
7;(s) l 2 (s)
Ev Z1(s) = Q1(s)Q1(-s), Ev z2 (s)=
q2 (s)q2 (-s)
Case I Caseil
( ) even[Q1(s)p2 (-s)l/12 (s) ( ) odd[Q1(s)p2(-s)l/12 (s)

z s - z s -
22 - odd k:Ms)q2(-s)Vt 2 (s) 22 - evenkMs)q2(-s)Vt2 (s)
z
(s) - ✓Ti(s)/l2 (s) () ✓-Ti(s)/t2 (s)
12 - odd [Q,(s)q 2(-s)l!t2 (s) z, 2 s = even fQ1(s)q2(-s)l!t 2(s)
( ) even [P.(s)q2(-s)1'12(s) z (s)- odd [I;(s)q2(-s)1'12 (s)

z s -
11 - odd[Q1(s)q 2 (-s)V12 (s) 11 - even[Q1(s)q2 (-s)Yt2 (s)
Table 8.1 The open-circuit impedance parameters of N.
From Theorem 3.1, we conclude that the open-circuit impedance parameters obtained in
Table 8.1 are realizable, if and only if,
(1) z11 (s) and z22 (s) are physically realizable reactance functions.
(2) z12 (s) has only simple poles.
(3) At each pole of z12 (s), the residue must be real and satisfies the residue condition
k 11 k 22 -k,'i ~ 0, where ku is residue of z11 (s).
Applying these constraints to Table 8.1, we obtain the necessary and sufficient conditions
for Z 1(s) ~ z 2 (s) as outlined in Table 8.2.
Case I Case II
(1) '.f.{s) must contain t 2 {s)asafactor. (1) T. (s) must contain 12 (s) as a factor.
(2) '.f.{s)/t 2 {s) must be a perfect square for (2) -T. (s)/t 2{s) must be a perfect square for
reciprocalN, [if not, augment Z1(s)]. reciprocal N, [if not, augment Z1(s) ].
(3) P(s) = odd [Q 1(s)q 2 (-s)]/t 2 {s) must be a (3) a(s)=even[Q1{s)q2 (-s)]/t 2 (s) must be a
polynomial. polynomial.
(4) P(s)q 2 (s)/Q1{s) must be realizable at (4) a.(s)q 2 (s)/Q1{s) must be realizable at
infinity. infinity.
Table 8.2. The necessary and sufficient conditions for Z1(s) ~ z 2 (s).
Example 8.1 Let

z.(s)= ?i(s) = 6s 4 +6s3+12s 2 +7s+3 (8.18)
Q1(s) 6s 5 + 6s 4 + 18s 1 + l 3s 2 + 9s + 2
(8.19)
First we compute the numerators of their even parts:
(8.20)
(8.21)
Since '.f.(s)=t 2 (s), the first condition is satisfied. Case I applies, because .JT.(s)/t 2 (s) :=l is a
perfect square. Next, the condition (3) is examined:
(8.22)
Condition (3) is satisfied since the remainder is a polynomial. In fact, the polynomial is P(s),
being the denominator of the open-circuit impedance parameters of a lossless two-port network.
Condition (4) states that P(s)q 2 (s)/Q1(s) must be realizable at infinity. As s ➔ co,
p(oo)q 2 (oo)/Q1(cc)= 1/6, which is realizable. Therefore, all four conditions are satisfied. Finally,
the open-circuit impedance parameters are computed from Table 8.1.
DESIGN BY MEANS OF THE OPEN-CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS 407
z,2(s) =a12(s) = 1 82 b
P(s) s 3 + 2s ( · 3 )
IH
IF
Fig. 8.4 The realization of Example 8.1.
8.2 Design by Means of the Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters
We begin by first resolving the degenerate case. This can actually be decided by an easy
test, whose proof, though subtle, provides fundamental insight.
Theorem 8.1 (Youla et al, 1997 [11)) Let Z 1(s) and z 2 (s) be non-Foster positive real
impedances and let R1(s) and r 2 (s) be their even parts defined in (8.3) and (8.5), respectively.
Define
(8.24)
Then we have the following:
( 1) There exist a positive constant c and a Foster function Zr (s) such thatt
(8.25)
if and only if µ(s)=c and Z1(s) is compatible with z2 (s).
1 A real odd function which is analytic in Res > 0 and has only simple joo -axis poles with positive residues is Foster.
(2) If Z1 (s) is compatible with z2 (s) and µ(s) is not a constant, every associated lossless
two-port network Nin Fig. 8 .1 must possess an impedance matrix.
Proof. Condition (1). Clearly, if (8.25) is satisfied for some positive c and Foster function
Z1 (s), Z 1(s)~z 2 (s) follows immediately from Fig. 8.5, so does µ(s)=c, because
Z 1(-s)=-Z1 (s). What remains to be shown is that µ(s)sc and Z1{s)~z 2 (s) imply
Z1(s)-cz2 (s) be Foster.
::
Fig. 8.5 Some positive constant and a Foster function.
Let N be any lossless two-port associated with Z1(s) ~ z 2 (s) and let Z(s), Y(s) and S(s)
denote, respectively, its impedance matrix, admittance matrix and unit normalized scattering
matrix. Since, Z(s) and Y(s) are reactance,
(8.26)
is regular para-unitary and always exists,
Z(s) =[U +S(s)](U-S(s)J1 (8.27)
exists if and only if det[U-S(s)]:;t: 0, where U denotes the 2x2 identity, and
Y(s) = [u -S(s)][U + S(s) J

1 (8.28)
exists if and only if det[U +S(s)].e O. Three cases are distinguished.
Case !:Neither Z(s)norY(s)exists. Then
det[U-S(s)]= 1-[S11 (s)+S22 (s)]+6(s) a 0 (8.29)
det[U +S(s)]= 1+[S11 (s)+S22 (s)]+6{s) e 0 (8.30)

where
~(s) 5det[S(s)]=S11 (s)S22 (s)-S12 (s)S21 (s) (8.31)
In this case, t.(s)=-1 and S 22 (s) =-S11 (s) for alls. According to a classical result [1,4], the
McMillan degree1 o(S(s)) of a regular para-unitary matrix S(s) equals the degree of its
detenninant A(s). Hence o(S(s))= O and
S(s)= [ -a
r.-,- ±✓10-a'] (8.32)
±vl-a2
where a is real constant It is not difficult to see that (8.32) represents the ideal transformer of
turns ratio ± ✓c: 1 , where
1-a
c=-- (8.33)
l+a
Evidently, Z 1(s) =cz2 (s) and Z 1(s) can be realized by the network of Fig. 8.6.
±$:1
::
Fig. 8.6 An ideal transformer oftums ± ✓c: 1 .
Case 2. The admittance matrix

Y(s) = [Y11 (s) Y12 (s)] (8.34)
Y21(s) Yu(s)
of N exists, but Z(s) does not. Then
(8.35)
(8.36)
By hypothesis, Z 1(s) and z2 (s) are non-Foster. Thus y 11 (s) ;,1: 0 and
(8.37)
' The degree of a rational matrix without poles at infinity is the sum of the degrees of the denominators of its McMillan form.
Sec Belevitch, V. (1968) Classical N~twork Th~ory, San Francisco, CA.: Holden-Day, pp. 228-230.
In particular, since the Foster functions y 11 (s) and y 2i(s) are odd, write YuUro)-=-jbu.(ro),
k = 1,2 and we have
(8.38)
so that sign b11 ( ro) = sign b22 ( ro) for all real ro. However, a non-trivial reactance function is
uniquely detennined, up to a positive multiplicative constant, by its sign along the jro -axis.
Hence y 22 (s)/ y, 1(s) =c, a positive constant, and (8.37) reduces to (8.25) with
(8.39)
Case 3. Suppose that
(8.40)
exists. Then Z(s) is an odd positive real matrix and
(8.41)
(8.42)
where assuming that z 12 (s) = z 21 (s) and

\jl(s) = z,2 (s) (8.43)
z,,(s)+z 2 (s)
Observe that all the poles of Z(s) are restricted to the jro-axis and '4J(s) is analytic in
Res> 0. In view of (8.42) and the assumption µ(s) = c, it follows that
(8.44)
is a regular all-pass function and
The analyticity of 11 2 (s) in Res> 0 implies that of z2 (-s). Thus z 2 (s), being positive real, has
only purely imaginary poles, a constraint which is met if and only if
(8.46)
with r2 beingapositiveconstantand z2 (s) being Foster. Thus, R1(s)=cr2 (s)=cr2 ,
(8.47)
and Z1(s) is also Foster. To complete the proof of (1), it suffices to show that all residues of
(8.48)
are positive.
Let s=jco0 , finite or infinite, denote any jco-axis pole of z2 (s) with residue a2 and let
a.,a11 ,a12 and a22 be their residues evaluated at a pole of Z1(s),z11 (s), z12 (s) and z22 (s),
respectively. The impedance matrix Z(s) is found by solving (8.45) for z22 (s), (8.44) for z 12 (s)
and finally (8.4 I) for z 11 (s), or
(8.49)
Let a0 be the residue evaluated at a pole s = jco0 of the positive real function
(8.50)
(8.51)
is the real symmetric residue matrix of s = jro0 evaluated at a pole s = jco0 of Z(s), a 1 -ca 2 is
the residue of the pole s = jco0 of Z1 (s) and
(8.52)
However, A nonnegative definite implies detA;;?: 0. Hence a 1 -ca2 > 0 and Z1 (s) is Foster, as
required.
Condition (2). The decomposition Z 1(s) = Z1 (s)+cz2 (s) implies R1(s)=cr2 (s), where c is
a positive constant and Z 1 (s) is Foster, Thus Z 1(s) is compatible with z2 (s) if N does not
possess an impedance matrix.
Example 8.2 Investigate the compatibility of the impedances
Z1(s)=½+3s (8.53)
(8.54)
Since µ(s)=R 1(s)/r2 (s)=½, showing c=½, we see from Theorem 8.1 that Z 1(s)~z 2 (s)
if and only if the difference
(8.55)
is Foster. To establish compatibility, let <r> 0 and
s-cr
11(s)=- (8.56)
s+cr
(8.57)
A quick check of residue matrices reveals that Z(s) is Foster if and only if
1-2CJ~ ½/3 (8.58)

Choosing CJ= ½gives
1
lls+-
Z(s)- [ • 12s (8.59)
- 1
rlrs- 6..fis
The realization of (8.59) is presented in Fig. 8. 7.
We now discuss the more general problem. Let Z 1(s) and z 2 (s) be non-Foster positive
real impedances and suppose that µ(s) is not a constant. According to Theorem 8.1, condition
(2), any lossless two-port realization N which realizes the correspondence Z 1(s)~z2 (s)
possesses an impedance matrix Z(s).
Define lzi(s) so that

(8.60)
I' 2'
1:-.fi.
Fig. 8. 7 A realization of Example 8.2.
Since r 2 ( s) is nonnegative and bounded on the jro -axis, such solutions exist and do not contain
jro-axis poles. A factor h2 (s) is admissible if it is analytic in Res~ 0 and the ratio
(8.61)
is a regular all-pass function. There also exists an admissible h2 (s), say h2m(s), which is unique
up to a sign and defines an all-pass d 2m (s) = h2m (s)/h 2m (-s) of minimum degree. Furthermore,
(8.62)
(8.63)
give all admissible pairs [ h2 (s),d 2 (s) ]. From (8.42) and (8.43), we see that
(8.64)
is a solution of the equation

(8.65)
Observe that H 1(s) is analytic in Res~ 0, so does fl 1(s)/ h2m (s). In addition, since
(8.66)
is analytic in Res> 0, D 1(s) is a regular all-pass function and the pair [ H 1(s), D1 (s)] is
admissible for R1(s). From (8.66),

2/z;,,,(s)
z22 ( S ) = (8.67)
d 2,,,(s)-D1(s)
The impedance matrix is found to be
(8.68)
To sum up, Z 1(s)~z2 (s) if and only if there exists an admissible solution H 1(s) of (8.65) for
which H 1(s)/lzi,,,(s) is analytic in Res> 0 and Z(s) of (8.68) is Foster.
Consider the function

(8.69)
which is analytic in Res> 0 and may possess simple poles on the jro-axis. These poles coincide
with those jro-axis zeros of the function z 22 (s)+ zi(s) which are not simultaneously the zeros of
z 12 (s). Recall that a jro-axis pole of z 12 (s) is simple and necessarily common to z11 (s) and
z 22 (s), and is not a pole of \jl(s), whereas a jro-axis zero of z22 (s) + z 2 (s) cannot be a pole of
z22 (s) and therefore not one of z 12 (s), etc. Also we sec that a jro-axis pole of z 2 (s) is a zero of
\jl(s) ifand only ifit is not a pole of z12 (s). In conclusion, if 2 1(s) ~ z 2 (s), then
(8.70)
has at most second-order jro-axis poles and is finite at every jro-axis pole of z 2 (s).
Theorem 8.2 (Youla et al, [11]) Let 2 1(s) and z 2 (s) be non-Foster positive real functions.
Suppose µ(s) is not a constant and assume that no jro-axis pole of 2 1(s) is a zero of r2 (s) or a
pole of z 2 (s). Then Z1(s) is compatible with z 2 (s) if and only if
(1) µ(s) is bounded on the jro-axis and vanishes at every pole of z2 (s) in Res= 0;
(2) there exists an admissible factor H 1(s) of (8.65) such that H 1(s)/h 2,,,(s) is analytic in
Res > 0 and the solution
(8.71)
of (8.66) is positive real.
Proof It is sufficient to demonstrate that conditions ( l) and (2) imply that Z(s) of (8.68) is
Foster. Obviously, subject to conditions (l) and (2), it follows that H1(s)/ h2m (s) is actually
analytic in Res~ 0, so that Z(s) is analytic in Res> 0 and has at most simple poles in
Res=O. Moreover, Z(s)isalsoodd.Forexample
(8.72)
We conclude the proof by showing that every fro-axis pole of Z(s) has a real symmetric
nonnegative define residue matrix.
Let s = Jro 0 be an imaginary pole of Z(s) and denote the residues of Z 1(s), z 2 (s) and the
positive real function
(8.73)
evaluated at one of their poles by a1,G 2 and G0 , respectively, where, a 1 ~ 0and at•~ a 2 ~ 0.
If a 2 > 0. H 1(s)/h 2m (s) is zero at s = jro 0 and the residue matrix
(8.74)
evaluated at the pole s = jro 0 of Z(s) is obviously real symmetric and nonnegative definite.
However, ifs= jro 11 is not a pole of either z2 (s) or z0 (s), G2 = G 0 = 0 and again
(8.75)
is nonnegative definite. Lastly, let s = jw 0 be a pole of z 0 (s), but not a pole of z2 (s). Then, of
necessity,
(8.76)
tends to zero as s ➔ jro0 • By hypothesis,
(8.77)
for ro real. Thus

H 1(-s) H 1(s) ➔ O
(8.78)
h2,,,(-s) l1i.,(s)
ass ➔ jro0 and
(8.79)
is a real number. Accordingly,
(8.80)
is real symmetric and nonnegative definite because det A= a1a0 ~ 0.
Example 8.3 Consider the impedances
s+l.
Z1{s)=--3 (8.81)
s+3
(8.82)
Obviously, Z1(s) is minimum reactance. Theorem 8.2 applies and the first step is to check
the boundedness of µ(s) on the jro-axis. To this end, we compute
1-s 2
R1( s ) = - - - - (8.83)
(3+s)(3-s)
l-s 2
r2( s ) = - - - - (8.84)
(2+s)(2-s)
µ(s)= R,(s) = (2+s)(2-s) (8.85)

r 2 (s) (3+s)(3-s)
Hence µ(s) is bounded on the jro-axis.
To find h2.,{s)and d2111 {s), we use (8.84) to deduce that every admissible factor hi(s) of
r2 (s) = '12 (s)lti (-s) is given by
1-s
hi (s) =Tt 2 (s)- (8.86)
2+s
where Tt2 (s) is a regular all-pass function. Then

has minimum degree if tt!(s) a 1, so that
1-s
~ (s)=±- (8.88)
"' 2+s
1-s 2-s
d (s)=-·- (8.89)
2"' l+s 2+s
Similarly,
1-s
H1,.(s)=±- (8.90)
3+s
1-s 3-s
D1,,,(s)=-·- (8.91)
1+s 3+s
The regular all-pass function ri(s) must be chosen so that z22 (s) in (8.71) is positive real.
Note that for any such ri(s),
(8.92)
is analytic in Res> 0, as required by condition (2) of Theorem of 8.2.
The restrictions imposed on ri(s) are made transparent by rewriting (8.71) as
(8.93)
Since ~"' (1) =0, s =1 must be a zero of
-1-s[2-s 3-sJ
- - r i 2 (s)- (8.94)
l+s 2+s 3+s
of order ~ 2. Thus 11 2 (I)= 2/3, 11(1) = ± ✓6/3. For our purposes, we choose
(s) = 9.8989810-s (8.95)

Tl 9.8989810+s
or
(s)= 0.1010205-s (8.96)
Tl 0.1010205+s
which will provide the desired interpolation. Substituting this in (8.68) yields
zs _ l [ s 2 +65.32656 -s 2 +97.98982]
(8.97)
( )- 20.79794s -s 2 +97.98982 s 2 +146.98470
The nonnegative definite residue matrices
A _ I [ I -11] (8.98)
., - 20.79794 -1
A _ 1 [65.326561 97.98982]
(8.99)
0 - 20.79794 97.98982 146.98470
evaluated at the poles s = cx, and s = 0 are both singular and the lossless two-port network can
be synthesized as in Fig. 8.8.
On the other hand, without the restrictions of Theorem 8.2, µ(s) can possess second-order
and H 1(s)/h2m(s) the first-order jco-axis poles. A direct examination of the residues of Z(s) is
very much involved.
J ,S: I 2
0.141S0 F
s+J. s +J.
Z1(s)=-> ~ Z2(s)=-2
s+3 s+2
0.0-1808 H
I' I: I 2'
Theorem 8.3 (Youla etal, [11]) Let Z1(s) and z2 (s) be non-Foster positive real functions.
Then Z 1(s) ~ z 2 (s) if and only if (8.65) possess an admissible factor H 1(s) such that
(1) H 1(s)/h2.,(s) is analytic in Res>0;
(2) the solution Z 20 (s) of the equation
(8.100)
is positive real.
Lossless two-
port network
V1 (s)
N
I' 2'
Fig. 8.9 A lossless two-port networkNterminating in IQ and z 2 (s).
Suppose that Z1(s) ~ z2 (s) is realized by a lossless two-port network N of Fig. 8.9. Define
the output reflection coefficient at port 221 normalized to z2 (s) as
(8.101)
where Z 20 (s) is the driving-point impedance looking into port 22' when port 11 1 is terminated in
1Q resistor. The input reflection coefficient at port 11' normalizing to Z 1(s) is
- H 1(s) ,_........,
S-II ( S)- 1-Z1(-s) __
(8.102)
H 1(-s) l+Z1(s)
Then we have
811 (s) = 8 2 (s)S22 (s), if N is lossless reciprocal (8.103a)
811 (s) = 8(s)S22 (s), if N is lossless nonreciprocal (8.103b)
S11 (s) = S22 (s), if N is lossless minimum-phase (8.103c)
where according to Corollary 2.3, 8(s) is a real regular all-pass function. Substituting (8.101)
and (8.102) in (8.103a) gives
H,(s) l-Z1(-s) =S 2 (s) /~(s) Z20 (s)-z2 (-s)

(8.104)
H 1(-s) l+Z1(s) h2 (-s) Z20 (s)+zis)
where h2 (s) is determined by (8.60) and H,(s) by (8.65). Thus, the compatibility problem
becomes that of ftnding the back-end impedance Z20 (s). Suppose that Z20 (s) is expressed as
Z20 (s) = ~ 0 (s)/Q20 (s). Its even part is found to be
(8.105)
420 THEORY OF COMPATIBLE IMPEDANCE AND APPLICATIONS
Define
(8.106)
where the zeros of the polynomial W20 (s) are restricted to the LHS, and the zeros of JV20 (-s) are
limited to the RHS. The joo-axis zeros are equally divided between W20 (s) and W20 (-s). It can
be shown that [14]
9(s) = Ww(-s) (8.107)
Wio(s)
Using (8.104) in conjunction with (8.107) shows condition(2) of Theorem 8.3. We remark that
Z 20 (s) can also be found by the technique proposed by Wan and Chen [8] using the by chain
parameters to be introduced in following section.
The solution of the compatibility problem offered in Theorem 8.3 is again interpolatory in
character and reduces to the detennination of a regular all-pass function 11 1(s) whose square
assumes prescribed values at given points s1 in the close RHS. To see this, consider
(8.108a)
(8.108b)
Substituting (8.108b) in (8.100) gives
(8.109a)
or, in a more expanded fonn,
(8.109b)
Define checking zeros of z 2 (s) as those of the function
(8.110)
in close RHS. The reasoning that follows is almost identical with that employed in analytic
single match of Chapter 7.
According to condition (1) of Theorem 8.3, H 1(s)/h2.,(s)=11,(s)H1,,,(s)/h2.,(s) must be

analytic in open RHS, a constraint that is met by incorporating the poles of H 1,,,(s)/h2,,,(s) in the
DESIGN BY MEANS OF THE OPEN CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS 421
open RHS as zeros of ll,(s) of appropriate orders. Consequently, from (8.109b) any zero of
t..{s) in the open RHS is one of H 12 (s) and therefore of d2,,,(s)-rif (s)D1.,(s) of at least the
same multiplicity. Similarly, in view of (8.109a), a zero s=jro0 of t..(s) in Res=0 of
multiplicity k is one of
(8.111)
of multiplicity at least kif z2 (jro 0 ) = 0 or z2 (jro0 ) =~, and k-1 if 0 <lz2 (jro 0 )1 <~, etc. (see
Section 7.2.)
Example 8.4 (11] Show that the positive real impedance
z (s) 1.2(2s3 +10.8s 2 +6.8s+36)

(8.112a)
1 s(s 2 +4)(s 2 +6)
is compatible with the positive impedance
2
s +3.6s+ 1.6
z (s)
2
=--,,-----
s 2 +s+10
(8.112b)
Design an economic lossless two-port network.
First compute their even parts

R (s)- 36 (8.113a)
I - 25(36-s 2 )
(8.113b)
and z2 (j2) = l .2j. Thus

36(s4 +19s 2 +100)
(8.114)
µ(s) = 25(s 2 +4) 2 (36-s 2 )
has double-order jro-oxis poles at s=±j2. We apply Theorem 8.3. Form (8.110) and (8.111)
we find
(8.115)
(8.116)
H,., (s)-- 6- (8.117)

- S(s+6)
-s+6
D1 (s)=-- (8.118)
., s+6
Since h2,,.(j2)=0 and d2,,,(j2)=D1,,,(j2)=(6-2j)/(6+2j),and
l-Z1(-j2)
(8.119)
l+Z1(j2)
Equation (8.109a) gives 11: (2j) = 1 . This in conjunction with the analyticity of H 1,,, (s)/h2m (s) in
the open RHS shows that the simplest choice is 11 1(s) = ±1, which in fact does lead to a positive
real solution
Z 20 (S) -_ 2.4(s+l.8) (8.120)

s(s+2.4)
Its realization is presented in Fig. 8.10.
• ( )- S 2 +3.6s+ 1.6
"'Z S -
s 1 +s+IO
I' 2'
Z (s) = l.2(2s 1+ 10.8s 2+ 6.8s + 36)
1 s(s 1 + 4)(s + 6)
Fig. 8.10 Two compatible impedances.
8.3 Chain Parameter Approach
Based on Schaeffer's work, and using the chain parameters, a simpler approach to solve
the compatibility problem was given by Wan and Chen [8], where the complicated coefficient
conditions are replaced by simple and equivalent algebraic constraints. Consider the
compatibility of two impedances Z1(s) and z2 (s) as shown in Fig. 8.11
CHAIN PARAMETER APPROACH 423
2
Lossless two-
1n Z1( s ) ~ port network z 2 (s)
~ Z20(s)
N
I' 2'
Fig. 8.11 The compatibility problem.
Assume that Z1(s) and z2 (s) are expressed by (8.6) and (8.7). The transmission polynomials
Ti (s) and t2(s) are defined by (8.9), the zeros of which are called the transmission zeros.
Let the chain parameters associated to a lossless two-port network N be
[V.(s)] 1 [A(s)
/ (s) = Q(s) C(s)
B(s)][ Vi(s)]
D(s) - l2 (s)
(8.121)
1
where A(s), B(s), C(s), D(s) and Q(s) are polynomials in s with real coefficients, A(s) and
D(s) are even, whereas B(s) and C(s) are odd, or vice versa. Then the input impedance Zin (s)
can be expressed in terms of the chain parameters as
(8.122)
Let E(s) + O(s) be a polynomial with real coefficients of a complex variables, where E(s)
and O(s) are its even and odd parts. Multiplying the numerator and denominator of Z1(s) by it
yields
z (s)= M,(s)+N,(s). E(s)+O(s) ~1(s)+1'.1(s) (8.123)
10 M 2 (s)+N2 (s) E(s)+O(s) ~2 (s)+A 2 (s)
where ~,(s) and 1'.,(s),(i = 1,2) denote the even and odd parts of the numerator and denominator
of Z10 (s), respectively, in which
(8.124a)
i.. 1(s) = N1(s)E(s) + M1(s)O(s) (8.124b)
(8.124c)
(8.124d)
The above procedure is known as impedance augmentation and E(s)+O(s) the augmentation
factor. If Z1(s) ~ z2 (s), by the definition, we have
Z(s)E(s)+O(s) =Z. (s) (8.125)

1 E(s)+O(s) 111
When Z1(s) and z 2 (s) are given and Schaeffer's compatible impedances conditions are
satisfied, the problem of solving compatible impedances becomes that of determining a set of
chain parameters of N, which in turn reduces to that of finding the factor E(s) + O(s). Two
cases are distinguished. Case 1 for A(s) and D(s) are even, and B(s) and C(s} are odd. Case 2
A(s) and D(s) odd, and B(s) and C(s} even.
Case 1. Assume that A(s) and D(s) are even and B(s) and C(s) are odd. Substituting
(8.7) in (8.125) gives
z (s)E(s)+O(s) _ A(s)[m,(s)+n1(s)]+B(s)[m2 (s)+n2 (s)] (8.126)

1 E(s)+O(s) - C(s)[m 1(s)+n 1(s)]+D(s)[m 2 (s)+n 2 (s)]
For the fraction to be equal, their numerators and denominators must be proportional.
[E(s) +O(s))[M,(s)+ N1(s)] = A(s)[m1(s) +n1{s)]+ B(s)[m 2 (s) + n2 (s)] (8.127)
[E(s)+ O(s)][M2 (s) + N 2 (s)] = C(s)[m1(s)+n1(s)]+ D(s)~n 2 (s) +n 2 (s)] (8.128)
Equating the even and odd parts on the two sides of (8.127) and (8.128) and invoking (8.124)
yield
(8.129a)
A(s)n1(s) + B(s)m2 (s) = A- 1(s) (8.129b)
(8.129c)
(8.129d)
where l;,(s) and 1,,.1 (s) are defined in (8.124). Solving (8.129) gives
(8.130a)
(8.130b)
B(s) =-1-lm• (s) ;1 (s)I (8.130c)

~(s) n1(s) A1(s)
D(s)=-1-1m,(s) A2(s)I (8.130d)

~(s) n1(s) l; 2 (s)
Case 2. Assume that A(s) and D(s) are odd and B(s) and C(s) are even. Following Case
1, we obtain
C 1 1;2(s) n2(s)I (8.131a)
(s) = ~(s) A. 2(s) m2(s)
A(s) =-l-lA1(s) n2(s)I (8.131b)

~(s) ; 1(s) m2(s)
D(s) = _l_r,(s) l;2(s)

(8.131c)
~(s) n1(s) A2(s}
Bs - - -
I lm1(s) A1(s)I (8.131d)
( )- ~(s) n1(s) ;,(s)
When Z1(s)and z2(s) are given, the problem of computing the chain parameters of Nreduces to
that of finding the factor E(s) + O(s). When the chain parameters are obtained, N can be realized
from its the back-end impedance
Z (s) = D(s) + B(s) (3.132)
20 A(s)+C(s)
Theorem 8.4 Given two non-Foster minimum reactance functions Z1(s) and z2(s) shown
in (8.6) and (8.7) and
l+Z1(s);t:0, for Res~O (8.133)
The necessary and sufficient conditions for them to be compatible are as follows:
(1) The transmission zeros of Z1(s) must contain those RHS transmission zeros of z2(s) to
at least the same order.
(2) A strictly Hurwitz polynomial E(s) + O(s) as the augmentation factor of Z1(s) exists so
that Z 20 (s) obtained from (8.130) and (8.131) is positive real, where E(s) and O(s)are
the even and odd parts of E(s) +O(s), respectively.
A proof of the theorem can be found in Wan and Chen [8].
Example 8.5 Let

z (s)= s+rr (8.134)
I S+17
(8.135)
They are positive real, and 1+ Z 1(s) :;t: 0 for Res 2'. 0.
( 1) T( s) = t( s) = 1- s 2, showing that the condition ( 1) of Theorem 8.4 holds.

(2) Let E(s) + O(s) = s + cr. Augmenting Z1(s) yields
z, (s)= s2 +(cr+rr)s+rr (8.136)

a s 2 + (O' + 17)s + 17 O'
Next, we compute
(8.137)
(8.138)
(8.139)
1'. 2 = (cr+ 17)s (8.140)
(8.141)
(3) Substituting (8.137)-(8.141) into (8.130) gives
A(s)= (3-cr-1/17)s 2 +3cr/17 =Ko (8.142)

1-s 2
From (8.142), find

3-cr-1/17 =-K0 (8.143a)
3cr/17 =K0 (8.143b)

obtaining
cr = 25/7 (8.144a)
K0 =75/119 (8.144b)
From (8,141) and (8.144)
A(s) = 75/119, B(s) = s, C(s) = s, D(s) = 425/21 (8.145)
Z (s)=s+425/21 (8.146)
20 s+ 75/119
Z 20 (s) is positive real and can be realized by the network of Fig. 8.12.
1:11/J 17/ 3 n 2
,,.___,__.. .--------.
I' 2'
Fig. 8.12 A non-reciprocal realization of Example 8.5.
If a reciprocal network is needed, the augmentation factor of Z1(s) should be

E(s) + O(s) = (s +a')2, giving
Z (s)=s+l/17_s2 +2crs+cr 2 (8.147)

10 s+l7 s2 +2crs+cr2
Substituting (8.147) into (8.124) gives
S1(s) = (1/17 + 2cr)s2 + cr2/17 (8.148a)
(8.148b)
~ 2 (s) = (17 + 2cr)s 2 + l 7cr 2 (8.148c)
(8.148d)
Using (8.148) and (8.141) in (8.130) shows
A() - -s 4 +(3/17+100cr/17-cr 2 )s 2 +3cr 2/17 -K 2 K

S - 2 - 1S + 0 (8.149)
1-s
From (8.149), we obtain

(8.150a)
3/17 + 1OOcr/17-cr 2 = K1 -K0 (8.150b)
3cr 2/17 = K 0 (8.150c)

It is found that
cr =7, K 0 =147/17 (8.151)
Z (s) = s 2 + 700s/51 + 833/3 (8.152)

20 s 2 +28s+147/17
which is positive real and can be realized by the reciprocal network of Fig. 8.13.
3/17:1 2
s+.L
17 ~
Z 1(s) = - -
s+l7
I' 2'
Fig. 8.13 A reciprocal realization of Example 8.5.
Theorem 8.4 can also be used for active impedances. To this end, consider the following
example.
Example 8.6 Let Z (s)= 0.9s 2 +2.ls-1 (8.153)

1 1.65s +3.85s 2 +15.9s+7.6
3
0.15s 2 +0.65s+0.2
( ) =---S-_-1
Z2 S _ __ (8.154)
They are not positive real, but 1+ Z1(s) ;c 0 for Res;;?: 0.
(1) T(s) =-30.4(s 2 + 1/4) (8.155a)
t(s) = -0.8{s 2 + 1/4) (8.155b)
Since both of them have only samejro-axis transmission zeros, condition {l) of Theorem 8.4 is
satisfied.
(2) Suppose E(s)+O(s)=s+cr. Compute

s, (s) = (2.1 +0.9cr)s 2 -cr (8.156a)
A- 1(s) = 0.9s3 +(2.lcr-l)s (8.156b)
~ 2 (s) = 1.65s.c + (15.9+3.85cr)s 2 + 7.6cr (8.156c)
A-2 (s) =(3.85+1.65cr)s3 +(7.6+15.9cr)s (8.156d)
(8.157)
Substituting (8.156) and (8.157) into (8.130) yields a negative cr, showing that Case 1 is not
suitable. Using (8.131) gives
4
A(s) = (5.5 + 1.65cr)s + (23.5
2
+ 19.75cr)s2 + 7.6cr K 2
,s +
K
0 (8.158)
0.8(s +1/4)
1.65cr-0.8K1 =-5.5 (8.159a)
19.75cr-0.2K1 -0.8K0 =-23.5 (8.159b)
7.6cr-0.2K0 = 0 (8.159c)
Equation (8.159) is a set of linear equations. Solving them yields
cr=2, K, =11, K 0 =16 (8.160)
(8.161)
which is positive real and can be realized by the non-reciprocal network of Fig. 8.14.
.!J-n
~ ................/is:I
Fig. 8.14 A non-reciprocal realization of Example 8.6.

8.4 Wohlers' Compatibility Theorem
Consider two non-Foster positive impedances Z 1{s)and z 2 (s). Write
(8.162)
(8.163)
where M(s) 's, m(s) 's, and N(s) 's, n(s) 's stand for the even and odd parts of the relatively
prime polynomials, respectively. The even parts of Z1(s) and z 2 (s) can be expressed as
(8.164)
(8.165)
In (8.164) and (8.165), the factorizations are to be performed so that f¥i (s) and w 2 (s) include the
all zeros in the open LHS, w; (-s) and w 2 (-s) include all the zeros in the RHS, and the zeros on
the jro-axisareequallydividedbetween W.(s)and W1(-s),or w 2 (s)and w2 (-·s). Write
c;1(s) = Wi(s) (8.167)

M 2 (s)+N 2 (s)
r 2 (s) =h2 (s)h2 (-s) (8.168)

where
w2(-S)
h2 (s) = (8.169)
m2 (s) + n2 (s)
We recognize that h2 (s)/ h2 (-s) is a real regular all-pass function, and can be expressed as
(8.170)
in which
(8.171)
(8.172)
WOHLERS' COMPATIBILITY THEOREM 431
Based on the above, the necessary and sufficient conditions for Z1(s)~z 2 (s) arc
summarized below. This result was first given by Wohler (9].
Theorem 8.5 The necessary and sufficient conditions that two non-Foster positive real
minimum reactance functions Z1(s) and z2(s) be compatible with a reciprocal two-port network
realization are that:
(I) at each zero s0 of r2(s) of order m,
(a) if z 2(s) is analytic at s0 , then s0 as a zero of R, (s) must be to the order of at least
m,
(b) if z 2(s) is singular at s0 = jro0 , but not Z1(s), then s0 as a zero of R1(s) must be to
the order of least m + 2 , and
(c) the sum of the orders of s0 as a zero of R1(s) and r2(s) must be an even integer for
Res0 >0;
(2) a real regular all-pass function 8(s)exists so that the function
(8.173)
is analytic in the open RHS, and

(a) if z 2(s) is analytic at s0 = jro 0 , then y 220 (s) can at most have a simple pole at s 0
with real and positive residue, or
(b) if z2 (s) is singular at s0 = jro0 , then
lim Z2(S)Y22a(s) (8.174)
> ➔ Jl:Jo:
must be a real number less than or equal to one.
We illustrate the above result by the following examples.
Example 8. 7 Consider the positive real impedances
Z (s) = 30s 3 +96s 2 +5s+9 (8. I 75)

1 15s 2 + 48s + 1
3s+9
z 2 (s)::-:-- (8.176)
3s+l
the even parts of which are found to be
R1(s) = ½[Z1(s)+ z, (-s)]= l;,(s)l; 1(--s)

9(1 + s)(l-s)_ __ (8.177)
=----=---'---;...;._-=-'
(15s 2 +48s+1)(15s 2 -18s+l)
r2 (s) = ½[z2 (s) + z2 (-s)]= fli(s)h1(-s)

9(1+s)(l-s) (8.178)
=-----
(1 + 3s)(l-3s)
Thus, s = I is an open RHS zero of R, (s) and r2 (s) of order I or m = 1, and condition (I) is
satisfied. To test condition (2), we factorize R,(s) and r2 (s) according to the rules outlined. This
gives
1f;(s)=3(s+l) (8.179)
h (s)= 3(1-s) (8.180)

2 I +3s
Substituting (8.175), (8.179) and (8.180) in (8.173) yields
(8.181)
For y 220 (s) to be analytic in the open RHS, it is necessary that there be an all-pass function 0(s)
of the fonn
~ s-1
0(s)=0(s)- (8.182)
s+l
that assumes the value which will make the terms inside the brackets on the right-hand side of
(8. I 8 I) to vanish at the open RHS zero s 0 = I of R1(s) and r2 (s), where 0(s) is another all-pass
function. This is equivalent to setting
82 (1) = I - 3s . 3Os 3 + 11 ls 2 + 53s + IO =1 (8.183)

I+ 3s 30s 3 -8ls 2 -43s-8 s=t
This shows that required all-pass function is
s-1
0(s)=- (8.184)
s+l
which when used in (8.173) yields a function
(3s+l) 2 (-180s 4 -90s 3 +162s 2 +90s+l8)

y 220 ()
s =
18(1- s 2 )(3s + 1)(30s3 + l l ls 2 + 53s ++I 0)
(8.185)
(3s + 1)(1 Os___
=--_..;_.;.__ 2 + 5s + 1)
.;.__
30s + l l ls + 53s ++I 0
3 2
that is analytic in the closed RHS, in fact, y 220 (s) is a positive real function. Thus, condition (2)
is satisfied and the given impedances Z1(s) and z2 (s) are compatible. A realization of the
augmented admittance of (8.185) is presented in Fig. 8.15.
3s+9
2H 3s+l
• •
Fig. 8.15 A realization of the augmented admittance y 220 (s) of (8.185)
Remove the 1 n resistor, we obtain the compatible network N as depicted in Fig. 8.16.
2H
2
3s+9
% ---
2 - 3s+l
-
I' 2'
Fig. 8.16 A realization of the compatible impedances of (8.175) and (8.176).
Example 8. 7 shows how Theorem 8. 5 can be used to ascertain the compatibility of two
positive real impedances. However, in applying condition (2) we must first calculate y 220 (s) of
(8.173). To simplify our computations, we rewrite y 220 (s) as
(8.186)
where
(8.187)
(8,188)
Observe that in (8.173) the term

1-Z1(-s). l; 1 (s)
(8.189)
l+Z1 (s) l; 1 (-s)
is analytic in the open RHS except at the open RHS zeros of R1(s), and the order of these poles
is equal to the order of the zeros of R1(s). This follows directly from the facts that zeros of
~ 1 (-s) contains all the open RHS poles of 2 1 (-s) to the same order, and that l -Z1 (-s) cannot
be zero at an open RHS zero of R1(s), so that no cancellation occurs. To see that l-Z1(-s)
cannot be zero at open RHS zero s0 of R1(s), let
(8.190)
(8.191)
we obtain from (8.190)

(8.192)
This is impossible for a positive real impedance Z1(s). Hence, the term 1-Z1(-s) cannot be
zero at an open zero of R1(s).
From the above observations, we conclude that if y 220 (s) of (8.173) is to be analytic in the
open RHS, the order of the zero of R1(s) plus the order of the zero of ri(s) must be an even
integer; and the all-pass function 0 2 (s) must be of the form
(8.193)
With this choice of 0(s), the function J;(s) as given in (8.188) will be analytic in the open
RHS. Thus, for y 220 (s) to be analytic in the open RHS, it is necessary and sufficient that the
function
(8.194)
be analytic in the open RHS.
A careful examination of (8.194) reveals that the analyticity requirement of f. (s) is

equivalent to the existence of an all-pass function 9(s) that interpolates to prescribed values at
desired points, being the zeros of r2 (s), in the closed RHS. To see this, we first observe that
h2 (s)/h2 (-s), being an all-pass function, is analytic in closed RHS and contains all the RHS
zeros of h2 (s) to exactly the same order. Let s 0 be an open RHS zero of order m of r 2 (s). Write
(8.195a)
(8.195b)
(8.196)
Since h2 (s) is finite nonzero at s = s0 , for J;(s) to be analytic in the open RHS, it is necessary
that the function inside the brackets contain a zero at s = s0 to at least the order m, or
equivalently
(8.197)
Thus, for J; (s) to be analytic in the open RHS, an all-pass function 0(s)must exist, so that it
assume the prescribed values, including its derivatives to the order m -1 , at each open RHS zero
s0 of order m of r 2 (s).
To illustrate, consider again the problem of Example 8.7. From (8.175) and (8.176), we
obtain
(8.198a)
(8.198b)
(8.198c)
(8.198d)
(8.198e)
J;(s) = (3s+ 1)2 [3s-l _ 02 (s) -15s 2+48s-l] (8.199)

1 18(s 2 -1) 3s+1 15s 2 +48s+1
For J;(s) to be analytic in the open RHS, it is necessary that there be an all-pass function
0(s) that assumes the value
82 (I)= (3s-l)(l 5s 2 + 48s + 1) =1 (8.200 )
(3s+l)(-15s 2 +48s-1) •=•
at the open RHS zero s 0 = 1 of r 2 (s), yielding 0(s) = ± 1 , conforming (8.183).
8.5 Equivalent Conditions
In this section, we show that conditions of Theorem 8.5 are completely equivalent to the
coefficient constraints imposed by the load impedance matrix
z(s) = [ 1 0 ] (8.201)
0 z 2 (s)
To this end, let
(8.202)
be the scattering matrix of N normalizing to the reference impedance z(s) of Fig. 8.17. Applying
the para-unitary property of a lossless two-port network
S.(s)S(s) = U (8.203)
2
1n
Lossless two-
Z 1(s) _ . . port network ~ Z 20 (s) z 2 (S)
V,(s) N
I' 2'
Fig. 8.17 A lossless two-port network terminated in a resistive source

and a passive load impedance.
we obtain
(8.204a)
(8.204b)
(8.204c)
EQUIVALENT CONDITIONS 437
giving
(8.205)
where 812 (s) is an all-pass function. Next, we express the scattering parameters in tenns of the
input impedance Z1(s)and certain all-pass functions. From Fig. 8.13, we have
S (s) = Z,(s)-1 (8.206)

11 Z1(s)+l
Using (8.204) and (8.205) in conjunction with
(8.207)
where the factorization is to be perfonned so that l; 1(s) and l;j 1(-s) are analytic in the open
RHS and ~. (s) is the ratio of polynomials of minimal order, we obtain
(8.208)
(8.209)
S (s)= l-Z,(-s) • l;,(s) 8 2 (s)8 (s) (8.210)

22 l+Z,(s) l;i{-s) 21 12
where 821 (s) is an all-pass function.
Consider the augmented two-port network N0 of Fig. 8.2. Let
(8.211)
be its admittance matrix. Using (2.116) in conjunction with
(8.212)
where Z(s) is open circuit matrix of N and z(s) is reference impedance defined in (8.201), the
elements of Y (s) can be expressed in terms of those of S(s), as follows:
0
(8.213)
(8.214)
(8.215)
(8.216)
If N is a reciprocal two-port network, S 12 (s)=S21 (s) and y 120 (s)=y 210 (s). The above
scattering parameters S,, (s) and the admittance parameters y ya (s) simplify to
S (s)=Z,(s)-1 (8.217)
11 Z,(s)+l
(8.218)
(8.219)
1
Y11a(s)= Z,(s)+l (8.220)
(8.221)
(8.222)
where 0(s) =0 21 (s) is an all-pass function.
Referring to Fig. 8.17, consider the bounded-real reflection coefficient
(8.223)
at the output port, where Z 20 {s) indicates the driving-point impedance looking into the output
port when the input port is terminated in a 1 Q resistor, and A2 (s) is defined in (8.171). From
(2.170) we have
(8.224)
As shown in the preceding section, for y 220 (s) to be analytic in the open RHS, the all-pass
function 0(s) in S22 (s) of(8.219)mustbeform
(8.225)
where w2 (-s) contains all the open RHS zeros of r2 {s), JYi(-s) all the open RHS zeros of
R1(s), which coincide with the zeros of r2 {s), and 0 1(s) is real regular all-pass function, which
is not zero at the open RHS zeros of r2 (s).
Finally, the equalizer back-end impedance Z 20 (s) can be determined from (8.223) and is
given by
(8.226)
where
(8.227)
Since from (8.170), (8.227) and (8.224), y 220 (s) of (8.222) can be expressed as
(8.228)
The back-end impedance Z 20 (s) becomes
(8.229)
Lemma 8.1 Let z2 (s) be a prescribed, rational, non-Foster positive real function and 4> 2 (s)
a real, rational function of the complex variables. For each zero of transmission s 02 of order "2
of z2 (s), 4> 2 (s) is expanded in Laurent series about s 02 as
.,
4> 2 (s)= ~) .. 2 (s-s 02 Y (8.230)
.r•O
Then the function defined by

(8.231)
is positive real if cj, 2 (s) is a bounded-real reflection coefficient satisfying Youla's coefficient
constraints. (see Section 7.2)
The lemma follows directly from Theorem 8.5 and the relation (8.229).
Theorem 8.6 Let z 2 (s) be a prescribed, rational, non-Foster positive real minimum
reactance function and cj, 2 (s) a real, rational function and cj, 2 (s) a real, rational function of the
complex variables. Then the function defined by the relation
(8.232)
where A2 (s) and F; (s), as given in (8.171) and (8.227), respectively, are uniquely specified by
z 2 (s), satisfies the conditions that
(1) y 220 (s) is analytic in the open RHS, and that

(2) at each real-frequency axis zero s0 = jro0 of r2 (s) = Ev z 2 (s) of order k,
(a) if z 2 (s) is analytic at s0 = jro0 , then y 220 (s) can at most have a simple poles at
s0 with real and positive residue, or
(b) if z 2 (s) is singular at s0 = jro0 , then
(8.233)
must be a real number less than or equal to one;

if, and only if, cj, 2 (s) is a bounded-real reflection coefficient satisfying Youla's
coefficient constraints at each zero of transmission of z 2 (s).
We now proceed to demonstrate that if the function cj> 2 (s) assumes the form dictated by
(8.219) and (8.224), Youla's coefficient constraints imposed on cj, 2 (s) by the load impedance
z 2 (s) are completely equivalent to Wohlers' compatibility conditions.
Theorem 8.7 Let Z1(s) and z 2 (s) be prescribed, rational, non-Foster, positive real
minimum reactance functions. Then Z1(s) is compatible with z 2 (s) with a reciprocal two-port
network realization if, and only if, there exists a real regular all-pass function 8 0 (s) such that the
function defined by the relation
.!.()_l-Z
't'2 s -
1(-s)
· l'-
.; 1(s)
- . B()0 2()
2 s O s (8.234)
1+ Z1(s) 1'.; 1(-s)
is a bounded-real reflection coefficient satisfying the coefficient constraints at each zero of

transmission s 02 of z 2 (s) of order k 2 , where l.; 1{s) is defined in (8.167), and B2 (s) in (8.172),
respectively.
The proofs of Theorems 8.6 and 8.7 can be found in Chen [2].
Example 8.8 Consider the problem given in Example 8.7 again, where
Z (s) = 3Os 3 +96s 2 + 5s +9 (8.235)

1 15s 2 +48s+I
z (s) = 3s+9 (8.236)

2 3s+ I
Using (8.235) and (8.236) in (8.167) and (8.172), we obtain
(8.237)
B() _1-s
2 s -- (8.238)
t+s
Substituting (8.235)-(8.238) in (8.234) yields
cl> (s) = 3Os 3 -8ls 2 -43s-8 0 2(s) (8.239)

2 3Os 3 +llls 2 +53s+tO °

<;(s) = r2 (s) = 3(1 + s)(I -s) (8.240)
z 2 (s) (l-3s)(s+3)
A,(s)= l-3s (8.241)

- 1+3s
(8.242)
showing that z 2 (s) has Class I zero of transmission at s0 = 1 of order 1. Appealing to Youla's
coefficient constraints of (7.35) requires
(8.243)
Using (8.239) and (8.241) in conjunction with s0 =1 in (8.243) gives 0~(s0 ) =1 and also
0~(s) = 1. With this solution, we confirm
442 THEORY OF COMPATIBLE IMPEDANCES AND APPLICATIONS
it, (s) = 30s3-8ls 2 -43s-8 (8.244)

2 30s 3 + 1l ls 2 + 53s + 10
Substituting (8.236), (8.241), (8.242) and (8.244) in (8.226) gives
Z (s)=l8(1-s 2 )_ 6s2+5s+1 = 2s+l (8.245)

20 (1+3s) -180s4 -90s3+162s 2 +90s+l8 10s 2 +5s+l
A realization of Z 20 (s) is presented in Fig. 8.16.
We remark that in the theorem we only consider the class of lossless reciprocal two-port
realizations. To also include the lossless non-reciprocal two-port networks, we rewrite the
function ~2 (s) of (8.234) as
(8.246)
Theorem 8.7 states that if the lossless realization is reciprocal,ea(s) must be a perfect square of
a real regular all-pass function. Conversely, if ea (s) is the perfect square of a real regular all-
pass function, the lossless realization is reciprocal. However, if the only function ea (s) that
exists is not a perfect square of a real regular all-pass function such that !f, 2 (s) is a bounded-real
reflection coefficient satisfying Youla's coefficients, the lossless realization is non-reciprocal
[12].
Substituting (8.163) and (8.171) in (8.234) and using condition 1 of Theorem 8.5, the
previous results can be simplified.
Theorem 8.8 Given two non-Foster positive real minimum reactance functions
(8.247)
(8.248)
where M(s) 's, m(s) 's and N(s) 's, n(s) 's denote the even and odd parts of the polynomials,
respectively. Then Z 1(s) is compatible with z2 (s) by a reciprocal or non-reciprocal lossless two-
port if, and only if, the following conditions are satisfied.
(I) The zeros of r 2 (s)=·t(z 2 (s)+z 2 (-s)] are included among those of
R1(s) =½[Z1(s)+ Z 1(-s)] to at least the same order.
(2) At each zeros s 0 of r2(s), there exists a real regular all-pass function TJ(S) such that
the function defined by the relation
(8.249)
is a bounded real reflection coefficient satisfying the Youla's coefficients (Section 7.2).
and if 11(s) is a perfect square, N is reciprocal, where
l'J(s)=fl-s+cr,. Recr,>0 (8.250)

, s+cr,
Theorem 8.8 follows directly from the equivalency proof of Theorems 8.6 and 8.7 given by
Zhu and Chen [13). The significance of Theorem 8.8 is that it not only simplifies (8.234), but
also shows that broadband matching and compatible impedances are two facets of the same
problem. Therefore, the same set formulas can solve them.
Example 8.9 Let

1
Z() _S+3
1 s --- (8.251)
s+3
(8.252)
Step I . Comparing
(8.253)
with
-s 2 +I
r 2( s ) = - - - - - (8.254)
(s+2)(-s+2)
shows that RHS 7.eros of R1(s) contain those of r 2 (s) to at least the same order.
Step 2. Computing
(8.255)
has a Class I zero of transmission of order I at s0 = I , and
-s+2 I 4 4 . 2
A (s)=--=-+-(-s+1)+-(-s+1) + ... (8.256)
2 s+2 3 9 27
when s approaches I. Choose

-s+cr
l'J(S)=--' Recr~O (8.257)
s+cr

-s+a 4
cj, 2 (s)=±--·--=± {1
- ·a-1
-+-1 [3 a-1 2a ] (-s+l)+ ...}
-·-+----- (8.258)
s+a 3s+5 2 a+l 2 8 a+l (a+1) 2
Applying to (7.35a) gives

0'=5 (8.259)
so we choose the plus sign in (8.258).
Step 3. Form (8.226) the back-end driving point impedance Z20 (s) is found to be
Z (s) 6s+45 (8.260)

20 6s+20
which can be realized as the driving-point impedance of a lossless non-reciprocal two-port

network terminating in a 1n resistor. The removal of this 1n resistor yields the realization of
Fig. 8.18.
1'2
--------.~ .-----------.
I
Z (s) = s+, ____.,
I s+J
f,-F
Example 8.10 Let

Z 18s2 + 24s+ 13
(8.261)
.(s)= 27s 3 +36s 2 +30s+14
26
z (s)---- (8.262)
2 - 21s+28
Step 1. Comparing
R (s)- 182 (8.263)

1 - (-27s3 +36s 2 -30s+14)(27s3 +36s 2 +30s+14)
with
728
r2 (s) (8.264)
(21s+28)(-21s+28)
728
r2 (s) = (21s+28)(-21s+28) <8·264)
shows that RHS zeros of R1(s) contain those of r2 (s) to at least the same order.
Step 2.
<;(s) = r 2 (s) = 28 (8.265)
z2 (s) -21s+28
has a Class 2 zero of transmission of order 1 at infinity, and
-3s+4 .I. .ll.

Ai(s) =--- -1+1.-.L.+··· (8.266)
3s+4 s s2
208
F;(s)=2r2 (s)A 2 (s)= 2 (8.267)
7(3s+4)
~2 (s) = ± -s+a. 27s3-t8s2 +6s-1 ±{-l+ 2cr+½ _ 2cr 2 +,a-f -···} (8.268 )
s+a 27s 3 +54s 2 +54s+27 s s2
From (7.35b) we obtain

(8.269)
we choose the plus sign in (8.268).
Step 3. The back-end driving point impedance Z 20 (s) is found to be
Z (s)= 36s 2 +24s+l4 (8.270)

20 2ls+l4
which can be realized as a lossless two-port network terminated in a 1 Q resistor shown in Fig.
8.17. The removal of this 1 Q resistor yields the realization of Fig. 8.19.
1n
I' 2'
Fig. 8.19 A realization of Z 20 (s) of (8.270).

fF
I' 2'
Fig. 8.20 A realization of the problem considered in Example 8.10.
8.6 Double Matching Problem
In this section, we use the compatible impedance theory to solve the double matching
problem. Given two arbitrary non-Foster positive-real impedances z1(s) and z2 (s) as the internal
impedance of the generator and the load of Fig. 8.21, and given a real rational function G( c.o 2 ),
0 :s:; G(c.o 2 ) :s:; 1 for all real c.o, as the transducer power-gain characteristic, our objective is to
determine conditions under which there exists a lossless reciprocal or nonreciprocal two-port
network, which, when inserted between z 1(s) and z 2 (s), will yield the desired transducer
power-gain characteristic G(c.o 2 ). Before proceeding, let us make a brief review, which will be
used in the following discussion.
Given a source impedance z1(s) and a load impedance z 2 (s), we compute their even parts
r, (s) = t[z, (s) + z, (-s)]= h, (s)h, (-s), ; = 1,2 (8.271)
where the factorization is to be performed so that h,(s) and h,- 1(-s) are analytic in the open
RHS and h,(s)/h,(-s) is a real regular all-pass function, whose poles include all the open LHS
poles of z, (s). Thus, it can be written as the product of the real regular all-pass function
v, s-a
A, (s) =IT--',
+a,
J=I S
Rea> 0, i = 1,2 (8.272)
defined by the open RHS poles a /j = 1,2,. .. , v,) of z, (-s) and another real regular all-pass
function B, (s) defined by the open RHS zeros of r, (s), i.e.
h,(s)/h,(-s) = A,(s)B,(s) (8.273)
Observe that for a positive real z, (s), h, (s) and h, (-s) are analytic on the jc.o-axis and from
(8.271) and (8.273)
DOUBLE MATCHING PROBLEM 447
where
(8.275)
As in Chapter 2, let
(8.276)
be the scattering matrix of N normalized to the reference impedance matrix
(8.277)
The normalized reflection coefficients Su(s) can be expressed as
(8.278)
where
(8.279)
Z11 (s) and Z22 (s) are the driving-point impedances looking into the input and the output ports
when the output and input ports are terminated in z 2 (s) and z1(s), respectively. Since the two-
port N is assumed to be lossless, the transducer power-gain characteristic G(c.o 2) can be
expressed in terms of p,(jc.o) by the relation
(8.280)
Lossless two-
port network
N
2'
Fig. 8.21 Schematic for the study of the double matching problem.
The basic idea of applying the compatible impedance method is outlined as follows: From
a prescribed transducer power-gain characteristic G(ro 2 ), obtain G(-s 2 ) after appealing to the
theory of analytic continuation and from the bounded-real reflection coefficient
(8.281)
where 11(s) is an arbitrary real regular all-pass function and Pm (s) is the minimum-phase
factorization of 1-G(-s 2 ). We next determine 11(s), if one exists, so as to satisfy Youla's
coefficient constraints (7.35) in accordance with the classification of zeros of transmission
defined by
(8.282)
Appealing to Theorem 7 .1, the function defined by
(8.283)
is positive real. The double matching problem can be formulated in terms the compatibility of
two impedances 2 11 (s) and z 2 (s). Here the input impedance 2 11 (s) depends on the transducer
power-gain characteristic G(ro 2 ). For example, the order n, de gain Kn, and the ripple factor E
for the Chebyshev response affect 2 11 (s). Suppose that Z 11 (s) is compatible with z 2 (s) by a
lossless two-port realization of Fig. 8.22. Refer to Fig. 8.22 and let
(8.284)
be the scattering matrix of N normalizing to the reference impedance matrix
z(s)= [ 1 0 ] (8.285)
0 z 2 {s)
Observe that S11 {s) is normalized to the l n resistance rather than z1(s). This is convenient
because we can realize a lossless two-port by Darlington procedure, when the output driving-
point impedance Z 20 (s) is known. Considering the two-port network N of Fig. 8.22, the most
general scattering parameters SIJ (s) (i,j =1,2) that are consistent with its lossless character with
indicated normalization are given by (8.206), and (8.208}--{8.210). We have IS., (s)I :;t: ISy(s)[. If
Zn(s) is compatible with z 2 (s), according to Theorem 8.7, we need to construct a bounded-real
reflection coefficient $ 2 (s) of (8.246) by choosing an appropriate real regular all-pass function
8a(s), so that the related coefficient constraints are satisfied. If no such 8a(s) exists, the given
G(ro 2 ) is not physically realizable. We state the main result as a theorem.
~ Lossless two-
2
port network
z.. ( s ) ~ ~ Z20 (s) z 2 (s)
V,(s) N
I'
Fig. 8.22 A lossless two-port network terminated in a resistive source

and a passive load impedance.
Theorem 8.9 Given two non-Foster positive real rational minimum reactance functions
z1(s) and z2 (s) and an even rational function G{ro 2 ),0SG(ro 2 )Sl for all ro, of the real
frequency variable ro, the rational functions A, (s), B,(s) and F,(s), i = 1,2, are uniquely
determined as in (8.272)-(8.275). Let p.,(s) be the minimum-phase solution of 1-G(-s 2 ). The
necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a lossless reciprocal or nonreciprocal
equalizer, which when operating between a source of internal impedance z1(s) and load
impedance z2 (s) yields the transducer power-gain characteristic G(ro 2 ), are that
(1) there exist a real regular all-pass function ri(s) such that the function defined by
p1(s) a ±Tt(s)p.,(s) (8.286)
be bounded real satisfying Youla's coefficient constraints (7.35) at each zero of

transmission s01 of z1(s) of order k1 ; and
(2) there exist a real regular all pass function 8a(s)such that the function defined by
(8.287)
be bounded real satisfying Youla's coefficient constraints at each zero of transmission

s02 of z2 (s) of order k2 , where
(8.288)
with l; 11 (s)and s~:(s}being analytic in the open RHS, and
(8.289)
A lossless reciprocal realization is possible if and only if 9 0 (s) is the perfect square of
a regular all-pass function.
A proof can be found in Chen and Satyanarayana (3]. For computational purposes, it is
convenient to express l; 11 (s) of (8.288) explicitly. For this we compute the even part of Z11 {s)
as
(8.290)
which can be factored to obtain

{8.291)
where g.,.(s) denotes the minimum-phase factorization of G(-s). Substituting (8.290) and
(8.291) in (8.287) yields
~
2
(s) = hi(s) . g.,.(s) . A1(-s}[l-z1(s)]-p 1(-s}[l+z1(-s)] B (s)S (s) (8.292)
'11(-s) g.,(-s) A1 (s)[l+z1(-s)]-p 1(s)[l-z1(s)] 2 0
If z1(s) :;t: 1, (8.292) can be written as
(8.293)
where
(8.294)
We illustrate the above results by the following examples.
Example 8.11 We wish to design a lossless equalizer to match the source and load system
of Fig. 8.23 with the following specifications:
Source: z1(s), R1 =IQ, C1 =3 F (8.295a)

(8.295b)
Pass-band: 0 ~ ro ~ I (8.295c)
Lossless two-
port network
N
2'
Fig. 8.23 A lossless two-port network required to match two parallel RC impedances.
The equalizer is required to attain the third-order low-pass Butterworth transducer power-gain
characteristic
(8.296)
with maximum de gain K 3 for a 3-dB radian bandwidth roe = I rad/s. The source impedance is
found to be
I
z1(s)=-- (8.297)
3s+l
Form (8.297) we compute
-1
lj(S)=-,- (8.298)
9s· -1
(8.299)
showing that z1 (s) has a Class 2 zero of transmission at infinity of order I. The other desired
functions together with their Laurent series expansions about s 01 = oo are computed as follows:
(8.300)
(8.30 I)
~ -2 J,~l F21 ¼ ·i1

F (s)=--~=F, +-+-+···==0+0--+-+··· (8.302)
I (3s+l)2 o1 s s2 s2 s3
Appealing to analytic continuation, (8.296) and (8.280) can be written as

(8.303)
1 6
p 1(s)p 1(-s) = p.,(s)p.,(-s) =a 6 -y6 (8.304)
l-s
where a 6 = l-K3 and y = s/a. The minimum-phase solutions of (8.303) and (8.304) arc given
by
g (s)= ..[if; (8.305)

"' s 3 + 2s2 + 2s + 1
() 3y3+2y2+2y+l
p s =a --------------- (8.306)
"' s 3 +2s 2 +2s+l
Write the arbitrary real regular all-pass function TJ(S) of (8.286) explicitly as
"'s-a
TJ(S) = IT--'
,., s+a,
(8.307)
for some positive integer m. Substituting (8.306) and (8.307) in (8.286) gives
"' 32222 3
± (s)= (s) (s)=I1s-a,.s +as+ as+a
P, 11 p,., i-1 s+a, s 3 +2s 2 +2s+ 1
=P.t + P.1 +~I+• .. (8.308)
o s s2
=t-2(1-a+ fa,)!+ ...

l•I S
From (7.35b) for k1 = 1, the Class 2 constraints imposed by z 1(s) become
(8.309)
(8.310)
To satisfy constraint (8.309), we must choose the plus sign in (8.308) since A01 = 1. From
(8.300), (8.302) and (8.308), constraint (8.310) becomes
(8.311)
Thus, to maximize K 3 , set cr, = 0 for all i, giving
Kl.rrwr. =1-(¾r =0.9122086 (8.312)
and the minimum-phase solution c;>f (8.305) and (8.306) as
0.955096
g (s) = (8.313)
"' s3 +2s 2 +2s+l
..
--e------~-------
s3 +ts2 +¾s+t,-
p (s) = 3 2
s +2s +2s+l
(8.314)
The load impedance is

(8.315)
Fonn (8.315) we compute
(8.316)
(8,317)
showing that z 2 (s) also has a Class 2 zero of transmission at infinity of order I. The other
desired functions together with their Laurent series expansions about s 02 =oo are computed as
follows:
(8.318)
(8.319)
F. (s) __-_3_2-=- (8.320)

2 - (s+4)2
With P 1(s) = p.,.(s) and substituting (8.319), (8.301), (8.313) and (8.314) in (8.293) gives
(8.321)
Q(s) = l-2/3s (8.322)
Express the real regular all-pass function 8 0 (s) explicitly as
(8.323)
for some positive integer n. Substituting (8.323) in (8.321) and expanding the cj> 2 (s) in the
Laurent series about the point s02 =co as
(8.324)
For k2 = 1, the Class 2 constraints imposed by z 2 (s) are
(8.325)
(8.326)
Constraint (8.325) is always satisfied. Using (8.318), (8.320) and (8.324) in (8.326) shows
(8.327)
For simplicity, choose ; 1 = 0 for allj, yielding 8o(s) = 1 and
18s 2 -9s-l6
(8.328)
cl> 2 (s) = 18s 2 +51s+54
This shows those conditions 1 and 2 of Theorem 8.9 are satisfied, and a lossless reciprocal
equalizer can be synthesized. Substituting (8.315), (8.318), (8.320) and (8.328) in (8.289) yields
Z (s) = 120s+ 140 (8.329)

20 42s 2 + 49s + 76
which is realized as a lossless ladder terminated in a I n resistor shown in Fig. 8.24. The desired
matching network together with the terminations is presented in Fig. 8.25.
10
2'
Fig. 8.24 A realization of the back-end input impedance Z20 (s) of (8.329).
*" 2
c, R,
Z11(.1) ~
C:z R:z
I' 2'
Fig. 8.25 A lossless reciprocal two-port realization for Example 8.11.
Example 8.12 We wish to design a lossless equalizer to match the source and load system
of Fig. 8.23 with R1 =1 Q, £. =3 H , R2 =1Q and C2 =½F. The equalizer is required to attain
the 3rd-order low-pass Chebyshev transducer power-gain characteristic
(8.330)
N,
with a maximum de 1:,..... X3 and the maximum allowable ripple a_ = 0.25 dB in the pass-band
from Oto ro" = 1rad/s.
L, Lossless lwo-
~
port network
C2 R:z
N
v,(s)
Fig. 8.26 A lossless equalizer considered in Example 8.12 to match

the RL source and RC load.
The source impedance is found to be
(8.331)
giving
tj(s)=I (8.332)
c;, (s) == r1(s) =_I_ (8.333)

z 1{s) 3s+l
Thus, z1(s) possesses a Class 4 zero of transmission at infinity of order 1, or k 1 = 1 and s01 =OJ.
The other desired function are computed as follows:
(8.334a)
(8.334b)
F.(s)=2 (8.334c)
Appealing to the theory of analytic continuation, (8.330) becomes
(8.335)
(8.336)
from (7.167) and (7.168), we obtain
(8.337)
(8.338)
where
b2 = 1.534446
b, = 1. 927262 (8.339)
b0 = 1.027028
arc obtained according to (7.177) and (7.178)

(8.340a)
A l.h_ • .Jl-K,
a=-sm · (8.340b)
3 e
b- sinha (8.340c)
2 - sin(n/6)
Write the arbitrary real regular all-pass function 11(s) of (8.286) explicitly as
s-a
11(s) =IT--',
m
s+cr,
,.1
Rccr, ~ 0 (8.341)
for some positive integer m. If Pm (s) satisfies (8.336), so does ± 11(s)pm (s). Using ±11(s)pm(s)
instead of p.,(s) results in additional flexibility for the choice of the p 1(s):
(8.342)
For k1 = I , the Class 4 coefficient constraints imposed by z1 (s) become
(8.343)
Fo1 > i: (8.344)

A -P. - ~-II
II II
where s_ 11 is the residue of z1(s) evaluated at the pole s 01 =oo, giving s_ 11 =3. To satisfy the
constraint (8.343), we must choose the plus sign in (8.342). From (8.344) we obtain
(8.345)
Thus, to maximize K 3 , let cr, = 0 for all i, yielding
Kl mu = 0.8428769 (8.346)
and from (8.337) and (8.338) the minimum-phase solutions are obtained as
0.9428973
(8.347)
g,,, (s) = s 3 + 1.534446s2 + 1.927262s + 1.027028
(s)= s 3 +0.8677789s 2 +1.1265200s+0.4071012

(8.348)
p,,. s 3 +1.534446s 2 +1.927262s+l.027028
Compute Z11 {s) from (8.283)
Z s _ 1.194001s+l.434129
(8.349)
11 ( ) - 0.6666667s 2 +0.8007416s+0.6199269
Consider the load impedance and its even part
(8.350)
showing
(8.351)
Thus, z2 {s) possessesaClass2zerooftransmissionatinfinityoforder l,or k2 =1 and s 02 =«>.

The other desired functions together with their Laurent series expansions about s 02 =«> are
computed as follows:
s-2 4 8
A (s)=-=l--+-+ 00 • (8.352)
2 s+2 s s2
(8.353)
-8 8
F;(s) =---,,-= 0+0--+ 00 • (8.354)
(s+2) 2 s2
From (8.287) and (8.288), ~2 (s) is found to be
~ (s) = s 2 + 0.5898887s-1.2213030 · (-l)S {s) (8.355)

2 s 2 +2.9921130s+3.0810840 a
As in (8.341) the real regular all-pass function 8 0 (s) is explicitly expressed as
(8.356)
for some positive integer n. Using this ea (s), cp 2 (s) can be expanded in Laurent series about the
point s 02 = co as
±cp 2 (s) =(-l- 0.5898887 + 1.221:030)·(l + 2.9921130 + 3.081~840)-i Ji s-; 1

S S S S J•I S +;J
=-1+(2.4022243+2fl;1 ).!.+···=cli02 +h+ cp~2 +··· (8.357)
J•I S S S
For k2 =I, the Class 2 coefficient constraints imposed by z 2 (s) become
(8.358)
(8.359)
To satisfy (8.358) we must choose the minus sign in (8.357), and (8.359) becomes
n
1.5911151 ~ 2Il;, (8.360)
J•I
Finally, choose l; 1 = 0 for all j, yielding Oa(s) =-1. According to Theorem 8.9, the desired
specifications can only be realized by a nonreciprocal two-port network. To this end, we next
compute
cl> (s)= s 2 +0.5898887s-1.2213030

(8.361)
2 s2 +2.9921130s+3.0810840
To realize this equalizer, we compute the impedance Z 20 (s) from
(8.362)
and obtain
Z s _ 2.4022250s+4.3023870
(8.363)
20 ( ) - 0.7988878s 2 +1.4308080s+l.8597810
which can be realized by the network of Fig. 8.27. The desired nonreciprocal two-port network
together with its loading is shown in Fig. 8.28. To confirm, we compute the input impedance
Z11 (s) facing the source impedance z1(s) in Fig. 8.28:
Z (s)- 0.83256s+ 1.0 _ Z (s) (8.364)

11 - 0.46486s 2 +0.55835s+0.43227 - 11
where Z 11 (s) is defined by (8.283) and is given in (8.349), and
G(ro 2 )= 4Rez,(jro)ReZ11 (jro) 0.8428769

(8.365)
lz1(jro)+Z11 (jro)l 2 1+0.2434208 2 (400 3 -3ro)2
conforming (8.330). A plot_ofthe transducer power-gain characteristic is presented in Fig. 8.29.
.-----
±0.65747S
'---..---, ~
0.55835 F ~ Z20 (s)

0.33256
Fig. 8.27 A realization of Z 20 {s) of (8.384) as the input impedance of a lossless

nonreciprocal two-port network terminated in a 1 n resistor.
±0.65747$
'----..... ~ ...-------'
C2
0.55835 F 0.33256 F
V,(s)
Fig. 8.28 A nonreciprocal lossless equalizer together with its terminations

considered in Example 8.12.
REFERENCES 461
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Nonnallzod Frequoncy
Fig. 8.29 The transducer power-gain characteristic of the system of Fig. 8.28.
References
1. Belevitch, V. (1968) Classical Network Theory, San Francisco, CA.: Holden-Day.
2. Chen, W. K. (1988) Broadband Matching, Theory and Implementations, Singapore: World
Scientific.
3. Chen, W. K. and Satyanarayana, C. (1982) "General theory of broadband matching," IEE
Proc. G, Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 129, pp. 96-102.
4. Newcomb, R. W. (1966) Linear Multiport Synthesis, New York: McGraw-Hill.
5. Ho, C. W. and Balabanian, N. (1967) "Synthesis of active and passive impedances," IEEE
Trans. Circuit Theory, CT-14, pp. 118-128.
6. Satyanarayana, C. and Chen, W. K. (1980) "Theory of broadband matching and the problem
of compatible impedances," J. Franklin Inst., Vol. 309, pp. 267-280.
7. Schoeffier, J. D. (1961) "Impedance transformation using lossless networks," IRE Trans.
Circuit Theory, CT-8, pp. 131-137.
8. Wan, J. L. and Chen, W. K. (1995) "Unified theory of compatible impedances," IEE Proc.-
G, Circuits Devices Syst., Vol. 142, pp. 15-20.
9. Wohlers, M. R. (1965) "Complex normalization of scattering matrices and the problem of
compatible impedances," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory, CT-12, pp. 528-535.
10. Youla, D. C. (1964) "A new theory of broadband matching," IEEE Trans. Circuit Theory,
Vol. CT-11, pp. 30-50.
11. Youla, D. C., Winter, F. and Pillai, S. U. (1997) "A new study of the problem of compatible
impedances," Int. J. Gire. Theor. Appl., Vol. 25, pp. 541-560.
12. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1985) "Reliability of lossless reciprocal and nonreciprocal
broadband matching networks," J. Franklin Inst., Vol. 319, pp. 325-340.
13. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1988) "Unified theory of compatible impedances," IEEE Trans.
Circuits and Systems, Vol. 35, pp. 667-674.
14. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1987) "On complex-normalized reflection coefficients of a
terminated lossless two-port network," Int. J. Circ. Theor. Appl., Vol. 15, pp. 329-334.
Chaptcr9 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Real-Frequency Solutions
of the Broadband
Matching Problem
In chapter 7 we described the broadband matching between a resistive source and an
arbitrary load to achieve a preassigned transducer power-gain characteristic over the entire real-
frequency spectrum. In chapter 8 we extended the single match to double match by considering
the situation where both source and load impedances are frequency dependent. In applying these
techniques, a prerequisite is that the load or source impedance be first represented by a finite
circuit model, from which a driving-point function that analytically characterizes the model over
the entire complex frequency plane is obtained. This function is then processed to find the
theoretic gain-bandwidth limits for the approximated model of the source or load. To realize the
equalizer, an analytic form of the transducer power-gain characteristic must be assumed. This
together with the zeros of an all-pass function is adjusted to satisfy the gain-bandwidth
restrictions. Even if the circuit model is known, the procedure presents great numerical
difficulties that in principle are resolvable but in practice become almost intractable, especially
if the model contains more that two reactive elements.
In this chapter, we present a real frequency technique introduced by Carlin (1977) which
uses real frequency load data over any prescribed frequency band for the design of an equalizer.
No circuit model and no approximation of the load data are assumed. Also, neither the equalizer
topology nor the analytic form of the system transfer function is required. Thus, it permits
equalization of loads that too complex for practical utilization of the analytic theory.
9.1 Direct Real-Frequency Approach
Consider the single matching problem of Fig. 9.1. Let S21 (s) be the reflection coefficient at
the output port normalizing to a passive non-Foster terminating impedance z2 (s). Write
(9.1)
where the factorization is to be performed so that h2 (s) and h; 1(-s) are analytic in the open
463
464 REAL-FREQUENCY SOLUTIONS OF THE BROADBAND MATCHING PROBLEM
RHS, h2 (s) is the ratio of two polynomials of minimal order, and h2 (s)/h 2 (-s) is a real regular
all-pass function, whose poles include all the open LHS poles of z2 (s). Thus, it can be written as
the product of the real regular all-pass function
(9.2)
defined by the open RHS poles a 1 {j=l,2,-··,v) of z2 (-s) and another real regular all-pass
function B2 (s) defined by the open RHS zeros of r2 (s):
(9.3)
According to (7.29), the normalized reflection coefficients S 22 (s) can be expressed as
(9.4)
where
(9.5)
and Z 22 (s) is the driving-point impedance looking into the output port when the input port is
terminated in a 1 Q resistor. Since the two-port network N is lossless, the transducer power-gain
characteristic G(co 2 ) can be expressed in terms of p 2 Uco) by the relation
(9.6)
Lossless two-
port n~work -=i_
.___:-I'--:_______ i· II..___. .
Fig. 9.1 The schematic of broadband matching.
DIRECT REAL-FREQUENCY APPROACH 465
The load impedance z 2 (s) and the equalizer back-end impedance Z 22 (s) are written explicitly
in terms of their real and imaginary parts on the real-frequency axis as
(9.7)
(9.8)
Substituting (9.7) and (9.8) in (9.5) in conjunction with (9.6) yields the transducer power-gain
characteristic
(9.9)
We remark that the transducer power gain has exactly the same form if the admittances
(9.10)
(9.11)
are used instead of the impedances:
G(ro2)=l-- Y2Uro) 2 x Y22Uro)-y2(-jro/

Y2(-jro) Y22Uro)+ Y2Uro)
4g2(ro)G22 (ro)
=--------------"-------
[g2(ro)+G22(ro)f +[b2(ro)+B22 (ro)f
(9.12)
Observe that in (9.9), r2 (ro) and x 2(ro) are known functions and R22 (ro) and X 22 (ro) are
unknown functions of the real frequency ro. The latter defines the equalizer back-end impedance
Z 22 (jro). Once Z 22 (jro) is known, the equalizer itself can be synthesized directly without
further recourse to the load. But R22 (ro) and X 22 (ro) cannot be chosen independently because
they are related by a Hilbert transform. Thus, given R22 (ro), the imaginary part X 22 (ro) of
Z 22 (jro) is uniquely determined to within a Foster function. By specifying a transducer power-
gain characteristic for G{ro 2 ), our objective is to determine R22 (ro) with its associated Hilbert
transform reactance X 22 (ro) to give a 'best' approximation to G(ro 2 ) via (9.9). For example, if
G(ro 2) is chosen to be a constant in the pass-band and zero elsewhere, we seek an R22 (ro) to
maximize the minimum pass-band transducer power gain using numerical techniques such as the
least squares or linear programming. For the technique to succeed, we must have a simple way to
approximate R22 (ro) that enables an easy computation of X 22 (ro) using the Hilbert transform. It
is significant to note that in the solution process an algebraic expression for G(ro 2) is not
required.
466 REAL-FREQUENCY SOLUTIONS OF BROADBAND MATCHING PROBLEMS
9.2 Piecewise Linear Approximation
The crux of the real frequency method is the use of piecewise linear approximation
technique to model the unknown real part of an equalizer back-end impedance Z 22 (jro). The
resulting representation permits an easy implementation of the Hilbert transform for X 22 (ro). In
this section, we discuss in details the piecewise linear approximation to R22 {ro) .
The basic idea is to present the unknown real part R22 (ro) as a number of straight line
segments using semi-infinite slopes with frequency break points at
(9.13)
as shown in Fig. 9.2. For simplicity, we assume that Z22 (jro) is a minimum-reactance function
whose real part R 22 (ro) ~ 0 for all ro. The break points &A: can be divided evenly over the band,
or chosen unevenly by qualitatively examining the real frequency load data. Thus, the break
points &. are assumed known, and the equalizer back-end reactance R22 (ro) can be specified as
a linear combination of the individual total resistive excursions qk of each of straight-line
segments, which are unknowns. Therefore we can write
n
R22 (ro) = % + ~>.t(ro)qt = % +a'(ro)q (9.14)
k■I
where R22 (0)=Qo and

(9.15)
(9.16)
with the prime denoting the matrix transpose. The real number qk is the unknown resistance
excursion of the kth straight-line segment between the break points &A:-t and &A: as shown in Fig.
9.2. For simplicity, assume that R 22 (ro) = 0, for ro > &n. This requires that
(9.17)
showing that with Qo given there are n -1 unknowns. Thus, q,, can be eliminated and we have
the unknowns q1,q 2 , • •• ,qn; or q0 , q,, q 2 ,··, q,,_ 1 •
PIECEWISE LINEAR APPROXIMATION 467
--- ------
(I)
Fig. 9.2 The piecewise linear approximation of R22 (ro).
The linear interpolation functions ak(ro) between the break points &k-l and rok is depicted in
Fig. 9.3, and is given by
I
I
I
I
I
~
, Slope•. •
: (l)l -(l)l-1
I
I
0 (l)
Fig. 9.3 Linear interpolation between sample points.
I, (l)~ COk
a (ro) = {
(l) - (l)
k • •
k-t
'
C0.1--1 $ (l) $ {ok (9. I 8)
(:) k - (I) k-1
0, (I)$ COk-1
for k = 1,2.· ••, n. Observe that if R22 (ro) ~ 0 for all ro, the impedance function Z 22 (s) obtained
from its real part R22 (ro) is positive real because q.1- are real. Thus, Z 22 (s) is realizable as a
driving-point impedance of a lossless two-port network terminated in a resistor.
Program P901: The Piecewise Linear Approximation of R22 (ro)
1. Purpose. This program is used to model the unknown real part of the equalizer back-end
impedance Z 22 (s) by the piecewise linear approximation technique
2. Usage.
Input: N: is an integer, the dimension of frequency break points.

Wk: is a real numbers from O to N, storing the frequency break points,
" A A A
roo,CO;,C02,••(!)n.
Q(l): is a real numbers from O to N, storing resistive excursion vector
%,qi,qi;",qn •
M: is an integer, the dimension of sampling frequency variables.
Wm(I): are sampling frequency variables co 0 , co 1, ···,com.
Output: R22(1): are real numbers from Oto M. storing the output of R22 (co).
Program p901
Parameter(M=50,N=5)
Dimension W(O:M),Wk(O:N),q(O:N),R22(0:M)
Do 2 J=O,M .
2 W(J)=0.05*J
Do 3 K=O,N
3 Wk(K)=0.25*K
q(0)=2.2
q(l)=-0.2
q(2)=-0.4
q(3)=-0.3
q(4)=-0.6
q(5)=-0.7
Call Piece(Wk,Q,N,W,M,R22)
Do 16 J=O, M
16 Write(*,*) W(J),R22(J)
End
Subroutine Piece(Wk,Q,N,W,M,R22)
Dimension Wk(O:N),Q(O:N),W(O:M),A(0:50,0:50),R22(0:M)
Pi=J.1415926535
MM=M-1
NN=N-1
Do 17 J=O,MM+l
Do 15 K=O,NN
IF(Wk(k) .GT.W(J)) Goto 7
IF(Wk(K+l).LT.W(J)) Goto 8
A(J,K)=(W(J)-Wk(K))/(Wk(K+l)-Wk(K))
Goto 15
7 A(J,K)=O.O
Goto 15
8 A(J,K)=l.O
15 Continue
17 Continue
Do 14 J=O,MM+l
U"'Q (0)
Do 12 K=l,NN+l
12 U=U+A(J,K-l)*Q(K)
14 R22(J)=U
Return
End
PIECEWISE LINEAR APPROXIMATION 469
Example 9.1 The measured values of the real part R(ro) of an impedance Z(Jro) at the
normalized real frequencies 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75,1.0, and 1.25 are given by 2.2, 2.0, 1.6, 1.3. 0.7,
and 0, respectively. as depicted in Fig. 9.4. The resistance R(ro) can be represented by a
piecewise linear approximation of (9.17) at the break points
&0 = 0, &1 = 0.25, 0>2 = 0.5

(9.19)
ffi3 = 0.75, 004 = 1.0, fo5 = 1.25
The resistive excursions <h of the straight-line segments are found to be
q0 =2.2. q 1 =-0.2, q2 =-0.4. q_, =-0.3, q4 =-0.6 (9.20)
The last excursion q 5 cannot be specified independently; it is dictated by (9.20) to be

q5 = -0.7. The normalized linear interpolation function a(ro) is computed from (9.18), as
follows:
ci:, ~ 0.25
a 1(ro) =
r
4ro.
0,
0 S ro S 0.25
(J)~o
(9.21a)
r
ro ~ 0.5
a 2 (ro) = 4ro-1, 0.25 s (I) S 0.5 (9.21 b)
0, ro s 0.25
ro ~ 0.75
a 3 (ro) =
r
4Cll-2,
0,
0.5
ro s 0.5
s ro s 0.75 (9.21c)
(I)~ 1.0
a 4 (ro) =
r
4ro-3.
o,
0.75 s ro s 1.0
ro s 0.75
(9.21d)
(!) ~ 1.75
a 5(ro) =
r
4ro-4,
0,
1.0 s ro s 1.25
(I) S 1.0
(9.21c)
N
8
C
2+-_;=-t~---------~
co
"C
8. 1.5 + - - - - - - = " " " " - : ~ - - - - - 4
-
.§
0
t:
co
11----------".----~
Q.
coCII 0.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . , . , . _ - ~
C:
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25

Frequency
Fig. 9.4 A piecewise linear approximation of Re Z (jro) .
From (9.17), the piecewise linear approximation of the real part R(ro) of the impedance Z(jro)
is given by
(9.22)
Using Program P901, the overall shape of R(ro) is sketched in Fig. 9.4 with R(l .25) = 0.
9.3 Piecewise Linear Hilbert Transforms
The driving-point immittance and transfer functions under consideration are analytic
functions of a complex variable s. Therefore, their real and imaginary parts are related by
Cauchy-Riemann equations. However, these are implicit relationships and one component is not
expressed explicitly in tenns of the other. In this section, we present explicit integral
relationships between real and imaginary parts of a network function. These relations are well
known in mathematics and are referred as to be Hilbert transforms. However, because Bode [I]
was the first to apply them to network theory, a different version of his transfonns is also known
as the Bode formula.
Given the real part or the imaginary part of a network function, several algebraic methods
are available to recover the network function from its part to within a Foster function or an
additive constant as a rational function of complex variable s. The main drawback here is that
the given component of the desired function must already be a realizable rational fonn.
Let Z(s) be an impedance function that is analytic in the entire closed RHS. On the real
frequency axis, write
Z(jro) = R(ro) + jX(ro) (9.23)
where R(ro) is called the resistancefimction and X(ro) the reactancefimction.

To develop the desired relatio1:1s, we shall integrate the function Z(s)/(s- jro0 ) around the
closed contour C shown in Fig. 9.5, where ro0 is any value on the jro-axis. The small indentation
PIECEWISE LINEAR HILBERT TRANSFORMS 471
to the right has been introduced to avoid the pole of the function Z(s)/(s- jro 0 ) at the point
s = jro 0 , so that the integrand is analytic on the boundary and within the closed contour C.
Applying Cauchy integral theorem, we have
(9.24)
The complete contour consists of three parts: The large semicircle C 1 of radius R0 , the small
semicircular indentation C 2 of radius r0 about the point jro 0 , and the imaginary axis C3 • The
contour integral on the left side of (9.24) can be expressed as the sum of these three line integrals
alone the paths C1 , C2 and C3 • For contour C1 , we have s = Roe/J , as indicated in Fig. 9.5, and
we take the limit as R0 approaches infinity:
jro
er
Fig. 9.5 A closed contour indented around the point jro 0 in the s-plane.
in which we have used the relation Z(co)=R(co), because the imaginary part of Z(s), being an
odd bounded function, must be zero at infinity.
Likewise, for the small semicircular contour C2 we have s = jro0 + re1• and obtain
(9.26)
Finally, for the imaginary-axis contour C3 we have
f
c,
Z(~) ds = lim [
s - JOOo 11,,➔0..
,. ➔
r-,. Z(joo) doo+ Illa
J.11,, 00 - 00 0
Z(joo) dro] = [
.,.,.,. 00 - 000
Z(joo) doo
.... oo - 000
(9.27)
The integration in (9.27) must avoid the pole at s =joo 0 in a symmetric manner and will give the
principal value of the integral on the right. In all the subsequent analysis, we must keep this
point in mind. Now substituting (9.25), (9.26) and (9.27) in (9.24) yields
[ Z(joo) dro= jn[R(~)-Z(joo0 )] (9.28)

.., 00- 000
If we equate the real parts and the imaginary parts, respectively, we obtain
(9.29)
X(oo 0 ) = .!. [ R(oo) doo (9.30)

7t _.., 00-000
Because oo in (9.29) and (9.30) is only a dummy variable of integration, and since 00 0 is an
arbitrary point on the joo-axis, it is convenient to rewrite (9.29) and (9.30) as
R(oo) = R(~)-.!_ [ X(u)du (9.31)

7t ... u-ro
X(oo)=.!.
7t
f" R(u)du
... u-ro
(9.32)
which are known as the Hilbert transforms. The above result has two important implications. It
states that if a network function is devoid of poles on the jro -axis, its imaginary part is
completely determined by the behavior of its real part on the joo-axis. Conversely, if the
imaginary part is specified for all oo, its real part is completely determined within an additive
constant. It is significant to note that the real or imaginary part need not be a realizable rational
function. Its corresponding imaginary or real part can be computed from the integral. In fact, the
real or imaginary part can even be specified in graphic form.
Recall that in the preceding section, the real part of a network function is represented by a
piecewise linear approximation of (9.14). For the real-frequency technique to succeed, we must
find a simple way to compute the imaginary part of the network function, using the Hilbert
transform. For this we rewrite (9.32) as
Notice that the dummy variable u has been changed back to ro to indicate its physical
significance. In the first integral on the right-hand side of (9.33), if we replace ro by - ro and
change the limits accordingly, we obtain
[ R(ro) dro = - [ R(-ro) dro = - [ R(ro) dro (9.34)

.,(J)-(l)u ,.,-(1)-(J)a O W+(J)u
Substituting this in (9.33) in conjunction with the fact that
[ R(roJ
2 ,dro=R(ro
o ro -ro;
0 )
r 2
I ,dro=O
o co -ro;
(9.35)
we obtain
(9.36)
A more convenient expression is obtained if a change to logarithmic frequency is made. Define
(9.37)
Using (9.37) in (9.36) gives

(9.38)
The argument of R(ro) has been retained as c1l for simplicity, although it should be written as
R(ro.,e''). Integrating the right-hand side of (9.38) by parts, we obtain
X(ro 0 ) = _.!.{[R(ro)-R(ro 0 )]lncoth::'..}I"' + .!_ [ dR(ro) lncoth~dv

1t 2 _., 1t -,o dv 2 ( 9 _39)
=.!_ [ dR( ro) lncoth lvl dv

1t _,, dv 2
which is known as the gain-slope theorem. It states that the imaginary part at any frequency
depends on the slope of the real part at all frequencies when plotted against logarithmic
frequency, the relative importance of any real-part slope being determined by the weighting
factor
(9.40)
A plot of the function (9.40) is presented in Fig. 9.6. In terms of (9.40), (9.39) becomes
(9.41)
which is referred to as the Bode formula.
We now apply formula (9.41) to calculate the imaginary part X 22 {ro) of the equalizer
back-end impedance Z 22 Uro) from its real part R22 (ro) represented by the piecewise linear
approximation of (9.14):
(9.42)
where the dummy variable ro in (9.41) was replaced by u and ro O by ro. Substituting (9.14) in
(9.42) yields
-1~
X 22 ( (I) ) - - L.Jqt
rda1c(u)
_..;;~ 1n - - ,u+ror ll (9.43)
1t k•I o du u-ro
The real-part slope dak(u)/du is computed from (9.18) and is given by
da,,(u) = 1 _ _
dll - - • (l)k-1 < U < (l)k
ro1c -ro.t-1
= 0, otherwise (9.44)
Using (9.44) in (9.43) gives the explicit expression for X 22 (ro):
(9.45)
which can be written as

n
X22 (ro) = ~:Ct (ro)q
J: ■I
1 (9.46)
where
(9.47)
The integral in (9.47) has a simple closed-form solution, as given by Bode (1945), and can be
evaluated as
0 ,1-i::::;:::::::::::......--+--11--+---1--1-_.,_..__J
~ ~ ~~ ~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~
Fig. 9.6 A plot of the function lnl(co + co., )/(o.,- co,,>I with 0>0 = 1.
Q(c.o,&k) = r·
0
lnlu + col,,u = ci:ik [ex+ l)ln(x + 1) + (x -1) lnlx-ll-2x lnx]
,u-cor
(9.48)
for x -:t. l and .r:-:t. 0, and Q(co.0) = 0, where
(9.49)
Substituting these in (9.47), we obtain the explicit expression for
(9.50)
Notice that Q(o.,,ci,k) is not well defined for co=&k or co=0. To avoid this difficulty, we
substitute (9.48) in (9.50) and obtain
Observe that the right-hand side of (9.51) is well defined for all 0.1, because
limxlnx=0 (9.52)
.,....o
Program P902: Piecewise Linear Hilbert Transforms
1. Purpose. This program is used to find X,, (ro) of (9.46) by the piecewise linear Hilbert
transform, when the real part R22 (s) of the equalizer back-end impedance Z 22 (s)
is given by a piecewise linear approximation (9 .14).
2. Usage.
Input: N: is an integer, the dimension of the frequency break points.

Wk: are real numbers from O to N, storing the frequency break points
""' A ""' ""'
ffio' ro,' 002,. .. {l)n •

Q(I): are real numbers, storing resistive excursion vector q 0 , q., q 2 ,. • •, q ,, .
M: is an integer, the dimension of the sampling frequency variables.
Wm: are real number, storing frequency variable vector ro O, ro 1, •••, c.o., •
R22(I): are M + 1 dimensional real numbers, from O to M. storing the output of
R22(c.o,) ·
Output: X22(1): are M + 1 dimensional real numbers, from O to M. storing the output of
X 22 (c.o,) •
Program p902
Parameter(M=4,N=4)
Dimension W(O:M),Wk(O:M),Q(O:N),R22(0:M),X22(0:M)
Do 3 J=O,M
W(J)=O.S*J
3 Continue
Do 5 K=O,M
Wk(K)=O.S*K
5 Continue
Q(O)=l.O
Q(l)=0.2308
Q(2)=-0.2308
Q (3) =-0. 7377
Q(4)=-0.2623
Call Xfind(Wk,W,M,Q,N,R22,X22)
Write(*,13)
13 Format(16X, 'W(J) ',20X, 'RQ(J) ',18X, 'XQ(J) ')
Do 16 J=O,M
Write(*,18) W(J),R22(J),X22(J)
16 Continue
18 Format(10X,3(F16.10,6X))
End
Subroutine Xfind(Wk,W,M,Q,N,R22,X22)
Dimension Wk(O:N),W(O:M),Q(O:N),R22(0:M),X22(0:M)
Dimension A(0:50,0:50),B(0:50,0:50)
MM=M-1
NN=N-1
Ept=0.0000001
Pi=3.1415926535
Do 17 J=O,MM+l
Do 15 K=O,NN
IF(Wk(k) .GT.W(J)) Goto 7

IF(Wk(K+l) .LT.W(J)) Goto 8
A(J,K)=(W(J)-Wk(K))/(Wk(K+l)-Wk(K))
Goto 10
7 A(J,K)=0.0
Goto 10
8 A(J,K)=l.0
10 Al=W(J)+Wk(K+l)
A2=W (J) -Wk (K+l)
A3=W (J) +Wk (K)
M=W (J) -Wk (K)
B(J,K)=l.0/(Pi*(Wk(K+l)-Wk(K)+Ept))
B(J,K)=B(J,K)*(Al*LOG(Al+ept)+A2*LOG(ABS(A2)+ept)-&
& A3*LOG(ABS(A3)+ept)-A4*LOG(ABS(A4)+ept))
15 Continue
17 Continue
Write(*,*)
Do 14 J=0,MM+l
U=Q(0)
V=0.0
Do 12 K=l,NN+l
U=U+A(J,K-l)*Q(K)
V=V+B(J,K-l)*Q(K)
12 Continue
R22(J)=U
X22(J)=V
14 Continue
Return
End
Example 9.2 The real part R(ro) of an impedance Z(jro) is represented by the piecewise
linear approximation
R( ro) = 1.0 + 0.2308a 1( ro )- 0.2308a 2 ( ro) -0. 73 77 a 3 ( ro )-0.2623a 4 ( ro) (9.53)
where the resistive excursions q k are given by
q2 = 0.2308, q3 =-0.2308
(9.54)
(J 4 = -0.7377, q 5 = -0.2623
by choosing the break points at
00 0 = 0.0, 00 1 = 0.5, 00 2 = 1.0,

(9.55)
003 = 1.5, (l)4 = 2.0
Using (9.18) the linear interpolation functions ak (ro) are found to he

ro ~ 0.5
r
a 1(ro)= 2ro,
0,
0~ ro ~0.5
ro~0
ro~ 1.0
(9.56a)
r
a 2 (ro)= 2ro-1,
0,
0.5 ~ ro~ 1.0
ro~0.5
(9.56b)
r
ro ~ 1.5
airo) = 2ro-2, 1.0 :S' ro :S' 1.5 (9.56c)
0, ro :S' 1.0
ro ~ 2.0
r
a 4 (ro) = 2ro-3,
0,
1.5 :S' ro :S' 2.0
ro :S' 1.5
The imaginary part X(ro) of ZUro) can be written from (9.46) as

(9.56d)
X(ro) = 0.2308c1(ro)-0.2308c 2 (ro)-0.7377c3 (ro)-0.2623c4 (ro) (9.57)
where the R(ro) and X(ro) are computed by Program P902 and the results arc given by
W(J) R22(J) X22(Jl

0.0000000 1.0000000 0.0000000
0.5000000 1.2308000 -0.2905658
1.0000000 1.0000000 -0.8242902
1.5000000 0.2623001 -0.9314925
2.0000000 l.1920930E-007 -0.6400073
To see how the piecewise linear approximation and piecewise linear Hilbert transform are
employed intuitively to model the function Z 22 Uro,)=R12 (ro,)+jX(roi), we present the
following example.
Example 9.3 Given an positive real impedance
Z{s)=-1-2_ (9.58)
l+I. s
and its real part R( ro) is approximated by
.R(ro) = I.0-0.082S7a 1 (ro)- O. I 82 la 2 (ro)- 0. 1828a3 (ro)

(9.59)
-0.1427a 4 (ro)-0.4098a5 (ro)
where the chosen break points are located at
000 = 0, 00 1 = 0.25, 00 2 = 0.5

(9.60)
003 = 0.75, 004 = 1.0, 005 = 1.25
and a1 (s), i=l,2,• .. ,5 are given in (9.21). The real part R(ro) of ZUro) and its approximation
(9.59) are shown in Fig. 9.7. The real part R22 {ro) is expressed by dot line, whereas its
approximation by solid curve. The imaginary part X(ro) of ZLJro) can be written from (9.46) as
o..___.,__--i.,__ _.__...,__..__ _
0.01 0.26 0.51 0.76 1.01 1.26
R(m) -------------
R(m)
Fig. 9.7 The real part of an impedance Z(s) and its piecewise linear approximation.
X(ro) = -0.08257c1{ro)-0.1821c2 (ro)-0.1828c 3 (ro)-0.1427c.(ro)-0.4098c5 {ro) (9.61)
where c.(ro) are computed from (9.51). Program P903 is used to find the imaginary part X(ro).
Program P903: Piecewise Linear HIibert Transform
1. Purpose. For a given impedance function Z(s), find the resistive excursions q,: of the
straight-line segments, where the real part R22 {ro) of ZUro) is first approximated.
The imaginary part X 22 {ro) is expressed by a piecewise linear Hilbert transfonn.
2. Usage.
Input: L: is the series inductance.

C: is the shunt capacitance.

R: is the shunt resistance.
Output: R(J): is the real part of Z(jro).

R22(J): represents RG) by a piecewise linear approximation.
X(J): is the imaginary part of Z(jro).
X22(J): expresses X(J) by a piecewise linear Hilbert transformation.
Program p903
Parameter(M=l20,N=5)
Real L
Complex S,Z
Dimension W(0:M),Wk(0:N),Q(0:N),R(0:N),X(0:N)
Dimension R22(0:M),X22(0:M),Rl(0:M),Xl(0:M)
Write(*,*) 'Input Series inductance L'
Read(*,*) L
Write(*,*) 'Input Shunt capacitance C'
Read(*,*) C
Write(*,*) 'Input Shunt resistance R'
Read(*,*) Rr
Do 30 K=0,N
Wk(K)=0.25*K
S=Cmplx(0.0,Wk(K))
Z=l.0/(s*C+l.0/Rr)
R(K)=Real(Z)
30 X(K)=Aimag(Z)
Do 40 I=l,N-1
40 Q(I)=R(I)-R(I-1)
Q(5)=-R(0)-Q(l)-Q(2)-Q(3)-Q(4)
Q(0)=R(0)
Do 50 J=l,5
50 Write(*,60) J,Q(J)
60 Format (3X, 'Q(',I2, ')=',F20.10)
Do 70 J=0,M
W(J)=0.0125*J+0.0000001
S=Cmplx(0.0,W(J))
Z=l.0/(s*C+l.0/Rr)
Rl(J)=Real(Z)
70 Xl(J)=Aimag(Z)
Call Xfind(Wk,W,M,Q,N,R22,X22)
Write(*,118)
118 Format(8X,'W(J)',12X,'R(J)',10X, 'R22(J) ',l0X,&
& 'X (J) ', l0X, 'X22 (J) ')
Do 120 J=0,M
120 Write(*,122) W(J),Rl(J),R22(J),Xl(J),X22(J)
122 Format(3X,5(Fl2.7,3X))
End
Subroutine Xfind(Wk,W,M,Q,N,R22,X22) (See Program P902)

Running Program P903 gives the imaginary part X(ro) shown in Fig. 9.8
0
-0.1°· 0.26 0.51 0.76 I.OJ 1.26
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
-0.6
-0.7
-0.8
X(ro)
.X(ro)
Fig. 9.8 A comparison of the imaginary part X(ro) of (9.58) to that given by (9.61).
9.4 Gain Objective Function
The transducer power gain of the network of Fig. 9.1 in terms of the impedances is given in
(9.9), and is rewritten as
(9.62)
Recall that r2(ro) and x 2(ro) are the known functions and R22 (ro) and X 22 (ro) are the unknown
function of the real frequency ro. From (9.14) and (9.46), these unknown functions can be
represented by the following piecewise linear approximation:
n
R22 (ro)=% + La1:(ro)q1: (9.63)
.t:•I
n
X 22 (ro) = LC1: (ro)q1: (9.64)
A:•I
where
% =R22C0) (9.65)
(l)~ci).t
ci).t-1 :S Cl):::; ci).t (9.66)
Cl) :S ci)k-1
Applying the constraint (9.17). which is rewritten as
n•I
qn =-%-2:q.t (9.68)
k■I
to (9.63) and (9.64) yields
n-1 n•I
R22 (ro) = [l-an(ro)]q0 + })a.t(ro)-an(ro)]q.t = })a,1:(co)-an(co)]q.t (9.69)
k•I k•O
n-1 n-1
X 22 (ro)=-cn(ro)% + ~)ck(ro)-cn(ro)]q.t = Z:Cc.1c(ro)-cn(ro)]q.t (9.70)
k•I k■O
where a0 =1 and c0 =0. The unknown equalizer back-end impedance becomes

n-1
Z 22 Uro)=R 22 (ro)+ jX22 (ro) = Z:{a.4-(ro)-an(ro)+ j[c.4-(ro)-cn(ro)]}q.t (9.71)
.tao
Observe that because Z 22 (jro) is a linear function of the unknown resistance excursion q._. the
transducer power gain G(ro 2 ) of (9.62) is at most quadratic in q.t. Thus, an optimization routine
can be set up to solve for the qk for a preassigned transducer power-gain characteristic. In this
section, we shall describe such a routine.
A well-conditioned error function e(q.ro) is defined as the fractional deviation of the

transducer power gain G(ro 2 ). rewritten as G(q,ro), from some preassigned gain characteristic
G0 (ro), which may be a constant:
( ) G(q,ro)-G0 (ro) g(q,co)-l (9.72)

e q,co = Go(ro)
where
(9.73)
GAIN OBJECTIVE FUNCTION 483
is then-vector of the unknown resistance excursions qk of (9.71), and
g(q,ro) = G(q,ro) (9.74)

G0 {ro)
is the normalized transducer power gain. Our objective is to minimize the squared-error objective
function
E{q) = ~::e
m
l■ I
2 (q,ro;) (9.75)
at the sampling points ro, (i = 1,2, .. ,,m) over the pass-band by an appropriate choice of q. The
sampling frequencies ro, need not coincide with the piecewise linear break points &A: that define
Rn (ro). The latter are relatively few in number.
Let q<0> be an initial guess for q. For example q<0 > can be chosen to sustain the de gain at
the in-band break points, assuming reactance cancellation at these points. For this initial choice
of q <01 , the corresponding Rn (ro) , X 22 ( ro) and e(q, ro) are rewritten as
R~~1(ro) = R22 (q< 0>,ro) (9.76)
X~1(ro) = X22(q< 0>,ro) (9.77)
e101 (ro) = e(q<0>,ro) (9.78)

Let
q = q(O) +8q (9.79)
where
Llq =[6%, llq,, ... , llqn_J (9.80)
is the unknown incremental n-vector to be evaluated in the optimization iteration. By Newton's

approximation,
e(q,ro) = e101 (ro)+f'{ro)Llq (9.81)
where
f(ro) oe(q,ro) = ag(q,ro) (9.82)
O<J(O) oq(O)
denotes the gradient of e(q,ro) evaluated at q = q<0>, or

ae(q,ro) [ae(q,ro) ae(q,ro)

(9.83)
aq< 0> - a% ' aq,
8g(q,ro) =[ag(q,ro) 8g(q,ro) ...

(9.84)
aq <0 > a% • aq, ' '
Applying the classical chain rule for partial derivative to (9.74) in conjunction with (9.62) yields
the elements of(9.84) as
(9.85)
for k = 0,1, •·, n -1. Form (9.62), it is straightforward to calculate the partial derivatives of
g(q,ro) with respect to R21 and X 22 :
(9.86)
8g(q,ro) = 8r2 R22 (x 2 +X22 )

(9.87)
axll Gokr2 +R22) 2 +(X2 +X22> 2 f
Finally, the partial derivatives of R22 and X 22 with respect to q1c are required in (9.85). These
are obtained from (9.69) and (9.70), and are given by
(9.88)
(9.89)
Thus, once the initial q<0> is chosen, the gradient of e(q,ro) at q = q< 0> can be calculated.
Substituting (9.85), (9.88) and (9.89) in (9.82), we obtain the gradient of e(q,ro) at q = q< 0>
directly in terms of the known quantities:
f(Cl)) = 8g(q,ro)
(0)
A( ) 8g(q,ro) A( )
a Cl) + (0) C Cl) (9.90)
BRn aX'22
where
(9.91)
(9.92)
(9.93)
og(q,co) _ ag(q,co)
(9.94)
ax~> - axn x22-x~>
Using the least-squared-error criterion, a set of linear algebraic equations in the unknown
increments liqk is obtained by setting
k = 0,1, .. ,,n-l (9.95)
obtaining from (9. 81)
(9.96)
or at q =q< 0>
(9.97)
for k = 0,1, •••, n -1. Writing these n equations in vector form yields
~ m
I[rcco,) f'(co,)]liq = -Ie< 0>cco,)f(co,) (9.98)

,-1 ,-1
The quantity inside the brackets on the left of (9.98) is an n x n matrix. Thus, knowing the given
load data at the sampling frequencies co,, the initial guess q<0> of the resistance excursions for q
at the break points cok and the chosen transducer power gain value G0 (co,), (9.98) can be solved
for the incremental vector liq. The new vector q = q<0>+ liq is then used as a basis for the
second iteration. This procedure is repeated until an optimum gain is obtained over the pass-
band .
.Before we proceed with a numerical example, we demonstrate that (9.98) can be expressed
in terms of a Jacobian matrix defined as
ae(q,ro,) ae(q,co,) 8e(q,ro 1)

a% aq, aqn-1
ae(q,ro 2 ) 8e(q,ro 2 ) 8e(q,ro 2 )
J= aqo aq, aqn-1 (9.99)
:
8e(q,rom) 8e(q,rom) 8e(q,rom)
a% aq, aqn-1
which is of order m by n. In tenns of gradient f(ro,) of e(q, ro,) at q =qt 0>, the transpose of the
Jacobian matrix can be expressed as
(9. 100)
showing that
m
J'J =2)(ro,)f'(rn,) (9.101)
,~,
Using (9.101) and then-vector
(9.102)
in (9.97) gives
J'Jtiq = -J'e(O) (9.103)
Provided that J'J is nonsingular, (9.103) can be solved to yield
(9. 104)
The algorithm described above is known as the Gauss-Newton procedure, and can be refined to
suit other methods such as the Levenberg-Marquardt technique. For interested reader, we ref er to
Lawson and Hanson [ 10].
2.3 U
+ Lossless two-
port network 1n
N
R22 (ro)+ jX 22 (ro)
Fig. 9.9 The circuit of Example 9.4.

Example 9.4 Given a load impedance shown in Fig. 9.9, we wish to design a broadband
matching network with GO( oo 2 ) == constant in the frequency band O~1.0, and to find a piecewise
linear approximation of Re Z{joo) by real frequency technique.
Program P904: Optimization Routine to Find Resistive Excursions q1c

1. Purpose. This optimization routine is used to find the resistive excursions q1c of a
matching network by means of the Guass-Newton procedure.
2. Usage.
Input: N: is an integer, the dimension of the resistance excursions q1c.

M: is an integer, the dimension of sampling frequency variables.
R22(0): is a real number, initial guess, which is related to the de gain G(0) and
the de value R,. (0) of the load impedance by
(9.105)
2
k0 =---1 (9.106)
G(0)
Rsub: is the initial guess of q1 in the text, which are real numbers of dimension
N + 1 from O to N, denoting the resistive excursion vector
q0 ,q.,q 2 ,.. ·,qn, where % = R22 {0), qn are solved by (9.17), and the
input variables are q1,q2 ,.. ·,qn-, •
Wk: are real numbers of dimension N + 1 from Oto N, storing the frequency
break points, &0 , &1, &2 , .. • ci>n ,
W: are real numbers of dimension M + 1 from O to M, being sampling
frequency variables 00 0 , 00 1, • • ·, oo.,.
3. The output results.
Rsub: are the resistance excursions q1c •

R22(I): is the real part of the equalizer back-end impedance Z 22 UCi)) defined by
the resistance excursions of (9.69).
G(J): is the transducer power-gain characteristic computed by means of R22
and its Hilbert transfonnation (9.67).
Program piece
Parameter(M•lS,N•S)
Real L
Complex s,z
Dimension W(0:M),Wk(0:N+l),Rsub(N),A(0:M,N),B(0:M,N)
Dimension RQ(0:M),XQ(0:M),RL(0:M),XL(0:M)
Dimension G0(0:M),EG(0:M,1),G(0:M),Gjaco(0:M,N-1)
Dimension T(N-1),Cl(N-1,1),Aj(N-1,N-1)
Dimension Qr(N-1),Ysub(N),Delx(N-1)
Pi=3.1415926535
Ep=0.lE-18
L=2.3
C=l.2
R=l.0
Do 32 J=0,M
32 W(J)=0.l*J+0.0001
Do 35 K=0,5
35 Wk(K)=0.25*K
Do 37 J=0,M
S=Cmplx(0.0,W(J))
Z=s*L+l.0/(s*C+l.0/R)
RL(J)=Real(Z)
37 XL(J)=Aimag(Z)
Write(*,*) 'Input R22(0), it decides the average transducer'
Write(*,*) ' power gain G(0)'
Read(*,*) Rq(0)
Rq0=Rq(0)
1 Do 39 I=l,N-1
Write(*,*) 'Input the initial guess of resistance excursion'
Write ( *, 38) I
38 Format(6X,'Rsub(',I2,')')
Read (*,*) Rsub(I)
39 Continue
Rsub(5)=-Rq(0)-Rsub(l)-Rsub(2)-Rsub(3)-Rsub(4)
Write(*,*) 'Initial guass of Rsub(I)'
Do 4 I=l,N
4 Write(*,*) 'Rsub(',I,')=',Rsub(I)
Do 17 J=0,M :
Do 15 K=l,N
IF(Wk(K-1).GT.W(J)) Goto 7
IF(Wk(K).LT.W(J)) Goto 8
A(J,K)=(W(J)-Wk(K-1))/(Wk(K)-Wk(K-1))
Goto 10
7 A(J,K)=0.0
Goto 10
8 A(J,K)=l.0
10 Al=W(J)+Wk(K)
A2-=W(J):-Wk(K)
A3=W (J) +Wk (K-1)
M=W(J)-Wk(K-1)
B(J,K)=l.0/(Pi*(Wk(K)-Wk(K-1)))
B(J,K)-=B(J,K)*(Al*LOG(Al)+A2*LOG(ABS(A2))-&
& A3*LOG(ABS(A3))-A4*LOG(ABS(A4)))
15 Continue
17 Continue
KK=0
100 KK=KK+l
Do 14 J=0,M
U=(l.0-A(J,N))*RQ(0)
V•-B(J,N)*RQ(0)
Do 12 K=l,N-1
U•U+(A(J,K)-A(J,N))•Rsub(K)
12 V=V+(B(J,K)-B(J,N))•Rsub(K)
RO(J)•U
14 XO(J)•V
Do 24 J=O,M
IF(J.GT.10) Goto 25
GO(J)=4*Rq(O)*RL(O)/(Rq(O)+RL(0))**2
X•(RL(J)+RO(J))••2+(XL(J)+XO(J))**2
G(J)m4.0*RL(J)*RO(J)/X
Eg(J,l)•G(J)-G~(J)
Goto 26
25 Eg(J,1)•0.0
G(J)c0,0
26 U•4.0•RL(J)*(RL(J)*•2-RO(J)*•2+(XL(J)+XO(J))**2)
v-a.o•RL(J)*RO(J)*(XL(J)+XO(J))
Do 24 K•l,N-1
Gjaco(J,K)•U•A(J,K)-V•B(J,K)
Gjaco(J,K)•Gjaco(J,K)/X••2
24 Continue
EEE•O.O
Do 27 J•O,M
27 EEE•EEE+lOO*Eg(J,1)*•2
IF(KK.GT.l) Goto 111
EEEmax•EEE
Write(*,*) 'Emax=',EEEmax
111 Call TMUL(Gjaco,Eg,Cl,M,N-1,1)
Do 142 I•l,N-1
142 T(I)•-Cl(I,1)
Emax=O.O
Do 134 J•l,M
IF(ABS(Eg(J,1))-Emax) 134,134,131
131 Emax=ABS(Eg(J,l))
134 Continue
IF(Emax.LE.0.02) Goto 200
Call TMUL (Gjaco,Gjaco,Aj,M,N-l,N-1)
Tr•O.O
Do 162 Iml,N-1
162 Tr•Tr+Aj(I,I)
Tr•Tr/(N-1)**2
Do 167 I•l,N-1
167 Aj(I,I)•Aj(I,I)+Tr
Call Gauss(N-1,Aj,T,Or,Ep,KWJI)
00-0.0
Do 170 I•l, N-1
170 OO=OO+Or(I)**2
Do 171 I•l,N-1
171 Or(Il•Or(I)/Sqrt(OQ)
Iter•O
Iobf... O
Call dscpow(Rsub,EEE,Ysub,Fy,Or,Delx,N-1,2,0.lE-20,1,Iter,Iex,&
& A,B,RL,XL,GO,M,Rq(O))
Write (•,220) KK,Fy,Iex
220 Format (5X,'KK•',I5,5X,D20.10,2X,I5)
Do 230 I•l, N-1
230 Rsub(I)•Ysub(I)
Rsub(N)•-Rq(O)-Rsub(l)-Rsub(2)-Rsub(3)-Rsub(4)
IF(KK.GT.50) Go to 200
IF(Fy.LT.0.000l*EEEmax) Goto 200

IF(Fy.LT.0.00035) Goto 200
Goto 100
200 Do 240 I=l,N
240 Write(*,*) 'Rsub(',I, ')=',Rsub(I)
Write(*,250)
250 Format(l0X,'W(J)',14X,'R22(J)',11X,'TPG G(J)')
Do 260 J•0,M
260 Write(*,270) W(J),Rq(J),G(J)
270 Format(6X,3(Fl2.8,6x))
End
!Following is a subroutine to transport a matrix

!and multiply it by another one
Subroutine TMUL(A,B,C,M,Nl,N2)
Dimension A(0:M,Nl),B(0:M,N2),C(Nl,N2)
Do 10 I .. l,Nl
Do 10 J•l,N2
C(I,J)•0.0
Do 10 K•l,M
10 C(I,J)•C(I,J)+A(K,I)*B(K,J)
Return
End
Subroutine Gauss(N,A,B,Solve,EP,KWJI)
DIMENSION A(N,N),B(N),M(l00),Solve(N)
Do 10 I•l, N
10 M(I)=I
DO 20 K•l,N
P•0.0D0
DO 30 I•K,N
DO 30 J•K,N
IF (ABS(A(I,J)).LE.ABS(P)) GO TO 30
p ..A (II J)
IO•I
JO .. J
30 CONTINUE
IF (ABS(P)-EP) 200,200,300
200 KWJI•l
RETURN
300 IF (JO.EQ.K) GO TO 400
DO 40 I•l,N
T•A (II JO)
A(I,JO)--A(I,K)
40 A(I, K) •T
J•M(K)
M(K)•M(JO)
M(JO)aJ
400 IF(IO.EQ.K) GO TO 500
DO 50 J=K,N
TaA(IO,J)
A(IO,J)=A(K,J)
50 A(K,J)•T
T--B(IO)
B(IO)aB(K)
B(K)•T
500 P=l.0D0/P
IN=N-1
IF (K.EQ.N) GO TO 600
DO 60 J=K, IN
60 A(K,J+l)=A(K,J+l)*P
600 B(K)=B(K)*P
DO 70 I=K,IN
DO 80 J=K,IN
80 A(I+l,J+l)=A(I+l,J+l)-A(I+l,K)*A(K,J+l)
70 B(I+l)=B(I+l)-A(I+l,K)*B(K)
20 CONTINUE
DO 90 !1=2, N
I=N+l-Il
DO 90 J=I, IN
90 B(I)=B(I)-A(I,J+l)*B(J+l)
DO 1 K=l,N
I=M(K)
1 A(l,I)=B(K)
DO 2 K=l,N
B(K)=A(l,K)
2 Solve(K)=B(K)
KWJI=0
RETURN
END
Subroutine dscpow(X,Fx,Y,Fy,S,Delx,N,Indic,Tol,Itol,Iter,Iex,&
& Aa,Bb,RL,XL,G0,Mm,Rq0)
Dimension X(N+l),Y(N+l),S(N),Delx(N)
Dimension Aa(0:Mm,N+l),Bb(0:Mm,N+l)
Dimension RL(0:Mm),XL(0:Mm)
Dimension G0(0:Mm)
If (Itol.EQ.l) Go to 110
Tol=0.001
110 Ftol2=Tol/100.0D0
Ntol=0
Iex=l
Fa=Fx
Fb=Fx
Fc=Fx
Da=0.0
Db=0.0
Dc=0.0
K=-2
M=0
Da=0.0D0
Step=l.0D0
D=Step
If (Indic.EQ.2) Go to 1
If (Iter.EQ.0) Go to 1
Dxnorm':'0,0D0
Snorm=0.0D0
Do 102 I=l,N
Dxnorm=Dxnorm+Delx(I)*Delx(I)
102 Snorm=Snorm+S(I)*S(I)
If (Indic.NE.l) Go to 103
If (Dxnorm.GE.Snorm) Go to 1
103 Ratio=Dxnorm/Snorm
Step=SQRT(Ratio)
D=Step
1 Do 2 I=l,N
2 Y(I)=X(I)+D*S(I)
Call Obf(F,Y,Aa,Bb,RL,XL,G0,Mm,N,Rq0)
K=K+l
If (F-Fa<0) Goto 5
IF (F-Fa==0) Goto 3
IF (F-Fa>0) Goto 6
3 D=0.5*(Da+D)
Do 4 I=l,N
4 Y(I)=X(I)+D*S(I)
If (F-Fa<0) Goto 204
IF (F-Fa==0) Goto 202
IF(F-Fa>0) Goto 205
202 Do 203 I=l,N
203 Y(I)=X(I)+Da*S(I)
Fy=Fa
Go to 326
!F<Fa
204 Fc=Fa
Dc=Da+2.0*(D-Da)
Fb=F
Db=D
Go to 21
!F>Fa
205 Step=0.5*Step
If (K<0) Goto 7
IF(K==0) Goto 8
IF(K>0) Goto 206
206 Dc=D
D=Da
Da=Db
Db=D
Fc .. F
F=Fa
Fa=Fb
Fb=F
Go to 10
!F<Fa
5 Fc=Fb
Fb=Fa
Fa=F
Dc=Db
Db=Da
Da=D
D=2.0*D+Step
Go to 1
6 If (K<0) Goto 7
If (K .. =0) Goto 8
If (K>0) Goto 9
7 Fb•F
Db•D
D.. -D
Step•-Step
Go to 1
8 Fc•Fb
Fb•Fa
Fa•F
Dc•Db
Db•Da
Da•D
Go to 21
9 Dc•Db
Db•Da
Da•D
Fc .. Fb
Fb•Fa
Fa=F
10 D•0.5*(Da+Db)
Do 11 I•l, N
11 Y(I)•X(I)+D*S(I)
12 If ( (DC-D) * (D-Db)) 15, 13, 18
13 Do 14 I=l,N
14 Y(I) ..X(I)+Db*S(I)
Fy•Fb
If(Iex.EQ.0) Go to 32
Go to 326
15 If (F-Fb<0) Goto 16
If (F-Fbm•0) Goto 13
IF (F-Fb>0) Goto 17
16 Fc•Fb
Fb•f
Dc•Db
Db•D
Go to 21
17 Fa .. F
Da•D
Go to 21
18 If (F-Fb<0) Goto 19
If (F-Fb••0) Goto 13
If (F-Fb>0) Goto 20
19 FaaFb
Fb•F
Da•Db
Db=D
Go to 21
20 Fc•F
Dc•D
21 If (ABS(Da-Db).GE.ABS(Dc-Db)) Go to 50
D=Da
Da•Dc
Dc•D
F•Fa
Fa=Fc
Fc•F
50 If(ABS((Dc-Db)/(Da-Db)).GT.0.25) Go to 26
D=0.5*(Da+Db)
Do 51 I=l, N
51 Y(I)=X(I)+D*S(I)
Call OBF(F,Y,Aa,Bb,RL,XL,G0,Mrn,N,Rq0)
If(F-Fb<0) go to 52
If(F-Fb==0) go to 13
IF(F-Fb>0) go to 53
52 Fc=Fb
Fb=F
Dc=Db
Db=D
Go to 26
53 Fa=F
Da=D
26 A=Fa*(Db-Dc)+Fb*(Dc-Da)+Fc*(Da-Db)
If (A) 22, 30, 22
22 D=0.5*((Db*Db-Dc*Dc)*Fa+(Dc*Dc-Da*Da)*Fb+(Da*Da-Db*Db)*Fc)/A
If ((Da-D)*(D-Dc)) 13,13,23
23 Do 24 I=l,N
24 Y(I)=X(I)+D*S(I)
Call Obf(F,Y,Aa,Bb,RL,XL,G0,Mrn,N,Rq0)
If (ABS(FB-F)-(ABS(Fb)+Ftol2)*Tol) 28,28,12
28 Iex=0
If(F-Fb<0) Goto 29
IF(F-Fb>=0) Goto 13
29 Fy=F
Go to 32
30 If (M<=0) Goto 31
IF(M>0) Goto 13
31 M=M+l
Go to 10
32 Do 99 I=l,N
If(Y(I) .NE.X(I)) Go to 326
99 Continue
33 If(Ntol.EQ.5) Go to 34
Iex=l
Ntol=Ntol+l
Tol=Tol/10.0D0
Go to 12
34 Iex=l
Go to 35
326 If(Fy.LT.Fx) go to 36
Iex=l
Go to 35
36 If(Iex.EQ.0) Go to 35
Iex=2
35 Return
End
Subroutine Obf(Fx,R,A,B,RL,XL,G0,M,N,Rq0)
Dimension R(N+l),A(0:M,N+l),B(0:M,N+l),RL(0:M),XL(0:M),G0(0:M)
Fx=0.0
Do 20 J=0,10
U=(l.0-A(J,N+l))*Rq0
V=-B (J, N+l) *Rq0
Do 12 K=l, N
U=U+(A(J,K)-A(J,N+l))*R(K)
12 V=V+(B(J,K)-B(J,N+l))*R(K)
Xa(RL(J)+U)**2+(XL(J)+V)**2
Y=4.0*U*RL(J)/X
Fx=Fx+l00*(Y-G0(J))**2
20 Continue
Return
End
Initial guess of Rsub(I)

Rsub( 1)= -8.262944E-02
Rsub( 2)= -1.821543E-01
Rsub( 3)= -1.827961E-01
Rsub( 4)= -1.426325E-01
Rsub( 5)= -1.609788
KK= 1 .1326130000D+0l 0
KK= 2 . 3366714000D+00 0
KK= 3 .2094866000D+00 0
KK= 4 .9791712000D-0l 0
KK= 5 . 6946716000D-01 0
KK= 6 . 4 656309000D-01 0
KK= 7 .4003828000D-01 0
KK= 8 . 359-1988000D-0l 0
KK= 9 .3489546000D-01 0
Rsub( 1)= -2.581128E-01
Rsub( 2)= -3.931922E-01
Rsub( 3)= -3.026804E-01
Rsub( 4)= -4.995234E-0l
Rsub( 5)= -7.456938E-01
W(J) R22 (J) G (J)

1.000000E-04 2.199203 8.594918E-0l
1.00l000E-01 2.097428 8.666095E-01
2.00l000E-01 1.995755 8.639029E-01
3.00l000E-01 1. 867051 8.575712E-01
4.00l000E-01 1. 711422 8.556049E-01
5.00l000E-01 1.555827 8.574290E-01
6.00l000E-01 1. 432845 8.554719E-01
7.00l000E-01 1.309864 8.524391E-01
8.00l000E-01 1. 147944 8.584737E-01
9.00l000E-01 9. 472427E-0l 8.711202E-01
1. 000100 7.464431E-0l 8.514270E-01
1.100100 4.477463E-01 0.000000E+00
1.200100 1.490495E-0l 0.000000E+00
1.300100 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00
1.400100 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00
1.500100 0.000000E+00 0.000000E+00
2.S . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0--------------_,___ _g
0 0.2S o.s 0.7S l.2S
The initial guess R22 (ro)

The resulting R22 (ro) after runni~g the optimization routine
Fig 9 .10 A piecewise linear approximation of the real part of the input
impedance of network of Fig. 9.9.
9.5 Rational Least-Squared-Error Approximation of R22 (ro)
In the above section, the real part R22 (ro) of the unknown equalizer back-end impedance
Z 22 (jm) is represented by an n-linear segment approximation as shown in (9.14) with the
imaginary part X 22 (ro) being determined by a numerical Hilbert transform of (9.46). The
equalizer back-end impedance Z 22 (fro) is represented by the piecewise linear approximation of
(9.71). Because the transducer power gain is at most quadratic in qk, an optimization routine can
be set up to solve for the qk for a preassigned transducer power-gain characteristic. Once
R22 (ro) is found, the remaining task is to realize a network that provides this behavior. However,
to realize R22 (ro) we must first represent R22 (ro) by a rational function in ro 2 •
In general, the unknown input impedance Z 22 (s) to the lossless equalizer with resistive
termination R, is a rational positive real function and may be written as
(9.107)
In (9.107), once the ak and bk are known the equalizer may be designed. With EvZ 22 (jro)
positive it may be written as
RATIONAL LEAST-SQUARED-ERROR APPROXIMATION OF R22 (ro) 497
A O + A ,ro l + ... + A n(J) 2n

R , ( J )) , : EV Z ,(S
l. ( 2. )
I·•= 1.,
=
I + B ,ro 2 + ... + Bn(J) 2n (9.108)
If R22 (rn) has all of its zeros at the infinity and/or at de, then
A roH A rou
R (ro)- ' = * >O k ~ n (9.109)
ll - D(j"'·')D(-J"'·')
...., l+B 1ro 2 +···+Bnro 2n - •
VJ
Depending upon the value of k, we have low-pass ( k =0) or band-pass (0 < k < n) and high-pass
k = n. Rewrite (9.69) as a piecewise linear approximation
n-1
R.22 (ro) = ~)a*(ro)-an(ro)]qk (9.110)
k•O
where a" are given in (9.66). Considering the low-pass equalizer and comparing (9.110) to
(9 .109) give
B 0) 2 + B 0)
4
+···+ Bn0),2n Ao
=----- I i =0,1,2, •••,m (9.111)
1, 2 , R~(),
22 ro,
It is clear that A0 = R. 22 (0), when ro 0 = 0, and there are n unknowns in m equations. Write
0)4 (J)2n
rro:
0)2
2
0)4
2
I I
(J)2n
2
B,l = ½T,l
B2
(9.112)
0)4 0)2n T,, j

Lro~ m m BnJ
where
T, - ~22(0) -1, i =1,2, .. , m (9.113)
R22(ro,)
Using the least square method to solve the unknowns gives
B=(w·wtw· T (9.114)
where
0)2 0)4 0)2n
I I I
0)2 0)4 00 2n
W= 2 2 2
(9.115)
0)2 0) 4 0)2n
_ m m m
and
(9,116)
Example 9.5 We wish to express the real part given in Fig. 9.10 by the rational function
(9.106). From Fig. 9.10. the data are read from P905.dat.
co, R22Cro,)
1.000000E-05 2.199990
1.000000E-03 2.198993
7.500000E-02 2.125247
1. 750000E-01 2,025591
2.750000E-01 1.909653
4.000000E-01 1.703680
5.l00000E-01 1.527507
6.150000E-01 1.407864
7.750000E-01 1.203066
9.050000E-01 9.380137E-01
1.100000 4,465928E-01
Program P905: The least-squares method used to determine a rational function
1. Purpose. This program is used to determine a rational function of (9 .111) by solving (9 .114)
using the least-squares method.
2. Usage.
Input: W: is the frequency break point.

R(I): is an M-dimensional real vector, storing the real parts of a network
function at frequency break points.
Yield: B(I): are the coefficients of a rational function defined in (9.110).
Program p905
Parameter(M=l0)
Dimension W(0:M),R(0:M)
Dimension A(3,3),B(3,l),C(3),D(3)
Dimension Z(0:M,3),Y(0:M,l)
Open (Unit= 3, File='905.dat', Status='Old',&
& Access='Sequential')
Do 10 I=0,M
10 Read(3,*) W(I),R(I)
Close (3)
Do 20 J=0,M
Z(J,l)=W(J)*W(J)
Z(J,2)=W(J)**4
Z(J,3)=W(J)**6
20 Y(J,1)=2.20/(R(J)+0.0001)-1.0
Call TMUL (Z,Z,A,M,3,3)
Call TMUL (Z,Y,B,M,3,1)
Do 40 I=l,3
40 C(I)=B(I,l)
CALL Gauss (3,A,C,D,0.lE-14,KWJI)
RATIONAL LEAST-SQUARED-ERROR APPROXIMATION OF R22 ((J)) 499
Do 100 I•l,3
100 Write(*,*) 'B(',I,')•',D(I)
END
Subroutine TMUL(A,B,C,M,Nl,N2) (See Program P904)
Subroutine Gauss(N,AA,BB,Solve,EP,KWJI) (See Program P904)
Applying the above program yields

8(1) = 2.601268
8(2)= -4.651623 (9.117)
8(3) = 4.281526
Thus, we have
R ( ) 2.20 (9.118)
22 co = 1 + 2.60co 2 -4.65co 4 + 4.28co 6
Next we present a method proposed by Levy [11] for rational approximation of a curve,
using the least-squared-error as a criterion. The technique can also be used to approximate a
higher-order system transfer function by a lower-order one over a frequency band of interest
A rational impedance function is the ratio of two polynomials P(s) and Q(s), written
explicitly as
(9.119)
Without loss of generality, let b0 = 1. On the jco -axis, we further express
(9.120)
where
(9.121)
(9.122)
(9.123a)
(9.123b)
These functions are even polynomials in co.
The target function F{jco) is written explicitly in terms of real and imaginary parts as
F(jro)=U(ro)+ jV(ro) (9.124)
A welkonditioned error function is defined by
e(ro) = F(jro)-Z(jro) (9.125)
When (9.125) is multiplied through by Q(jro), the squared magnitude becomes
IQ(jro)e(ro}l2 =jQ(jro)F(jro)-P(jro)j2 (9.126)
Our objective is to minimize the weighted squared-error objective function
E = ~]Q(jro )e(ro )12 (9.127)

"'·
over the sampling frequencies ro, (i = 0,1,2,· .. ,m). Substituting (9.126) in (9.127) in conjunction
with (9.120)-(9.124) yields
E = LIQ(jro)F(jro)-P(jrol = Ll[W3 (ro)+ jroW4 (ro)][U(ro)+ jV(rn)]-W1(ro)- jroW2 (ro}i2

~ ~
= L {[U(ro)W (ro)- roW (ro)V(ro)-W (ro)]2 + [roW (ro)U(ro) +W (ro)V(ro)-roW (ro)]

3 4 1 4 3 2
2}
m
"'·
= I{[U(ro,)n,;((J),)-ro,~(ro,)V(ro,)-Wi(ro,)] 2 +[ro,~(ro,)U(ro,) +n,;(ro,)V(ro,)-ro,W2 (ro.)] 2 }
'"'° (9.128)
The necessary conditions to minimize E require that
k =0,1,2, · · ·, n 1 (9.129)
aE =O k =0,1,2, .. ·, n 2 (9.130)
abk '
These equations can be written directly from (9.128) using (9.120)-(9.123). After a considerable
mathematical manipulation, Levy showed that the resulting equations could be put compactly in
the following matrix form:
(9.131)
where
RATIONAL LEAST-SQUARED-ERROR APPROXIMATION OF Ri 2 (ro) 501
a= [a 0 , a" an.J (9.132)
b=[b" b2, bnj (9.133)
r =l\·o, r,' S2, I3' S4, ls' dn.I (9.134)
q =[o, U2, 0, U4, 0, u6, ... , fnJ (9.135)
in which d n, =sn,, n, even, and d,,. =In,, n 1 odd; and J,,, =0, n2 odd, and J,,, =un,, n2 even;
Ak =2:ro: (9.136)
l•I
m
sk =Iro~U(ro1) (9.137)
1=1
m
t* =Lro:V(ro,) (9.138)
1=1
uk =fro:[u 2(ro 1)+V2(ro,)] (9.139)

1=1
Ao 0 -A2 0 A4 0
0 A2 0 - A4 0 A6
A2 0 -A4 0 A6 0
M11= 0 A4 0 -A6 0 As (9.140)
A4 0 -A6 0 As 0
0 A6 0 -As 0 A10
l1 S2 -/3 -S4 Is .'i6
-S2 l3 S4 -Is -s6 /7
13 S4 -Is -s6 /7 Sa
M12= - S4 ts s6 -I, -Sa 19 (9.141)
Is s6 -t, -Ss 19 s,o
-s6 t, Sa -I? -s,o 111
II -S2 -l3 S4 Is -s,,

S2 /3 -S4 . ·Is s6 l1
13 -S4 - Is s6 l1 -Ss
M21 = S4 Is -Si, -11 Ss l9 (9.142)

ls -s6 -(1 Sg 19 -SIO
s6 l1 -.'is -l9 s,o I II
U2 0 -U4 0 u6 0
0 U4 0 -- u6 0 Us .··1
...
U4 0 -u6 0 Us 0
(9.143)
M22 =
u6
0 U1,
0
0
-Us
- Ug
0 UIO
0 11 10
0 ....·1
0 UK 0 - Uio 0 11 12
in which the submatrices M 11 , M 12 ,M 21 and M 22 are of order (n 1 + 1) x (n 1 + 1), (n 1 + 1) x n 2 •

n2 x(n 1 +1) and n2 xn 2, respectively. Equation (9.131) can be solved to yield the unknown
coefficients a and b.
We illustrate the above results by the following examples.
Example 9.6 The magnitude, phase, and real and imaginary parts of a second-order
dynamic system
F(jro) =IF(jro)je 1Qt11>> = U(ro) + jV(ro) (9.145)
evaluated at the sampling frequencies ro, (i = 0,1, •· •,13) are given by
ro, jF(jro,)j $(ro,) U(ro,) V(ro,)

.000000 1.000000 .000000 1.000000 .000000
.100000 1.005038 5.137598 1.001000 .089999
.200000 1.020008 10.163710 1.004001 .179992
.500000 1.119431 23.695490 1.025056 .449872
.700000 1.223642 30.968200 1.049216 . 629640
1.000000 1.421266 39.232110 1.100899 .898899
2.000000 2.280278 51.666660 1.414310 1. 788686
4.000000 4.431654 50.500420 2.818854 3 .4°19593
7.000000 8.164421 27.945910 7.212371 3.826156
10.000000 10.049880 -5.710592 10.000000 -1.000000
20.000000 5.553931 -59.172340 2.846154 -4.769231
40.000000 2.577432 -76.500690 .601660 -2.506224
70.000000 1.443216 -82.521320 .187845 -1.430939
100.000000 1.005037 -84.805050 .091001 -1.000909
RATIONAL LEAST-SQUARED-ERROR APPROXIMATION OF R: 2 (ro) 503
Suppose that the transfer function is a second-order dynamic system
F(jro) = Y, + Y2jro + Yijro) 2 (9.146)

I+ y4jro+ YsUro) 2
Program P906: Determine a Rational Network Function by Using Levy Method
1. Purpose: This program is used to determine a rational network function according to

(9.131 ).
2. Usage:
Input: W: is the sampling frequency.
R(I): is an M-dimensional real vector, storing the real part of a network
function at the sampling frequency points.
X(I): is an M-dimensional real vector, storing the imaginary part of a network
function at the sampling frequency points.
Yield: Y(I): are the coefficients of a rational function defined in (9 .146).
Program p906
Parameter (M=l4)
Dimension W(M),R(M),X(M)
Dimension Q(0:4),S(0:4),T(0:4),U(0:4)
Dimension Z(5,5),Y(5),B(5)
Open (Unit=3,File='Ration.dat',Status='Old',&
& Access='Sequential')
Do 10 I=l,M
Read(3,*) W(I),R(I),X(I)
10 Continue
Close(3)
Do 20 K=0,4
Qi=0.0
Si=0.0
Ti=0.0
Ui=0.0
Do 30 I=l,14
Qi=Qi+W(I) **K
Si=Si+W(I)**K*R(I)
Ti=Ti+W(I)**K*X(I)
Ui=Ui+W(I)**K*(R(I)*R(I)+X(I)*X(I))
30 Continue
Q(K)=Qi
S(K)=Si
T(K)=Ti
U(K)=Ui
Write(*,*) Q(K), S (K) ,T (K), U(K)
20 Continue
Z(l,l)=Q(0)
Z(l,2)=0.0
Z(l,3)a-Q(2)
Z ( 1, 4 ) =T ( 1 )
Z(l,5)cS(2)
Z(2,l)=0.0
Z(2,2)=Q(2)
Z(2,3)""0.0
Z(2,4)=-S(2)
Z(2,5)=T(3)
Z(3,l)=Q(2)
Z(3,2)=0.0
Z(3,3)=-Q(4)
Z(3,4)=T(3)
Z(3,5)=S(4)
Z ( 4, 1) =T (1)
Z(4,2)=-S(2)
Z(4,3)=-T(3)
Z(4,4)=U(2)
Z(4,5)=0.0
Z(5,l)=S(2)
Z(5,2)=T(3)
Z(5,3)=-S(4)
Z(5,4)=0.0
Z(5,5)=U(4)
Y (1) =S (0)
Y (2) =T (1)
Y(3)=S(2)
Y(4)=0.0
Y(5)=U(2)
CALL Gauss (5,Z,Y,b,0.lE-9,KWJI)

Do 100 I=l,5
Write(*,*) 'Y(',I,')=',Y(I)
100 Continue
END
Subroutine Gauss(N,A,B,Solve,EP,KWJI) (See Program P904)
A.k Sk tk Uk
k=l 14.0000000 31.3523655 0.5755342 2.4090022E+02
k=2 2.5550000E+02 2.7047815E+02 -3.6024179E+02 2.6990259E+03
k=3 l.7070789E+04 5.3376543E+03 -2.2787662E+04 5.6978965E+04
k=4 1. 4164165E+06 2.2937447E+05 -1. 6897265E+06 2.5216210E+06
k=5 l.2674267E+08 l.5723955E+07 -1. 4162666E+08 1. 7413677E+08
Y( 1 )= 0.9999987
Y( 2 )= 1.0000008
Y( 3 )"" 2.7087194E-10
Y( 4 )= 0.1000001
Y( 5 )= l.0000009E-02
The desired rational approximating function becomes
F ·ro _ 0.9999837+1.000010-jro
(9.147)
(J )- 1+0.1000009• jro+0.0100001(jro) 2
RATIONAL FUNCTION METHOD 505
9.6 Rational Function Method
In Carlin's real frequency method, the real part R22 (ro) of the unknown equalizer back-end
impedance Z 22 (jm) is represented by an n-line segment approximation as shown in (9.14) with
the imaginary part X 22 (ro) being determined by a numerical Hilbert transform of (9.46). The
equalizer back-end impedance Z 22 (jro) is represented by the piecewise linear approximation of
(9.71 ). There arc n unknown resistance excursions q*, and each optimization iteration would
involve inverting an n x n matrix as indicated in (9.104). Thus, to simplify the computation we
should keep n small. However, for better accuracy in the evaluation of X 22 (ro) using (9.46). a
large n is need, resulting in a conflict of requirement.
To avoid this difficulty, an alternative approach is to express R22 ( ro) directly by a rational
function of the form (9.108). If R22 (ro) has all its zeros at infinity and or at de, which can be
simplified to (9.109). To illustrate, we consider the low-pass characteristic of (9.109) with
k = 0 , and express
R,2 (ro) = ' (9.148)

• B0 + B I w• + .. · + Bn win
and define the n-vcctor
(9.149)
of the unknown coefficients B* (k = 1.2, .. ·, n), assuming that B0 = 1/ R22 (0) is known. The
imaginary part X 22 (ro) of Z 22 (jro) is obtained by a Hilbert transform, using the Bode formula
(9.41):
X22(<.0) =.!.. [ dR22(u) lnlu+roldu (9.150)

7t -oc: du u-co
Our objective is to choose an appropriate vector B to optimize the transducer power-gain

characteristic G(ro 2 ). For our purposes, we rewrite G(ro 2 ) as G(B,ro) to emphasize the
dependence of G(co 2 ) on B. Thus, as in (9.72) we define the error function
e(B.ro)= G(B,<.0)-Gu(<.0) = (B ro)-1 (9.15])

G0 (ro) g '
where G0 (_ro) as before is some preassigned gain characteristic, which may be a consrant, and
(B ro) = G(B, ro) (9.152)

g ' Go(ro)
Our objective is to minimize the squared-error objective function
(9.153)
at the sampling frequencies co, (i = 1,2, · · ·, m) over the pass-band by an appropriate choice of B.
To obtain an initial guess B< 0> of B, we can compute R 22 (co,), assuming reactance cancellation
at the output port at a number of evenly spaced sampling frequencies co,. For this choice of B< 0>,
let
(9.154a)
where the unknown incremental n-vcctor 6B is defined as
(9.154b)
Following (9.81) to (9.104), we obtain
e(B,m) = e(B< 0>,co)+ f'(B< 0 >,co)6B (9.155)
where the gradient f(co) of e(B,co) evaluated at B = B<0> is given by
(9.156)
the elements of which are found by the formulas
ag(B,co) = ag(B,(J)) X aR22 (B,co) + ag(B,co) X ax22 (B,co)

(9.157)
ask aR22 ask ax 22 ask
for k = 1,2.· •·,n and
(9.158)
ag(B,co) == 8r2R22(X2 + X22)

(9.159)
ax22 Gokr2 +R22)2 +(X2 +X22)2f
aR 22 (B,co) 0)2k
=----------
(Bo + B,co2 + ... + Bnco2n )2
(9.160)
Where aX22 (B,ro)/aBk may be obtained by a Hilbert transform (9.150) and a numerical
NElWORK SYNTHESIS FROM A GIVEN REAL PART 507
differentiation
(9.161)
This leads to
(9.162)
where m is the number of sampling frequencies, or
J'J~B = -J'e<0> (9.163)
where the Jacobian matrix J and the error vector e< 0 > are defined the same as in (9.99) and
(9.102) with B replacing q in (9.99) and (9.102).
9.7 Network Synthesis from a Given Real Part

In Section 9.3, we derived formulas (9.31) and (9.32) relating the jco-axis real part and
imaginary part of a network function. These are in the form of integral formulas, and are known
as the Hilbert transforms. Although they are very useful for theoretical considerations, they are
extremely unsatisfactory for computational purpose when one of the parts is already given in
analytic form. However, a very important feature of these formulas is that, corresponding to any
given real part, an imaginary part can be computed from the integral. The given real part need
not be a realizable rational function. It can be given in analytical or in graphical form. As a
matter of fact, the expressions are quite useful when a desired real part is specified in a vague
sort of way and it is desired to obtain an approximate behavior of the imaginary part. In the
present section, we present two computational procedures that will permit us to calculate a
network function from its jco -axis real part more readily.
When we study the method to restore a network function from the its real part, a question
that naturally arises is whether or not an immittance function can be uniquely determined from
its jro -axis real part. We can quickly think of several one-port networks whose immittances have
the same real part, so the answer to this question is negative. However, we can show that an
immittance function can be determined from its jco-axis real part to only within a reactance or
susceptance function, as depicted in Fig. 9.12. We now proceed to describe two procedures for
the solution of this problem.
LC network Minimum- Minimum-

reactance LC
network admittance
network network
;
Fig. 9.12 An immittance function can be determined from its jro-axis real part lo only
within a reactance or susceptance function.
9.7.1 Bode Method
Consider an immittance function Z(jro)
1/.( "ro) = N (jro) (9.164)

J D(jro)
whose real part can be expressed as
Re Z(jro) = ..!.. [Z(jro) + Z(- jro)] (9.165a)

2
Suppose that we replace ro by - js in this equation. We obtain the even part of Z(s), which is
related to Z(s) by the expression
Ev Z(s) = Re 1/.(jro)t.,__1 , = ½[Z(s) + Z(-s)] (9.165b)
When the real part of Z(jro) is specified, the even part of Z(s) is determined. The question now
is how to find Z(s) from its even part. A solution to this was proposed by Bode [ 1]. To this end,
write
Ev Z(s) = N(s) (9.166)
[(s- p 1 )(s-pi)···][(s+ Pi)(s+ Pi)···]
We assume for the time being that all of the poles in Ev Z(s) are simple. Then a partial fraction
expansion of Ev Z(s) is given by
K,,, K,,,
EvZ(s) =( --+--_-+···+- + --+--_-+···+-
R,,,) ( K_,, 1 K_,, 1 R,,,) (9.167)
s - Pi s - Pi 2 s + Pi s + Pi 2
NETWORK SYNTHESIS FROM A GIVEN REAL PART 509
where R.,, is the limit of Ev Z(s) ass approaches infinity. To find the residue of the pole p, in
the partial fraction expansion, we use
K = N(pi) (9.168)
P, dD(s)I
ds s=p1
The residue of the pole at - p, is simply related to KP, by the relation
K = N(-pi) =-K (9.169)

-p, dD(s)I P,
ds s=-p,
Suppose that we identify the two parts inside the parentheses of (9.167) in terms of their left or
right half plane pole locations as
Ev Z(s) = Z(s) + Z(s) (9.170a)
where
(9.170b)
From (9.167), we see Z(s) = Z(-s), and (9.170) may be written
Ev Z(s) = Z(s) + Z(-s) (9.171)
Comparing (9.171) with (9.164), we obtain
- = 2( -KP
Z(s) =2Z(s) KP + .. ·) + R.,,
- ' +-------=- (9.172)
s- Pi s- Pi
We illustrate this by the following example.
Example 9.7 The real part of an input impedance is found to be
ReZ(jco) = 2co4 +CO2+ 2 (9.173)

3(1 + co 6 )
We wish to determine the impedance Z(s) itself to within a reactance function.

Replacing co by - js in (9.173) yields the even part of Z(s) as
Ev Z(s) = 2s4 -s2 + 2 (9.174)

3(1-s 6 )
which can be expanded in partial fractions. The result is
- K K2 K
Z(s)=-1-+ + 2 (9.175)
s + 1 s + ½+ j ..fi/2 s + ½- j ..Ji/2
where
(9.176)
(9. 177)
(9.178)
Substituting (9.176}-{9 .178) in (9.175) in conjunction with (9.172) gives
Z(s)=.!.(_1_+ 2s+l ) (9.179)

3 s+ 1 s2 + s + 1
or
(9.180)
9.7.2 Brune-Gcwcrtz Method
Bode's technique for determining Z(s) from its even part is conceptually simple; it
amounts to making the partial-fraction expansion of Ev Z(s). However, it is not always a simple
matter to make such an expansion when Ev Z(s) possesses the high-order poles. As an
alternative, the procedure developed by Brune and Gewertz [7] circumvents this difficulty.
Assume that the numerator and denominator polynomials of a network function Z(s) are
expressed in terms of their even and odd parts:
Z(s)= m1(s)+n 1(s) ao +a,s+•·•+amsm

(9.181)
m2 (s)+n2 (s) b0 +b1s+•··+bns"
where In - ml ~ 1, the even part of which can be expressed as

(9.182)
NElWORK SYNTHESIS FROM A GIVEN REAL PART 511
Our problem is to determine Z(s) from (9.182). Recall that the poles of Ev Z(s) are those of
Z(s) and Z(-s). Those belonging to Z(s) lie in the LHS and those belonging to Z(-s) in the
RHS. Thus, the denominator of Z(s) can be determined by assigning all the LHS factors of
those of Ev Z(s) to Z(s). At this point, the denominator polynomial of (9.182) is known. To
determine the numerator, we form the expression m1(s)m 2 (s) - n1(s)n 2 (s) and set it equal to the
numerator of (9.182), obtaining
Equating the coefficients of the like power of s yields
-bo 0 0 0 0 ao - -Ao -
b2 -b, ho 0 0 a, A,
b-c -bl b2 -b, 0 al = A2 (9.184)
0 0 0 0 0 (-1)"' b.., QOI_

-A., -
Example 9.8 Consider the same problem discussed in Example 9.7. Clearly, we can write
(9.185)
From (9.183), we have
(9.186)
and
(9.187)
which can be solved to yield (by Program A103 if necessary).
(9.188)
The impedance function becomes

(9.189)
Alternatively, ifwe assume that the impedance Z(s) talces the form
(9.190)
Then from (9.185) we have
1.0 0 0 0 Go 0.6666666
2.0 -2.0 1.0 0 a, -0.3333333
= (9.191)
0 -1.0 2.0 -1.0 02 0.6666666
0 0 0 -2.0 _al 0.0
-
Using Program AIOI yields a0 =0.666666,a1 =1.3333333,a2 =1.0 and a3 =0.0. The resulting
function is again given by (3.189).
Example 9.9 The real part of an equalizer back-end impedance is found to be
R (ro) = 2.2 (9.192)

22 1+2.49ro2 -4.44ro4 +4.3lro6
We compute the minimum reactance equalizer back-end impedance function 2 22 (s) using the
Brune-Gewertz method.
The even part of 2 22 (s) is obtained by substituting ro by - js in (9.192)
Ev Z (s)- -----,-- 2·-

2- - -...... (9.193)
22 - 1-2.49s 2 -4.44s 4 -4.3 ts6
the denominator of which can be factored as
1- 2.49s 2 - 4.44s 4 -4.3 ls 6

= -4.3 l(s + 0.3977821- j0.8955964)(s + 0.3977821 + j0.8955964)(s + 0.5027519) x
(s-0.3977821- j0.8955964)(s-0.3977821+ j0.8955964)(s-0.5027519) (9.194)
Combining all LHS factors gives
2
Z(s)= a0 +a1s+a 2s (9.195)
1 + 2.817486s + 2.689114s 2 + 2.071232s 3
where
NETWORK SYNTHESIS FROM A GIVEN REAL PART 513
b0 =1.0
b1 = 2.817486
(9,196)
b2 = 2.689114
b3 = 2.071232
Using (9.184) we obtain a system of linear equations in the unknown coefficients a 0 , a, and a 2 :
1 0
[ 2.689114 --2.817486 01 ][a0
a, ] = [2.21
0 (3.197)
0 -2.071232 2.689114 a2 0
which can be solved by the following program.
Program P907: Solve a Linear System by Gaussian Elimination Algorithm
1. Purpose. This program is used to solve a linear system of (3 .197) by Gaussian elimination
algorithm.
2. Usage.
Input: N is an integer.
C(ij) is an N x N matrix that stores the system coefficients.
B(i) is an N dimensional vector that stores the constants.
Yield: A(i) is the solution of the system.
Program p907
Dimension C(3,3),A(3)
Data A/ 2.20,0.0,0.0/
Data C/1.0, 2.689114, 0.0,&
& 0.0, -2.817486, -2.071232,&
& 0.0, 1.0, 2.689114/
Ep=0.lE-9
Call Gauss(3,C,A,Ep,Kwji)
Do 10 I=l,3
10 Write(*,12) I-1,A(I)
12 Format (3X, 'a (', I2, ') =', Fl2. 8)
End
Subroutine Gauss(N,A,B,EP,KWJI) (See Appendix Al03)
This yields
a( 0)= 2.20000000
a( l)= 2.88974500
a( 2)= 2.22576400
The equalizer back-end impedance becomes

Z(s) = 2.2 + 2.889745s + 2.225764s 2

(9.198)
1 +2.817486s+ 2.689114s 2 + 2.071232s 3
The corresponding ladder realization is presented in Fig. 9.12 by means of Program P302.
2.8897 H
0.9306 F 0.3501 F 2.2n
Fig. 9.13 A ladder realization of the impedance of (9 .198).
9.8 Double Matching Problems

The problem of matching a frequency dependent load to a resistive generator of Fig. 9.1,
and approximating a preassigned transducer power-gain characteristic is referred to as the single
match. In the previous chapter, we extended the single match to double match by applying the
theory of compatible impedances.
The crux of the problem is to express the overall transducer power gain of the doubly
terminated network of Fig. 9.14 in terms of the unknown equalizer back-end immittance of the
lossless matching network with resistive terminations. Then using any of the optimization
routines, the unknown parameters of the immittance function are ascertained, so that the
transducer power-gain characteristic is optimized over a preassigned frequency band. This
extension from a single match to a double match was first studied by Carlin and Yarman [5].
Lossless two-
port network
N
I' 2·
Fig. 9.14 The double matching problem.

DOUBLE MATCHING PROBLEMS 515
9.8.1 Scattering Properties of the Equalized System
Refer to the schematic of Fig. 9.14. The normalized reflection coefficients of the lossless
equalizer can be expressed as
I =1,2 (9.201)
where
-A ( )Z11 (s)-z 1 (-s)
P, (s) -I s ----- (9.202)
Z11 (s) + z, (s)
and Z11 (s) and Z 22 (s) are the driving-point impedances looking into the input and output ports
when the output and input ports are terminated in z 2 (s) and z1(s), respectively. Since the two-
port is assumed to be lossless, the transducer power gain is given by
i=l,2 (9.203)
Define
ta(s)= Z 11 (s)-l (9.204)
z.. (s)+ 1
to be the unit normalized inflection coefficient of Fig. 9.14, and
(9.205)
to be the unit normalized refection coefficient of the one port generator impedance z1(s). We
express the transducer power gain in terms of t I Uro) and tr Uro) as follows:
(9.206)
So far we can obtain t,Uro) from G(ro 2 ) and z1Uro), even though Z 11 (jro) is derivable
from t, (jro), and make Z 11 (jro) to be compatible with z 2 Uro), as discussed in Chapter 8. Now
we present an alternative method for solving the double matching problem. Let Z20 (s) be the
driving-point impedance looking into the output port when the input port is terminated in a 1.Q
resistor, as depicted in Fig. 9.15. This impedance is a rational positive real function and is
expressed as
(9.207)
where Ev Z 20 (s) and Od Z 20 (s) are the even and odd parts of Z 20 (s), respectively. Ev Z 20 (s)
can be factored as
(9.208)
where
(9.209)
Lossless two-
port network
N
I'
Fig. 9 .15 A two-port with 1 n termination at the input port.
The factorization is to be performed so that all the RHS zeros of Ev Z 20 (s) are included in
W(-s) and the Hurwitz denominator Q(s) is the same as that of Z 20 (s). On the jco-axis, we
have
(9.210)
H (1·co) = W(- jco) = .JR (co)e 10<•~> (9.211)

20 Q(jco) 20
where
0(co) =argW(-jco)-argQ(jco) (9,212)
If R20 (co) has all its zeros at the infinity and/or at de, (9.210) degenerates to
A co2k A co2k
R (co) - - ~ k- - k ~ 0, k Sn (9.213)
20 - Q(jco)Q(-jco) 1+Bco
I
2 +B co 4 +···+B co 2 n
2 n
and (9.211) becomes
(9.214)
=
Depending upon the value of k, low-pass ( k 0 ), band-pass ( n > k > 0) or high-pass ( k n) =
matching networks can be designed. The phase 8(ro) is computed by the equation
8(ro) = - Im - arg Q(jro) (9.215)

2
Appealing to Theorem 2.4 of Chapter 2, the unit normalized input reflection coefficient
of(9.205)canbeexpressedintermsof Z20 (jro) and z 2 Uro) bythecquation
~ 1 (jro)
(9.216)
Observe that for given source and load impedances z1 (jro) and z2 (jro), knowing Z 20 (jro) we
know ~. (jro) and ~ g (jro) and hence the transducer power-gain characteristic.
9.8.2 Computational Technique
In the foregoing, we have implicitly expressed the transducer power-gain characteristic in

terms of a resistively terminated equalizer back-end impedance Z 20 (jro) and the source and load
impedances z 1 Uro) and z 2 (jro). Thus, we reduce the matching problem to that of the
determination of the unknown parameters a's and b's of Z 20 (jro) such that the preassigned
transducer power-gain characteristic is optimized over the prescribed frequency band.
Furthermore, if Z 20 (jro) is a minimum reactance function, it is uniquely determined from its real
part R20 (ro) by the Hilbert transform (9.36). With this understanding, it suffices to ascertain the
unknown coefficients A,: and B, (i = 1,2,··,n) of R20 (ro), so that the preassigned transducer
power-gain characteristic is optimized over the preassigned frequency band. Assuming that these
coefficients A's and B's are now known, we outline a procedure proposed by Carlin and Yarman
[5] for the computation the power-gain characteristic.
Carlin-Yarman Algorithm
The algorithm computes a transducer power-gain characteristic G(ro 2 ) from a given real
part characteristic R20 (ro) of(9.213).
Inputs:
2k:. is the degree of the numerator of Rio (co) ; low-pass ( k = 0 ), band-pass ( n > k > 0) or
high-pass ( k =n).
2n: is the degree of the denominator of Rio (co) , n ~ k .
Ak: are the numerator coefficients of Rio (co).
B1 : are the denominator coefficients of Rio (co) for i = 1,2, · · ·, n .
z1(jco) =r1 (co)+ jx 1(co): source impedance over the discrete frequencies.
Zi (jco) =ri (co)+ jxi (co): load impedance over the discrete frequencies.
Computation steps:
(1) Compute the roots of the denominator polynomial of Rio(- js) from
(9.217)
(2) Choose the LHS roots of Q(s)Q(-s) to form the Hurwitz denominator polynomial
Q(s) of Zio (s).
(3) Using the Brune-Gewertz procedure, compute
(9.218)
(4) From 8(co) =- /rn/2 - arg Q(jco) , compute the input reflection coefficient of Fig. 9.15
as
(9.219)
(5) Knowing <Ii g (s) and 4' 1(s), compute the transducer power gain characteristic
G(coi) = [1-j4'/jco)j2] [1-l~.(~co)j2]

(9.220)
j1- ~g(jco)~ 1(jco)j
The above algorithm can be combined with a nonlinear optimization routine so that G(coi)
is optimized. The method of linearized least squares is also applicable. Once the final fonn of
Zio (s) is determined, it can be realized by Darlington method as a lossless two-port with a
resistive termination. The two-port network is the desired equalizer N.
Initial guess:
As to the choice of the initial values for optimization, the following is proved to be quite
successful. Assume that j~ 8 Uoo)~ 1Uro)I is significantly less than 1. Then (9.220) can be
approximated by
(9.221)
Substituting (9.216) in (9.221) in conjunction with
(9.222)
(9.223)
we obtain
(9.224)
if [x 2 (ro)+X20 (00)] 2 <<[r2 (00)+~0 (00)]2. If the initial guess for R20 (oo) is written as R20 (oo), at
the data point frequencies 00 1 , (9.224) can be solved with prescribed gain level values G(oo:) to
yield
(9,225)
where
(9.226)
obtaining the same result.
Realizability of R20 (oo):

The Carlin-Yarman algorithm generates an analytic impedance function Z 20 (s) from its
real part R20 (oo). However, there is no guarantee that the impedance function Z20 (s) so
generated is positive real, and therefore is realizable. To show that a positive real Z20 {s) can
always be generated, we have to make sure that the optimization process will always result in a
nonnegative R20 (oo). To this end, we define an nth-order polynomial as
(9.227)
The polynomial defined by the equation
(9.228)
is always nonnegative and even, where for practical purposes we have excluded the real-
frequency zeros from D(co 2 ), Using this in (9,213) gives
(9.229)
being a nonnegative even rational function. Expanding the polynomials in D(co 2 ) and equating
the coefficients of like power in co result in the following equations:
(9.230a)
(9.230b)
(9.230c)
(9.230d)
In this way, the unknown coefficients are chosen as d,, and R20 (co) is constructed as in
(9.230). Thus, once the unknown coefficients d, are initialized, the Carlin-Yarman algorithm
starts with the computation of the coefficients A.t and B1 • As before, the unknown coefficients
d, are determined by an optimization routine, so that the preassigned transducer power-gain
characteristic is optimized over the preassigned frequency band with no restriction imposed on
d1 • Any unconstrained linear or nonlinear optimization program such as the least squared error
approximation can be employed.
9.8.3 Illustrative Example
We illustrate the real frequency technique by the example of Fielder [9], late cited by
Carlin and Yarman [5]:
Example 9.10 We wish to match an RLC load z2 (s) to an RL source z 1(s) and to
achieve the equiripple low-pass transducer power gain over the passband, which extend from 0
to 1 rad/s, where
(9.231)
(9.232)
Substituting (9.231) and (9.232) in (9.225) yields the initial guess of R20 (ro). Using this initial
guess, the resulting R20 (ro) after running the optimization routine is plotted in Fig. 9.16 and is
given below:
(9.233)
where
B0 =0.70472
B1 = 2.974238
(9.234)
B2 = -15.1403
B3 =17.1404
The back-end impedance of a resistively terminated equalizer is found to be
Z O(s) = 1.42 + 2.59s + 3.845s 2 (9.235)

2 1+ 3.296s + 3.32s 2 + 4.9335s 3
which can be expanded in a continued fraction as
1
Z20(s) = - - - - - - - 1 - - - - (9.236)
1.283s + - - - - -1- -
2.609s + 1
l.038s+-
1.42
The resulting network is presented in Fig. 9.17(a), and the transducer power-gain characteristic is
shown in Fig. 9.17(b).
3-.------------------
··-•-
2.5 .._ _......
...:,....,._______-_- - - - - - - - - - - -
............
2 +-------·"'"'.. ....,..__________;
0.5-t--------------_..,
o-------..--------------
O.Ot 0.21 0.-Ct 0.61 0.81
The initial guess R:o(co) - - - -

the resulting R20 (oo) after running the optimization routine - - - -
Fig. 9.16 The initial guess R. 20 ( ro) and the resulting R20 ( ro) after running
the optimization routine.
2.609H 2H
l.038F l.283F IF Hl
Fig. 9.17(a) A realization of Example 9.10.

USING CHAIN PARAMETER TO SOLVE THE DOUBLE MATCHING PROBLEM 523
.5 0.8 +==--c------,~~--++------1
'l"'
! o.a+----------1------1
.
II.
0
g 0.4----------'I------I
'D
~
I? 0 . 2 - - - - - - - - - - - t - - - - - 1
t-
0+--.----,,-----.-----..,.:i-,.....
0.01 0.21 0.41 0.61 0.81 1.01 1.21 1.41
Fig. 9.l 7(b) The transducer power-gain characteristic G(c.o 2) of Example 9.10.
9.9 Using Chain Parameters to Solve the Double Matching Problem
In this section, Youla's conditions imposed on the chain parameters are extended and
applied to situation where the matching two-ports are lossless and nonreciprocal. Based on this
extension, a CAD algorithm is proposed, where the equalizer may have complex transmission
zeros. The result permits us to design a more general double matched network, where both the
amplitude and phase are required to be matched.
Refer to Fig. 9.14. The two-portN is characterized by its chain parameters by the equation
(9,237)
Youla (15] gives necessary and sufficient conditions for a 2 x 2 real polynomial matrix to be the
chain matrix of a passive, lumped, lossless and reciprocal two-port. For our purpose, Youla's
conditions arc modified and extended to include the situation where the two-port is
nonreciprocal.
Theorem 9.1 A 2 x 2 real polynomial matrix
T(s) = [A(s) B(s)] (9,238)

C(s) D(s)
is the polynomial chain matrix of a passive, lumped and lossless two-port network if, and only if,
the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) A(s) and D(s) are either both even or both odd.
(2) B(s) and C(s) arc both odd if A(s) is even, and both even if A(s) is odd.
(3) Define the characteristic polynomial
t(s) = e[A(s)D(s)- B(s)C(s)] (9.239)
in which E=l for even A(s), and E=-1 for odd A(s). Thus, t(jro)~O for all real ro.
When t(s) is a complete square, N is reciprocal. Otherwise, N is nonreciprocal.
(4)
A(s) + B(s) + C(s) + D(s) = g 1(s)\Jl(s) (9.240)
or
A(s) + B(s) + C(s) + D(s) = g 2 (s)(s) (9.241)
where g 1(s) and g 2 (s) arc strictly Hurwitz polynomials, and 'I'(s) and (s) are
Hurwitz.
(5) 'I'(s) divides both A(s) + B(s) and C(s) + D(s), and (s) divides both A(s) + C(s)
and B(s) + D(s).
We remark that Theorem 9.1 is different from that of Youla's in that the common factor
'I'(s) and <l>(s) may neither be even nor odd, as can be seen from the Darlington realization of a
positive real impedance.
In the following discussion, we assume that A(s) is even. From (9.238) we can calculate
the driving-point impedance Z 10 (s) of Nat port 11', when port 22' is terminated in a IQ
resistor. Suppose that the common factor 'I'(s) of its numerator and denominator polynomials is
written as
'¥(s) = E 1(s) + 0 1(s) (9.242)
where £ 1(s) stands for the even part, and 0 1 (s) the odd part. Then
Z,o(s)= A(s)+B(s) = A1(s)+B1(s). E1(s)+O1(s) = A1(s)+B1(s) (9.243)

C(s)+D(s) C1(s)+D1(s) E1(s)+O1(s) C 1(s)+D1(s)
where
A(s) = A1 (s)E1 (s) + B1 (s)O1 (s) (9.244a)
B(s) = B 1(s)E1 (s) + A1 (s)O 1(s) (9.244b)
C(s) = C1(s)E1(s) + D 1 (s)O. (s) (9.244c)

D(s) = D1(s)E1(s) + C1(s)O1(s) (9.244d)
Similarly, the driving-point impedance Z20 (s) of Nat port 22', when port 11' is terminated
in a 1Q resistor is given by
Z 20 (s) = D(s) + B(s) = D 2 (s) + B2 (s)

(9.245)
C(s) + A(s) C2 (s) + A 2 (s)
where the common factor (s) of D(s) + B(s) and C(s) + A(s) is written as the sum of its even
part £ 2 (s) and odd part 0 2 (s):
(9.246)
(9.247a)
(9.247b)
C(s) = C2 (s)E 2 (s) + A2 (s)O2 (s) (9.247c)
D(s) = D2 (s)E 2 (s) + B2 (s)O2 (s) (9.247d)
From (9.243) to (9.247), we see that that for a given
(9.248)
there corresponds an impedance
Z (s) = D(s) + B(s) (9.249)

2° C(s) + A(s)
where A(s), B(s), C(s) and D(s) are defined in (9.244). This forms the cornerstone of the theory
of compatible impedances.
Substituting (9.244) or (9.247) in (9.239) gives
A(s)D(s)-B(s)C(s) = [A1(s)D1(s)-B1(s)C1(s)][E~(s)-012 (s)]

= [A2 (s)D 2 (s)-B 2 (s)C2 (s)][E;(s)-O:(s)]
= s2m. IT (s2+A.~)2•111 {[cs+µ,)2 +;;f'[cs-µ,)2 +;; f'}
/•I /■I
(9.250)
where A1 , µ; and~; are nonnegative real numbers, and mk ,m1 and m, are nonnegative integers.
For the ideal low-pass characteristic, mk :::: 0 and A1 > 1 with 1 being the normalized pass-band
frequency.
9.9.1 Solution of the Double Matching Problem Using Chain Parameters
Transducer power gain:

Write the terminating impedances z1(s) and z2 (s) as
(9.251)
(9.252)
where m1(s), (i:::: 1, 2, 3, 4) denote the even parts of the numerator and denominator polynomials
of z 1(s) and z 2 (s), and n,(s), (i:::: 1, 2, 3, 4) the odd parts. From (9.238) we obtain
Z ( ) - A(s)z 2 (s) + B(s) (9.253)

II S -
C(s)z 2 (s) + D(s)
Using (9.251) and (9.253) in conjunction with (9.201) and (9.202), we obtain the input reflection
coefficient normalizing to z 1 (s). The transducer power gain is found from (9.203) to be
G(ro)
IA(m3 +n3 )(m2 +n2 )+B(m4 +n4 )(m2 +n 2 )+C(m1 +n 1)(m3 +n3 )+D(m 1 +n 1)(m4 +n 4 )12
(9.254)
In the special situation of the single match, (9.254) reduces to
G(ro):::: 4E(m3m4 -n 3 n 4 )(AD-BC) 2

l(A + C)(m 3 + n 3 ) + (B + D)(m 4 + n 4 )I (9.255)
:::: 4E(m 3m4 -n 3n4 )(A2D 2 -B2 C2 )
l(A 2 +C2 )(m 3 +n 3 )+(B2 +D2 )(m4 +n 4 )1 2
Equation (9.255) shows that the common factors <D(s) of A(s) + C(s) and D(s) + B(s) do
not affect G(ro) in the case of the single match. Therefore, we can design a singly matched
network with preassigned amplitude and phase responses simply by inserting an all-pass network
between the resistive termination and the equalizer N as shown in Fig. 9.18. The all-pass network
is used to compensate the phase characteristic after the prescribed amplitude response is
obtained. Furthermore, a reciprocal Darlington realization is possible. Titls is accomplished by

multiplying A2 (s) + C2 (s) and D 2 (s) + B 2 (s) by a Hurwitz polynomial, when the polynomial
A 2 (s)D 2 (s) - B 2 (s)C2 (s) is not a complete square.
Lossless two-
All-pass port network
network
v,(s) N
I' 2'
Fig. 9.18 The numerator and denominator polynomials of Z 20 (s) having common
factors for a singly matched network.
For the double match of (9.254), the common factors (s) of A(s) + C(s) and
D(s) + B(s), and '1-'(s) of C(s) + D(s) and A(s) + B(s) in general will not cancel. They
contribute to both amplitude and phase responses. As a result, we can neither cancel (s) and
'1-'(s) during the iterative optimization process nor multiply by another common factor in order
to compensate the phase response or to obtain a reciprocal network realization.
Variables:
Let the driving-point impedance Z10 (s) be
(9.256)
where a's and b's are real and positive, m and n are positive integers and In - ml S 1. Assume that
A(s) is even for n odd, and m = n -1. Comparing (9.243) and (9.256) gives
(9.257)
(9.258)
(9.259)
(9.260)
There are n + 1unknown coefficients b's and m unknown coefficients a's, obtaining
ho 0 0 0 0 1 1'o
b2 -bi ho 0 0 a, T2
b4 -b3 b2 0 0 Q2 ~
= (9.261)
-bn-2 bn-J a.,_, '.I;m-2

0 0 0 -bn bn-1 a., i;., -
where T0 , T2 , • • •, T2,,, are the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial
A(s)D(s)-B(s)C(s)=1;.,s 2"' +T2.,_2s 2.,_2 +···+T2s 2 +T0
=s2.. Ii: <s2 +A.~>2"''Il Hcs+µ,)2 +1;: t· ks-µ,>2 +1;: r-}

t (9.262)
J•I i•l
Setting m1: = 0 yields a low-pass response. The transducer power gain is a function of the
variables b1:, A. 1 , andµ, + jl;i. Define the N-dimensional vector
(9.263)
Then the transducer power gain can be expressed as G(X,ro).
Computations:
A computer program was written using the least pth method [13]. Suppose that the initial
choice x< 0> of X and its jth iterative value xc
11 will result in a G(ro) of (9.254) satisfying
Theorem 9.1. Then we require that t(jro)=e(A(jro}D(jro)-B(jro)C(jro)]:?!O for all ro for a
nonreciprocal realization and that t(s) be a complete square for a reciprocal realization; and
g 1 (s) and g 2 (s) of (9.240) or (9.241) be strictly Hurwitz. In other words, this requires that the
jth iterative function ZU1(s) of Z 10 (s) be positive real. To this end, we choose M sample points
ro, (i = 1, 2, •··, M) in the frequency band of interest with M = 4N ~ SN and define the error
function
(9.264)
where G0 (ro,) is the desired response, W(ro,) is a weighting function, and G(X'J1 ,ro;) is the
transducer power gain after jth iteration at ro,.
Suppose that the objective function
M
E(x<1>) = Le(x<1>,ro, )P (9.265)
l•I
is to be minimized. Then we have [13]
(9.266a)
(9.266b)
where pis an even positive integer, t<1> is the optimum step length determined by thejth one-
dimensional search, and
(9.267)
oe(X(J) ,ro 1 )
ox<,{'
oe(xcn ,m 2 )
A<J> = ax<1> (9.268)
.Jl
oe(x< 1>,ro,.,) oe(Xw ,ro,.,) oe(XCJ) ,ro Al)
axfl' ax~1> ax<,{>
(9.269)
The following example describes the iterative approximation process and its computations.
9.9.2 Illustrative Example
Example 9.11 Let the source and load impedances be
(9.270)
z 2 (s)= m3 (s)+n 3 (s) =3s 2 +3s+l (9.271)

m4 (s)+n 4 (s) s+l
respectively. We wish to design an equalizer terminating in z1(s) and z 2 (s) and yielding a low-
pass transducer power-gain characteristic.
Expression for G(X,m,):

From (9.258), Z 10 (s) is written as
(9.272)
Also
(9.273a)
(9.273b)
(9.273c)
(9.273d)
Substituting (9.270), (9.271 ), (9.272) and (9.273) in (9.254) yields
(9.274)
where
C 6 =3b3 (9.275a)
C5 =6b3 (9.275b)
C 4 =4b 3 +b 2 +3b1 +3a 2 (9.275c)
C 3 =b3 +2b 2 +6h 1 +3a 2 (9.275d)
C 2 =b 2 +4b 1 +b0 +a 2 +a 1 +3 (9.275e)
cl =bi +2bo +al +3 (9.275f)
C 0 =b0 + l (9.275g)
According to (9.261 ), a's can be expressed in terms of b's and T's, as follows:
(9.276)
If the equalizer is required to be reciprocal, the polynomial T4 s 4 + T2 s 2 + T0 must be a complete

square. Suppose that its zeros are on the real axis. Then
(9.277)
Solving for a1 and a 2 in (9.276) in conjunction with (9.277) gives
(9.278)
(9.279)
We substitute (9.277) in (9.274) and obtain
(9.280)
where
(9.28])
The least pth method:

Differentiating G(X,co) of (9.280) with respect with to C1_"(/ = 1,2,, .. ,7) and evaluating
it at co, yields an M x 7 matrix P, the ith row and /th column entry of which is given by
8G(X,co,)
P,, = ac,_, (9.282)
Likewise, differentiating Cs of (9.275) with respect to x 1 (k = 1,2, •.. ,5) gives a 7 x N matrix Q
with entries
(9.283)
Thus, the product PQ is an M x N matrix A, the elements of which are
(9.284)
Using thejth approximation xCJ> of X, we obtain thejth approximations at and Aw of

a,k and A, respectively. Substituting these in (9.265) and (9.266), the algorithm yields the
desired coefficients
b3 = 11.50001
b2 =15.07001
b, = 5.028392 (9.285)
b0 = 2.275118
U =1.643993
IH 1:1.50835 3H
1.7100 H
5.0793H 0.57569H
IF In
0.62963F
1.5805 F
IH 0.82094 H 1:1.50835 3H
2.01197H
l.73617F
• •
IF
1 1n
Fig. 9.19 Two realizations of Example 9.11.

REFERENCES 533
C 0.751---------+------f
ii
~ 0.61---------+------f
~
't 0.451----------ir----~
B
::,
'g 0.31----------+----~
C
I?
t- 0 . 1 5 1 - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - ~
O-t----,--,,----._,---;:a-i,--1
0.01 0.21 0.41 0.61 0.81 1.01 1.21 1.41 1.61
Fig. 9.20 The transducer power-gain characteristic of Fig. 9.19.
References
1. Bode, H. W. (1945) Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design. Princeton, NJ: Van
Nostrand.
2. Carlin, H. (1977) "A new approach to gain-bandwidth problems." IEEE Trans. Circuits and
Systems, Vol. CAS-24, No. 4, pp. 170-175.
3. Carlin, H. J. and Amstutz, P. (1981) "On optimum broadband matching,'' IEEE Trans.
Circuits and Systems, Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 401-405.
4. Carlin, H. J. and Komiak, J. J. (1977) "A new method of broad-band equalization applied to
microwave amplifiers," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and Teck, Vol. MIT-27, No. 2, pp.
93-99.
5. Carlin, H.J. and Yarman, B. S. (1983) "The double matching problem: Analytic and real
frequency solutions," IEEE Trans. Circuits and Systems, Vol. CAS-30, No. I, pp. 15-28.
6. Chen, W. K. (1986) Passive and Active Filters: Theory and Implementations. New York:
John Wiley.
7. Chen, W. K. (1986) Broadband Matching: Theory and Implementations. Second edition,
Singapore: World Scientific.
8. Cuthbert, T. R., Jr. (1983) Circuit Design Using Personal Computers. New York: John
Wiley.
9. Fielder, D. C. (1961) "Broadband matching between load and source system,'' IRE Trans.
Circuit Theory, Vol. CT-8, pp. 138-153, June.
10. Lawson, C. L. and Hanson, R. J. (1974) Solving Least Square Problems. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
11. Levy, E. C. (1959) "Complex-curve fitting," IRE Trans. Automatic Control, Vol. AC-4, No.
1, pp. 37-43.
12. Lu, S. K. S. (1983) "CAD broadband matching design," Electron. Leu., Vol. 19, No. 4, pp.
146-147.
13. Ternes, G. C and Lapatra, J. W. (1977) Introduction to Circuit Synthesis and Design, New
York: McGraw-Hill. _
14. Yarman, B. S. and Carlin, H.J. (1982) "A simplified 'real frequency' technique applied to
broad-band multistage microwave amplifies," IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory and Tech,
Vol. MTT-30, No. 12, pp. 2216-2222.
15. Youla, D. C. (1961), "A new theory of cascade synthesis," IRE Trans. Circuit Theory, Vol.
CT-8, pp. 244-260.
16. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1991) "A CAD method for the design of a double-matched
broadband network having complex transmission zeros," J. Circuits, Systems, and
Computers, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 401-415.
Chapter 10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Diplexer and Multiplexer

A coupling network that divides the frequency spectrum into separate frequency bands
and also provides desired filtering is known as a multiplexer. In particular, the one that divides
the frequency spectrum into two essentially non-overlapping parts is called a diplexer,
Multiplexers and diplexers are very useful in communication systems. In this chapter, we first
introduce the scattering matrix of a general multiport. We then study a constant resistance
multiplexer, which is the simplest to design, and provides only 3-dB attenuation at the crossover
frequency. In the following we present analytic techniques for the design of a maximally flat
low-pass high-pass reactance ladder diplexer with adjustable crossover attenuation. We show
that if the order of the ladders is greater than 3, the solution for the diplexer becomes analytically
untraceable. Finally, a numerical method is proposed for the design of a diplexer having non-
symmetrical maximally flat or elliptic response.
10.1 The Scattering Matrix of a Lossless Reciprocal Three-Port Network
Consider a general lossless reciprocal three-port network N of Fig. 10.1. Let S(s) be the
unit normalized scattering matrix of N expressed as
(10.1)
Since N is assumed to be lossless and reciprocal, the scattering matrix S(s) is real symmetric,
bounded-real and para-unitary, and satisfies
(10.2)
The determinant of S(s) is an all-pass function
detS(s) =±d(-s)/d(s) (10.3)
where d(s) is a Hurwitz polynomial, which is assumed to be monic, and its degree is the
McMillan degree of the matrixt. Write
• The degree ll(R) ofa rational function R(.r) equals the totality ofits poles, multiplicity counted and s a co included.
535
536 DIPLEXER AND MULTIPLEXER
1n 2 1n
Lossless three-
V,,(s) port network V, 2 (s)
I' 2'
3 3'
In
v., (s)
Fig. 10.1 A lossless three -port network and its terminations.
(10.4)
where d(s) is generally not the least common multiple of the denominators of the elements
S,1's) written as irreducible fractions. In (10.2), the elements of s-1(s) are the 2nd-order minors
of S(s) divided by the determinant (10.3), from which we obtain
(10.5)
(10.6)
(10.7)
(10.8)
(10.9)
(10.10)
The last three equations are linear in the diagonal elements and can be solved to yield
(10.11)
(10.12)
THE SCATTERING MATRIX OF A LOSSLESS RECIPROCAL THREE-PORT NETWORK 537
(10.13)
Substituting (I 0.11), (10.12) and ( 10.13) in (I 0.5), we obtain
± [d(s)~ 12 {-s)~,i-s)~ 23 {-s) + d(-s)~ 12 (s)~ 13 {s)~ 23 (s)]

= ~12 (s)~ 1i{-s)~ 13 (s)~ 13 {-s) + ~12 (s)~ 1i{-s)~ 23 (s)~ 23 {-s) + ~13 {s)~ 13 (-s)~ 2is)~ 23 {-s) (10.14)
Observe that this relation is invariant under cyclic permutations 1-2-3. Since the sets of
equations (10.5)-(10.7) and (10.8)-(10.10) are invariant under cyclic permutations, the
substitution of ( 10.11 }-{ 10.13) in (10.6) and ( I 0. 7) will yield the same result ( I 0.14). So we
consider only the last four independent relations (10.11}-{10.14).
Parallel Decomposability
The admittance matrix Y(s) of N is found to be
(10.15)
where
}~ i<-~) = d(s)- ~11 (s) + ~ 22 (s) + ~33 (s) +[d(-s)- ~11 (-s) + ~22 (-s) + ~33 (-s)] ( 10.16)
d(s) + ~11 (s) +~ 22 (s)+~ 33 {s) ± [d(-s) +~ 11 (-s) + ~22 (-s) + ~33 (-s)]
(10.17)
and all other elements are obtained by cyclic permutations.
A three-port network degenerates into two two-ports N2 and N3 connected in parallel at

port 11' of Fig. I 0.2 if and only if Y23 (s) = 0 or
( I 0.18)
Since ~ 23 (s) divides ~ 23 (-s)d(s) on the right-hand side of (10.11), it must also divide
q, 12 {s)~ 13 (s). Hence
(10.19)
where y(s) is a polynomial. Eliminating ~ 23 (s) among ( I 0.19) and ( I 0.12)-(10.13), we obtain
Lossless two-
port network
N2
2'
Lossless two-
port network
3
Lossless two-
port network
N1
3'
Fig. 10.2 A three-port network degenerates into two two-port networks

N2 and N 3 connected in parallel at port 11'.
(10.20)
(10.21)
and (10.11) reduces to
911(s) =y(s)+d(s) (10.22)
Example 10.1 Consider a 3 x 3 scattering matrix given by Wang and Chen [9]
S2-l Ti +1 -✓
2
s
s
S(s)=
s2
I
+~s+1 -Ti
s
Sl +Ti+} s (10.23)
s s S2 +}
the determinant of which is found to be
(10.24)
showing that
d(s) =s2 + ✓2s+1 (10.25)
Since
(10.26)
Y23 (s) = 0 and the realization of (10.23) will degenerate into two-ports of Fig. 10.2. Using
(10.19) gives
(10.27)
With (10.25) and (10.27}, the numerator of the reflection coefficient S11 {s) is found to be
(10.28)
and , 22 (s) and , 33 {s) are attained from (10.20) and (10.21).
Further divisibility relations of (10.20) and (10.21) are in general difficult to find, but it can
be simplified considerably if certain restrictions are accepted. A three-port network is said to be
divisible if it is parallel decomposable at some port when the numerator of the irreducible
transmittances from that port to the other two-ports are even or odd, as shown in (10.18). The
class of divisible three-port networks is very wide and includes most three-port filter networks of
practical interest, because all jro -axis transmission zeros are allowed.
Divisible Three-Port Networks
,------------------------------------------------, I
I
I :I 2 : 4
~ z,c,:-- 1n
2' 4'
in
I' 3' S'

N
Fig. 10.3 The ideal transformer and two lossless reciprocal two-port networks
constitute the diplexer.
A divisible three-port network N can be decomposed into two two-ports N 2 and N3

connected in series as shown in Fig. 10.3. Our objective is to express the scattering matrix of the
three-port in terms of the input impedances of N2 and N3 • To this end, consider a three-port
ideal transformer with unit turns ratios terminating in non-Foster positive real impedances z1(s),
z 2 (s) and z3 (s) at ports 11', 22', and 33 11 as depicted in Fig. 10.3. When z1(s) = I and z2 (s) and
z3 (s) are expressed by their Darlington equivalents, the ideal transformer and the two lossless
reciprocal two-port networks N2 and N3 constitute a diplexer N of Fig. 10.3. Define
(10.29)
where
(10.30)
and the factorization is to be performed, so that h;(s) and h,: 1(s) are analytic in the open RHS.
Let S(s) be the scattering matrix of the three-port ideal transformer normalizing to z1(s), z2 (s)
and z3 (s). Then we have
.!i. z 2 +z3 -z1• 2h1'12 2"1h1

z, +z2 +z3 Z1+Z2+Z3 z1+z2 +z3
scs>=
"·· 211th2 .!!L. z1+z3-z2• -2/,2/,l
(10.31)
z1+z2+z3 z1+z2 +z3 z1+z2 +z 3
2h1h3 "2• -2h 2h3 !i. Z1+z2-z3•
Z1 +Z2 +z3 Z1 +z2 +Z3 "3• z1+z 2+z3 .
Assume that z,(s) = 1Q and express z2 (s) and z3 (s) explicitly as the ratios of two Hurwitz
polynomials
(10.32)
(10.33)
Consider the decomposition
(10.34)
The zeros of the polynomial w,(s) are restricted to the LHS, whereas the zeros of the
polynomials w,.(s) = w1(-s) are limited to the RHS. The jro-axis zeros are equally divided
between w,(s) and wio(s). Let e, = ±1. If the order of jro-axis zeros of w,(s) is of even
multiplicity, we choose the plus sign, otherwise the minus sign. The unit normalized scattering
matrix of the diplexer N of Fig. 10.3 is found to be [12]
(10.35)
From (10.35), we arrive at the following conclusions:
1. S(s) is rational and bounded-real and possesses the para-unitary property for a lossless,
reciprocal linear and lumped diplexer. By assumption, p,/q, is non-Foster and
positive-real, so that the polynomial p 2q3 + p3 q2 +q2q3 is strictly Hurwitz.
2. {e, w,./w,) is a perfect square for a reciprocal network. When all zeros of w,w,. are on
the jro-axis, (e, w,./w,)½ =±1.
3. If N2 and N3 of Fig. 10.3 have the configurations of Fig. 10.4(a), where
(10.36)
(10.37)
The unit-normalized scattering matrix of the dip lex er becomes
2q3
p3qr +qr% -Pr% (10.38)
-2s"'
where
(10.39)
i ~I
l.
1n
I}In
2' c. n even n odd
I' 3'
IQ
}Jin
mcvcn modd
Fig. 10. 4(a) A diplexer composed of two ladders connected in series.
Ifwc use admittances y 2(s) and yis) instead of impedances z 2 (s) and z3 (s), we arrive
at a diplexer composed of two ladders connected in parellel as depicted in Fig.4(b). This
configuration is frequently used in practice.
_ _ _ __ _ _ . I n
c. n even
I}In n odd
3' mcven modd
Fig. 10. 4(b) A diplexer composed of two ladders connected in parallel.
10.2 Analytic Method for the Design of a Constant Resistance Multiplexer
If Sil(s) =0 at port ii', the input impedance at port ii' is constant for all real frequencies ro,
and the resulting multiplexer is known as the constant resistance multiplexer. An important
feature is that component two-ports can be designed independently, thereby simplifying the
ANALYTIC METHOD FOR THE DESIGN OF A CONSTANT RESISTANCE MULTIPLEXER 543
problem greatly. The constant resistance diplexer was first solved by Norton [7]. We extend his
technique from a diplexer to a multiplexer.
Consider the multiplexer configuration of Fig. 10.5. Let z2 (s), z3 (s) and z 4 (s) be the
input impedances of the lossless two-ports N2 , N 3 and N 4 tenninated in the In resistors.
Write
(10.40)
(10.41)
(10.42)
For a constant resistance multiplexer we require that
(10.43)
(10.44)
(10.45)
obtaining the following theorem of Norton [7].
Theorem 10.1 A network composed of linear elements having a constant conductance at

all frequencies and having no reactive elements shunt across its tenninals has zero susceptance.
Consider a source E(jro) with internal resistance ~(s) = 1n. Assume that ,P..(ro) is the
maximum available power at port 11' from the source. Then we have
(10.46)
The current l(s) at the input loop is found to be
(10.47)
Using (10.40}-{10.46) and (10.47) gives the power absorbed by z2 (s), z3 (s) and z4 (s):
P,(ro) =11uro)l2 r,(ro) =tlEUro}l2 r,(ro) (10.48)

N2 tn
I
2'
tn 3
NJ tn
3'
+
4
i',(s)
N• tn
4'
I'
Fig. 10.5 A constant resistance multiplexer composed of three reactance

ladder networks N 2 , N 3 and N4 connected in series.
where i = 2, 3, 4. Because N, is lossless, the transducer power gains of the multiplexer from port
11' to ports 22', 33', and 44' are given by
(10.49)
Norton [7] proposed a technique for computing the transducer power gains and the real
parts of the input impedances z 2 (s), z 3 (s) and z4's) as follows:
G (ro)---1- (10.50)
12 - l+F;(ro)
l .
G (ro)- ...-----.-..------.. (10.51)
13 - [1+1/,F.(ro)][l+l/F2 (ro}]
1
G (ro) - ...--------.....------.. (10.52)
14 -(1+1/F;(ro)][i+F;(ro)]
Because G 12 (ro), G 13 (ro), and G 14 (ro) are realizable by a lumped passive network if and only if
Fa (ro) and F;(ro) are real even rational function of ro, we may choose
2
F;(oo)=(~) n (10.53)
ooo,
where 00 01 :S 00 02 and m and n are positive integers. Substituting {10.53) and (10.54) in
(10.50}-{10.52) gives
(10.55)
(10.56)
(10.57)
From (10.55}-{10.57) we see that G12 {oo) is a low-pass response, G14 {oo) a band-pass
response, and G13 (oo) a high-pass response. We also notice that G13 {oo) is either an nth-order
( m ~ n) or mth-order ( m < n) high-pass response with m +n elements, showing that Norton's
method is ineffective.
Buttcnvorth Multiplexer
Let G12 (oo) be an nth-order Butterworth low-pass response composed of n elements and
G14 (oo) an mth-order Butterworth high-pass response of m elements. The band-pass response
G13 {oo) is derived by subtracting G12 {oo) and G14 {oo) from unity, obtaining the following
multiplexer realizability conditions.
Theorem 10.2 Let the transducer power gains of a three-channel Butterworth constant
multiplexer of Fig. 10.5 be
(10.58)
{10.59)
(10.60)
546 DIP LEXER AND MULTIPLEXER
The multiplexer is realizable if and only if n = m and 00 01 < 00 02 . If 00 01 = 00 02 , the multiplexer

degenerates into a symmetrical diplexer.
Proof Because z 3 (s) is positive real, r3(oo)=G13 (oo) must be bounded real. Substituting
( 10.58) and ( 10.59) in ( 10.60) and requiring that the resulting function be greater than or equal to
zero for all real frequency oo gives
n=m (10.61)
(10.62)
Substituting (10.61) and (10.62) in (10.59) and (10.60) shows that G12 (m), G13 (oo) and
G14 (oo) are all bounded real and z 2(s), z 3 (s) and z 4 (s) satisfy the real part conditions of
positive real functions. Thus, ( 10.61) and (10.62) are also sufficient.
The unity frequency normalized element values of the low-pass and high-pass channel
filters of Fig. 10.5 were obtained by Norton [7], as follows:
• 7t
K1 =sm- (1O.63a)
2n
(1O.63b)
g = sin(2m-11t)sin(2m-3
2n 2n
1t)
(10.63c)
m gm-1 cos 2{.!!!.::!1t)
2n
• 7t
g =nsm- (1O.63d)
n 2n
To obtain the element values of the band-pass channel filter, we substitute (10.61), (10.62),
(10.58) and (10.59) in (10.60) and obtain
(10.64)
g,.s
1n
g,. !!.
s s
•
Jn
Fig. 10.6 The element values for r2 (ro) =1/(1 +ro 2n) and r_.(ro) =ro2n/(I+ ro 2n).
Appealing to the theory of analytic continuation by replacing ro by - js in (10.64) and factoring

the resulting denominator polynomial yield a strictly Hurwitz polynomial
(10.65)
being the denominator of the input impedance z3 (s} of the band-pass channel. Write the
numerator polynomial as
(10.66)
the coefficients of which can be found by the Gewertz formula
-qi % 0 0 P1 B2
-q3 q2 -q, 0 P2 B4
-qs q4 -ql 0 PJ = B6 (10.67)
( })2n•I
0 0 0 - q2n•I P2n-l B◄n-2
where B2 , B4 , • • ·, B4"_2 are the coefficients of the numerator polynomial of (I 0.64), when the real
frequency ro is replaced by - js.
Example 10.2 We wish to design a symmetrical Butterworth multiplexer with n = 6,

co 01 = 0.5 rad/ s, and co 01 = 2.0 rad/ s. We first calculate the element values L,k and C,k of the
low-pass channel filter according to (10.63) and obtain
L, 6 = ~ = 0.517638, C, 5 = g 2 = 1.515750
C001 C001
L,4 =~ =2.403256, C13 = g 4 =3. I 058285 (10.68)

coo, coo,
C11 = g 6 =3 J 058285
C001
The clement values Chk and Lhk of the high-pass channel filter are found to be
(10.69)
Substituting n =6, co 01 =0.5 rad/s, and co 01 =2.0 rad/s in (10.64), appealing to the theory
of analytic continuation by replacing co by - js, and factoring the resulting function yield the
coefficients of the denominator polynomial of z3 (s) as
(10.70)
where
% =64.0000000 q, =618.1925288
q2 =2985.6406459 q3 = 9367.8943426
q4 = 20845.8946836 q5 = 33834.3473997
q6 = 39945.5080743 q, = 33834.3473997 (10.71)
qg = 20845.8946836 q9 = 9367.89434255
q1o =2985.6406459 q1I = 618.1925288
q 12 =64.0000000
From (10.64), we find that all B2k, the coefficients of the numerator polynomial in s. are
zero, except that B12 = 4096.0 2 - 1.0 . Using ( 10.71) and B2k in (10.67), the coefficients of the
numerator polynomial of z3 (s) are found to be
where
p, = 61.8192529 p 2 =597.1281292
p3 = 2765.1134688 p4 = 7901.2297449
Ps = 14946.8045154 A = 18703.2032323
(I 0.73)
p 1 =14946.8045154 Pa =7901.2297449
p 9 = 2765.1134688 p 10 = 597.1281292
p 11 = 61.8192529
A final realization is shown in Fig. 10. 7.
2.403H 0.S176H
3.106F I.S16F
l2 Cz L, c, L, C,
z3 (s)
~
L, c, ls ::;n
V,(s)
0.2842F 0.4161F 1.932 F
I
I
z 4 (s) ~ 0.3220H 0.3220H 0.6S97 H IQ
I'
C1 = 1.035 F C2 = 0.9542 F C3 = 0.8021 F C4 = 1.827 F

Cs = 0.3169 F C6 = 9.664 F L1 = 0.9659 H L2 = 1.048 H
L3 =l.247H l 4 =0.5474H Ls =3.156H L6 =0.1035H
Fig. 10. 7 A realization of a Butterworth constant resistance multiplexer.

50
40
ID
"CJ
.5
C/1
30
C/1
.s 20
10
0+------~--,,......,'1'-1,...._.....,........._ _ _.............
-1.2 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
log (frequency)
Fig. 10.8 The response characteristics of the multiplexer of Fig. 10. 7.
EJliptic Response Multiplexer
Without loss of generality, suppose that the low-pass channel filter and the high-pass
channel filter of a constant resistance elliptic response multiplexer have the same pass-band
ripple a,,, = a ph =a,, and the same stop-band loss a_,. Define the selectivity factors
k h_- (J)sh
(10.74)
(J) ph
where ro ,,, and ro rh are the pass-band ripple bandwidth and ro_,, and ro.,h correspond to the first
frequencies on which the gains are attenuated by a_, of the low-pass and high-pass channels,
respectively. The transducer power gain of the low-pass channel is defined by
(10.75)
Using the Jacobian elliptic sine function sn(u,k) of modulus k, we have
(10.76)
_ [(2i -
l)K,
ro,-sn ---'--, k], i = 1,2,··•,q = !!. (10.77)
n 2
forn even;
(10.78)
2iK•
1 k) n-1
ro1 = sn( ~ , i=l •2•··· •q=--
2 (10.79)
for n odd; K 1 is the complete elliptic integral of modulus k1 :
(10.80)
and k11 is defined as
(10.81)
Consider the mth-order high-pass elliptic transducer power gain
(10.82)
where F.,(ro) and kh 1 are defined in (10.76), (10.78), and (10.81), except that k 1 is replaced by
k,. and n by m. Substituting (10.75) and (10.82) in
(10.83)
and requiring that the resulting function be bounded real gives
Theorem 10.3 We wish to design n thrce-ehnnnel constant resistance elliptic response

multiplexer of Fig. 10.5. Let the low-pass transducer power gain G12 (ro) be given by (10.75),
the high-pass G14 (ro) by (10.82), and the band-pass by (10.83). Then a constant resistance
elliptic response multiplexer is realizable by a passive lossless network if and only if m = n,
k1 = k,., e 2 > k1 , where k1 = k11 = k,. 1 is defined by (10.81). If e 2 = k1 the multiplexer degenerates
into a diplexer.
The proof of Theorem 10.3 is the same as that of Theorem 10.2.

Example 10.3 We wish to design a three-channel constant resistance elliptic response

multiplexer, where the pass-band ripples a. P S 0.02dB and a., ~ 65dB , and co pl = co , 2 = 1.0 rad/s
and co P 2 = co, 1 = 2. 7777 rad/s.
From (10.74), we have
co, CO 2
k=-p =-•-=0.36 (10.84)
CO sl CO p2
Its complementary modulus is
k' = ✓l-k 2 (10.85)
To determine the order of the filters, we compute
(10.86)
its complementary modulus s~ ,and the complete elliptic integrals of moduli k, k', s and s; .
1
The order is find to be n = 5 t. The transducer power gain can be written as
(10.87)
where
(10.88)
(10.89)
co1 =sn( 2: ,0.36) =sin36.9475" = 0.6010829826 (10.90)
co 2 = sn( 4: ,0.36) = sin 72.58" = 0.9541358854 (10.91)
(10.92)
' Sec Section 4.5.

(10.93)
in which
as = 0.997809233 l
a4 = 3.3369383408
a3 =4.0055105353 (10.94)
a 2 =4.1641606462
a1 = 2.8471770657
and
b4 = 0.7806501580
b3 = 1.8283061566
b2 = 2.7275368620 (10.95)
bl = 2.3047667663
b0 = 1.0000000000
In the same way, the transducer power gain of the high-pass channel filter G14 (ro) can be
written as
(10.96)
where e, k., F5 (ro), ro 1 and ro2 are defined in (10.88), (10.92), (10.89), (10.90), and (10.91),
respectively. Let r4 (ro) = G14 (ro). The input impedance of the high-pass channel filter z4 (s) is
found to be
(10.97)
in which
d5 = 1.0000000000
d 4 = 6.4021299063
d 3 =21.0458091203 (10.98)
d 2 =39.1869460855
d 1 = 46.4778948292
and
C4 = 7.9088251825
C3 =32.1308691839
C2 =85.8519919265 (10.99)
c, = 139.1352750141
Co =165.0194040928
Substituting (10.87) and (10.96) in (10.83) yields the transducer power gain of the band-
pass channel filter as
E4
--1
(10.100)
G,,(ro)= ( 2 k,
\ 2E, l
l+e -F, (oo) 1+-5- · -2-
J
k1 k k1 F, (oo)
Let r3 (oo) =G13 {oo). The resulting denominator can be factored as the product of a Hurwitz and
anti-Hurwitz polynomials. The Hunvitz polynomial is given by
(10.101)
in which
% =165.0194040928 q, = 608.9747377462
q? =1169.1620643591 q3 = 1516.9352899763
q4 = 1399.8405675034 q5 = 991.0054285808
(10.102)
q6 = 503.9426042989 q, = l 96.5948135799
q8 = 54.5484252742 q9 =10.2284371309
q10 = 0.9978092331
Using the rational Hilbert transformation, we obtain the numerator polynomial
(10.103)
where
Pa = 43.0302327964 p 2 =141.0211476957
PJ = 279.5729867498 p 4 = 284.8364555251
Ps =246.1132210068 p 6 = 102.5411245379 (10.104)
p 1 = 36.2326594308 p 8 = 6.5794827688
p9 =0.7227426848
A ladder realization using Youla's cascade synthesis is shown in Fig. 10.9, the responses of
which are given in Fig. 10.10.
1.436H 0.8688H
11.040H 2.651H
1n
1.1852H In
in
I'
=
l, 13.479 H =
L, S.439 H L, = 0.3896 H L, a 0.96S4 H
L, .. 2.JSSH f..=3.423H ~•l.629H l.a•l.l20H
M1 -=8.S62H M1 •0.6133H MJ=2.839H M,•l.3SIH
Fig. 10.9A realization of an elliptic response constant resistance multiplexer.
10.3 Maximally Flat Low-Pass High-Pass Reactance-Ladder Diplexers
In the foregoing, we introduced the constant resistance multiplexer. When n = m and

ro 01 = ro 02 for the Butterworth response; m = n , k1 = k h and k 1 =k11
=k,. 1 = e2 for the elliptic
response, the constant resistance multiplexer degenerates into a diplexer. For a constant
resistance Butterworth diplexer, its gains are maximally flat at m= 0 and ro =co. Each ladder
uses n reactances for a total of 2n elements. In general, a filter composed of 2n reactances
produces a transducer power gain of degree 4n, whereas the gains in (10.58) and (10.59) are only
of degree 2n. Moreover, at the crossover frequency ro=m 0 , G12 (ro 0 ) =G13 (ro 0 } =½, an
attenuation of 3 dB which for many applications is unacceptably small. These difficulties can be
circumvented only by relaxing the match requirement at the input with a nonconstant resistance
design that allows a 'controlled interaction' between z2 (s) and z3 (s).
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8
froquoncy
Fig. 10.10 The responses of the multiplexer of Fig. 10.9.
In this section, we study the design of a nonconstant resistance diplexer with maximally flat
response both at ro = 0 and ro = ex> due to Youla et al [11]. Using the constant resistance case as
guide, for a prescribed integer n ~ l , we seek to construct a normalized gain function G(ro) with
the following propertiest:
= =
(1) G12 (ro) G(ro) and G13 (ro) G(l/ro) are low-pass high-pass realizable diplexer.
(2) G(ro) is monotonically decreasing, G(O) =1, the degree: of G(s) is o(G) =4n, and
6(z2 ) = o(z3 ) = n.
(3) G( ro) is maximally flat at ro = 0 .
(4) For real ro, G(ro) vanishes if and only if ro =ex> and the order of this zero is 211.
(5) The crossover gain is controlled by a real parameter k > 0 and decreases monotonically
from 1/2 to O as k varies from O to ex>. k =0 corresponds to the maximum interaction
and yields a constant resistance Butterworth gain G( ro) =1/(1 + ro 2n) of degree 211.
Such a diplexer is said to be optimal. Clearly, it is matched at ro =0 and ro =ex>. G12 (ro) is
maximally flat at ro =0 and G13 (ro) is maximally flat at ro =ex>. Furthermore, the ladders have
t G1 (co) nnd G><co) arc scaled to n crossover frequency co 0 a I rnd/s nnd to r1 .. r1 • lj a I Q •

: The degree li{R) of n rational function R(s) equals the total number of its poles, multiplicity counted and s = ct) included.
MAXIMALLY FLAT LOW-PASS HIGH-PASS REACTANCE-LADDER DIPLEXERS 557
inverse frequency behavior, z3 (s)=z2 (1/s), so that L,C,=1, /=l,2,··•,n, where L, and C,
denote the inductance and capacitance values of the ladders, respectively. The transducer power
gain G(ro) can be generated by simple arithmetic.
Theorem 10.4 (Youla el al [11]) A transducer power gain G(ro) possesses the properties
(1), (3), (4) and (5) listed above, if and only if there exists a strictly Hurwitz monic polynomial
q2 (s) of degree n ~ 1 and a constant k > 0 such that
(1) (10.105)
where
(10.106)
(10.107)
where B(s) is a polynomial.
A proof of Theorem 10.4 was given by Youla et al [11). In the following we use this
theorem to design a nonconstant resistance Butterworth diplexer.
(A) n=l. Substituting q2 (s)=s+a1 and q3 (s)=l+a1s in(10.107)gives
(10.108)
where B(s) =b0s+b1 • This leads to
(10.109)
In addition,
(10.110)
B(s)=ks+.J2k+1 (10.111)
are both strictly Hurwitz. The gain is given by
(10.112)
showing
G(l)= 2(k+l) (10.113)

(k+2} 2
The minimum-reactance input impedance z2 (s) of the low-pass ladder is determined uniquely
from the even part
(10.114)
Using q3 (s) in (10.114), the single element value of in the low-pass ladder is calculated as
C, = ✓2k+l F (10.115)
For the high-pass ladder, £.. = 1/C1 H .

Example 10.4 We wish to design a 1st-order maximally flat diplexer with 10-dB loss at
the crossover frequency.

k =16.94427 (10.116)
c1 = 5.9066530 F
(10.117)
£i =0.1693006H
5.907F 1n
in
V1 (s)
0.1693H In
I'
Fig. 10.11 A 1st-order maximally flat diplexer with 10-dB loss at crossover frequency.
(B) n = 2 . As before we have
( 10.118)
(10.119)
and leading to
(10.120a)
(10.120b)
(10.120c)
(10.120d)
(10.120e)
The final expressions are reached by eliminating the b,.
( 10.12 la)
(10.121b)
(10.122a)
(10.122b)
(10.122c)
Since lq 2 U)l2 =lq 3 (j)j2 =a: +(a2 -1)2, a direct calculation of G(l) again results (10.113). The
element values of a 2nd-order maximally flat diplexer are given by
(10.123)
(10.124)
Example 10.5 We wish to design a 2nd-order maximally flat diplexer with 10-dB loss at

k =16.94427 (10.125)
Substituting (10.125) in (10.121) and using the results in (10.122)-(10.124) gives
C,1 = 2.7097640 F, L12 = 2.3407280 H (10.126a)

560 DIP LEXER AND MULTIPLEXER
L,, 1 = 0.3690359 H, C ,, 2 = 0.4272175 F (10.126b)
2.341 H
2.710F In
0.4272 F
0.3690H In
I'
Fig. 10.12 A 2nd-order maximally flat diplexer with 10-dB loss at the crossover frequency.
50.0 . - . , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
40.0
~ 30.0
.5
.,
,9 20.0
10.0
0.0 J__..:::::::;;::...._.....,____ .=::::;::::==rl

0,02 0.52 1.02 1.52 2.02 2.52
Nonnallzed Frequency
Fig. 10.13 The transducer power-gain characteristics of the diplexcr of Example 10.4.
(C) n = 3. The situation is considerably more complex. Nevertheless, explicit formulas arc
still derivable with the help of an important corollary of (10.107).
Lemma 10.1 Suppose that k > 0and that (10.107) is satisfied by some strictly Hurwitz
monic polynomial q 2 (s) of degree n ~ 1. Then
is an identity.
By combining (10.107) and (10.127), we obtaint
(10.128)
which may be rewritten as
(10.129)
Consequently, 1-q)q3• is divisible by s". In particular, since
(10.130)
and n ~ 1,
(10.131)
a result that proves to be immediately useful in the case n = 3 .
Substitute q2 (s)=s·'+a 1s 2 +a2 s+a3 and B(s)=b0 :i+b1s 2 +b2s+b3 in (10.107). Equate
coefficients of like powers of s on both sides for every n ~ 1, b0 = k and b" = an . Then, in terms
of the row vector
X = (1, bo, -b., b2, -bJ (10.132)
and the 5 x 7 matrix

--ka -ka1 l+k
3 ka2 a. a2 G3
a3 a2 a, 1 0 0 0
M3= 0 G3 G2 a, 0 0 (10.133)
0 0 aJ G2 a, 0
0 0 0 G3 a2 a,
we have
xM 3 =0 7 (10.134)
where On represents the zero row vector of dimension n. Since x is nontrivial, the rank of M3 is
4 and the three 5 x 5 minors formed by adjoining columns 1, 2 or 3 individually to the last four
columns are all singular. It follows that
1 The arguments is omitted wherever convenient. and B, = 8(-s).

(10.135)
(10.136)
(10.137)
We use (10.131) to eliminate a 2 in (10.135), and obtain the cubic equation
kx 3 +X-2=0 (10.138)
for the ratio x=a1/a3 • Equation (10.138) can be solved by program A204. The a, are functions
of x0 alone, the root of (10.138). Substituting a 1 =x0 a3 and a 2 = x~a;/2 in (10.136), we get
with the aid of (10.138)
(10.139)
(10.140)
Furthermore, since a,> 0, a3 > 0 and
(10.141)
since (10.138) has a unique positive solution x0 , q2 (s) is strictly Hunvitz by Routh test. Finally,
we compute the element values
02
L12 =-, (10.142)
c,.
Example 10.6 We wish to design a 3rd -order maximally flat diplexer with 10-dB loss at

k=16.94427 (10.143)
From (10,143) and program A204, we find
Xo = 0.4505266 (10.144a)
C11 =l.9523188F, L,, 1 =1/C11 =0.5122114H (10.144b)
L12 = 2. 7860458 H, c,,2 = 1/L, 2 = 0.3589316 F (10.144c)
C13 =1.3459381 F, L,, 3 =1/C13 =0.7429762H (10.144d)
A realization is shown in Fig. 10.14, the transducer power-gain characteristic of which is

presented in Fig. 10.15.
2.786 H
T l.952F
03589F
(
+'~" tin
v.<s) \
0.5122H 0.7430H in
I'
Fig. 10.14 A 3rd-order maximally flat diplexer with 10-dB loss at the crossover frequency.
70.---r------------------,
60 -- ····························-·········-·-·
50 ···········-·········-··--······-·-·-···--···
lg 40
.5
C
ii 30
C)
20
10
0 ..__ _ ..,..o::::::::;..__,....._...;;::;::=-------,.l
0.01 0.51 1.01 1.51 2.01 2.51
Nonnallzed Froquoncy
Fig. 10.15 The transducer power-gain characteristic of the diplexer of Example 10.6.
(D) n ~ 4. Note that the elimination technique described for n = 3 is valid in general. Thus,
let
(10.145)
and introduce the matrices
an an-I an-2 a1
0 an an-I a2
Ce
n
(10.146)
0 0 0 an
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
a, 1 0 0
Dn a (10.147)
an-I an-2 an-) 0
- an an-I an-2 1
M. s[H)"ka,,
... • ka2, -kal I l+k, a1, a2, ... • a,] (10.148)
C,, D,,
where Mn has n + 2 rows and 2n + 1 columns. Then q3 (s) divides the polynomial
q 2 (s)+ksnq 3 (-s) if and only if
rankMn =n+l (10.149)
Since detDn = 1, (10.149) is satisfied if and only if every (n+ 2)x(n+ 2) submatrix of Mn that
incorporates the last n + 1 columns is singular. It follows that
(10.150)
where every corresponding determinant J; is a polynomial in all its arguments and is of degree
one ink.
The non~inearity of the n equations of (10.150) appears to preclude an effective algebraic

solution for n ~ 4. Fortunately, for k = 1 they can be greatly simplified. In fact, these
coefficients a; have been found and can be used as excellent initial conditions for a successful
numerical routine that updates k from 0 to 200 for each n = 1 ➔ 10.
I n=l n=2 n=3 n=4 n=5 n=6 I n=7 I n=8 I n=9 I n=lO I
I o, 1.73205
I 1.73205 I 2.44948 I 3.1894 3.93923 4.69487 I S.45421 I 621602 I 6.919S4 I 1.14421 I
02 2.0 3.0 5.08612 7.75877 I 1.02091 14.87422 1931946 24.35696 29.98689
03 2.44948 4.9214 9.61051 16.57372 26.27039 39.1582 SS.69412 76.3347S
o• 3.08612 7.75877 17.08126 32.66313 56.787S1 92.0883 141.S5~
05 3.93923 I 1.87885 29.07123 60.86129 114.7405 2003630
o6 5.06035 17.78891 47.89372 108.7617 220.5059
07 6.523 26.18706 76.92359 188.1312
Og 8.42567 38.0303S 121.0SOO
09 10.89767 54.62671
0 10 14.10764
Table 10.1 Coefficients of q2 (s) =sn +o1sn•I + ··•+an_,s+on a the maximally flat
diplexer with 3.52 dB loss (k = 1) at the crossover frequency.
The coefficients of q2 (s) = sn + o1sn•I +··•+an_,s+an were given by Youla et al [11].
Unlike the previous case for n :S 4 , for a given n ~ 5 and a given k > 0 • ( 10.107) can admit
several strictly Hurwitz manic solutions for q2 (s). However, all the numerical evidence suggests
that there is always one, and only one, that defines a monotonic gain G(o.>) at least for some
small k. It can be shown that the gain at the crossover frequency is given by
G(l) = 2(k + 1) (10.151)

(k+2) 2
and is independent of n. In addition, the minimum reactance input impedance z2 (s) of the low-
pass ladder is determined uniquely from q3 (s), using (10.106) and the even part synthesis of
(10.114).
There is another way to design a maximally flat diplexer [12]. Write
(10.152)
(10.153)
Observe that there are n + m element values to be determined from 2(n + m -1) unknown
coefficients in (10.152) and (10.153). The m+n-2 constraints are imposed by the ladder
structure and the all-pole property required to satisfy (10.34), (10.36) and (10.37), as follows:
U•.r
~)-1)' d,cu-, = 0 , x=2,4,"·,2(n-1) (10.154)
,~o
••Y
L(-1) 1 h1 e,_1 =0, y = 2,4,, .. , 2(m-1) (10.155)
J=O
where d 0 =c0 =l, d,=0 for i>n; cu_,=0 for u-i~n. hm=em=l,and e 0 =0, h,=0 for
j > m and e,_1 = 0 for v- j > m. The additional flexibility in terms of the excessive n + m
unknown coefficients can be used to require that the transmission coefficients possess the desired
response. Substituting (10.152) and (10.153) in (10.38) and (10.39) gives
(10.156)
where
P2(s)q3(s) + P3(s)q2(s)-q2(s)q3(s)
(10.157)
= bm+n sm+n + ... + bm+n-h sm+n-h + ... + bksk + ... + bI s + b0
(10,158)
Theorem 10.5 For a diplexcr configuration of Fig. 10.4, suppose that the transmission
coefficients S,iCs) are expressed as in (10.38). The following are true:
( 1) If b, = 0, i = 0, 1, 2, · .. , k; k < m, then !S12 (fro )1 2 possesses (k + 1) th-order maximally
flat response at the zero frequency.
(2) If b, =0, J=m+n, m+n-1, m+n-h, h<n, then 13 (jro)l 2 possesses (h+l)th- IS
order maximally flat response at the infinite frequency.
(3) If b, = 0, i = 0, 1, 2, .. •,k, m +n, m+n-1, ... , m+n-h; k < m, h < n; the diplexer
possesses (k + I) th-odder maximally flat response at the zero frequency and (h + 1) th-
order maximally-flat response at the infinite frequency simultaneously.
( 4) 2m ~ n and 2n ~ m for any non-degenerate solution t.
Example 10.7 We wish to design a 6th -order maximally flat diplexer with 32-dB loss at
the crossover frequency ro 0 = 1 rad/s.
I.' Belevitch, V. ( 1978) "On filter pairs with Butterworth characteristics," Int. J. Circuit. Theor and Appl., Vol. IS, pp. 51-60.
So far we have obtained m+n-2 constraints in (10.154) and (10.155) and additional
m+n-2 constraints from Theorem 10.5 for 2m+2n-2 unknown coefficients. Two additional
constraints can be imposed by specifying the loss at the crossover frequency. All of these are
quadratic equations and can be successfully solved by Newton iterative program. The input
impedances of an nth-order low-pass Butterworth filter with normalization frequency at co 1 < 1
and an mth-order high-pass one at co 2 > 1 can be used as the initial values. A 6th-order
symmetrical diplexer is shown in Fig. 10.16 with its response characteristic plotted in Fig. 10.17.
The transmission coefficients are found to be
S (s)= s6 +7.7274s5 +29.8564s4 +73.9666s 3 +125.868s 2 +145.810ls+132.9572 (l0.1 59)

,2 D(s)
S (s) = 132.9572s12 + 145.810ls11 + 125.868s10 + 73.9666s9 +29.8564s 8 + 7.7274s7 +s 6 (lO 160)

ll D(s) .
in which
D(s) = 132.9572s 12 + 1173.2236s11 +5222.2183s 10 + 15234.35ls9 + 31879.52ls1

+49496.207s7 +57393.406s6 +49496.207s 5 +31879.521s 4 + 15234.35ls3
+5222.2183s 2 +1173.2236s+ 132.9572
(10.161)
2.809SH 3.4296H 0.9114H
1.733SF 3.4982F JO
03559 F 0.2916 F 1.0972 F

....__ _ _ ,_f----e------;I ,_(-----....._---;I
\ I\ 1--
0.5769H 0.2859H 0.400SH In
I'
Fig. 10.16 A 6th -order symmetrical maximally flat diplexer with 32.8-dB
loss at the crossover frequency co= 1 rad/s •
!g 4 0 + - - - - - - - - ~ r - f - - - - - - - - - i
.5
Ill
~ 30--------------------1
..I
o.______"""'""____...,.___~---.
-1.0 -0.8 -0.5 -0.3 0.0 0.3 0.5 0.8 1.0
log(Normallzed frequency)
Fig. 10.17 The frequency response of a 6th-order symmetrical maximally flat

diplexer of Fig. 10.16 with 32.8-dB loss at ro = 1.0 rad/s.
10.4 A Real-Frequency Approach to the Design of a Low-Pass High-Pass

Reactance-Ladder Diplexer
In the foregoing, the design of a diplexer having maximally flat response is accomplished
by a set of simple algebraic equations. However, because of the complexity of the resulting
mathematics, the results are applicable only to the symmetrical maximally flat response by
setting C,L, = 1,i = 1, 2, •··, n. In practice, the numerical approach is preferred to the analytic
method. In this section, we present a numerical method for the design of a nonconstant-
impedance diplexer constructed by connecting the low-pass and high-pass reactance-ladders in
series or in parallel, as shown in Fig. 10.3, approximating a maximally flat or elliptic response.
The functional forms of the real parts of the two minimum reactance functions are
preassigned, the numerator polynomials of which are factored and expressed by their zeros called
the transmission zeros. In most case, they are determined in advance. For example, we may
locate the transmission zeros at the origin and the infinity, respectively, for the low-pass and
high-pass maximally flat diplexer. Alternatively, they can be decided by the selectivity factor k
and the complete elliptic integral associated with the elliptic diplexer. The denominators of the
real parts can be formed from the denominators of the minimum reactance functions. Since the
imaginary parts can be obtained from their real parts by means of the rational Hilbert transform,
the transducer power gain of the diplexer is expressible in terms of the real parts within an
additive Foster function. In fact the transducer power gains can be expressed as a function of the
coefficients of the denominator polynomials of the two minimum reactance functions and their
A REAL-FREQUENCY APPROACH TO THE DESIGN OF A LOW-PASS HIGH-PASS
REACTANCE-LADDER DIPLEXER 569
transmission zeros. The method is known as the real frequency teclmique discussed previously in
Chapter 9.
From the preassigned real parts, the minimum reactance functions are determined by a
optimization using the least pth method [8]. The main advantage of the technique is that the
highly nonlinear combination between the objective functions and independent variables can be
greatly reduced.
Real Frequency Approach to the Design of a Low-pass High-pass Reactance Ladder

Diplexer
Consider a three-port ideal transformer with unit turns ratios. The ports are terminated in
the non-Foster positive real impedance z1(s), z2 {s) and z3 (s) at port 11', 22' and 33' as shown
inFig.10.3. When z1(s)=l,and z2 (s) and z3 (s) arepresentedbytheirDarlingtonequivalents,
the ideal transformer and the two lossless reciprocal two-port networks N 2 and N3 constitute
the diplexer N of Fig. 10.3. The transducer power gains G12 (co) and G13 (co) of the diplexer N
from port 11' to ports 44' and 55', respectively, are given by
(10.162a)
(10.162b)
where ~(co) and ~(co) are average power consumed by the IQ resistors at ports 44' and 55',
and Prru.,(co) is the available average power at port 11' , s,,Uco) is defined in (10.31) and
SilUco) in{I0.35), i=2,3, respectively. Write
(10.163)
(10.164)
Using (10.31), (10.163) and (10.164) in (10.162) gives
G ( )- 4r2 (co) (10.165)

12 co -[l+r (co)+r (co)f +[x (co)+x (co)f
2 3 2 3
(10.166)
The following optimization process starts from the real parts of z2 (jco) and z3 Uco):
where a, and c, are real and pos~tive, and the positive integers m and narc the orders of the
high-pass and low-pass filters, respectively. In (10.167) and ( 10.168), m is assumed to be odd, 11
is even.
The numerator polynomials T2 ( ro) and i; (ro) are detennined by the transmission zeros of
G12 {ro) and G13 (ro), respectively. If we wish G12 (ro) and G13 {ro) to possess the maximally flat
characteristics at ro = 0 and oo with suitable degrees, we set
(10.169)
7; (ro) = ro 2"' (10.170)
If G12 (ro) and G13 {ro) have symmetrical elliptic responses, where m = n t, T2 (ro) and T3 (ro) can
be detcnnined by the selectivity factor
CJ)
k =....!!.. (10.171)
ro,
where ro P is the pass-band bandwidth and ros corresponds to the first frequency where gain is
attenuated by a,. Using the complete elliptic integer, write
(10.172)
(10.173)
in which
2iK ) ,
ro, =ro.,sn( ~,k i = 0, 1,··•,l = (n-1)/2 (10.174)
for odd n, and
(2i-l)K )
ro, = ro.,sn ( n ,k , i=0l··•l=n/2
' I t
(10.175)
1 Invoking lhe parn-unitnry propeny oft he scauering matrix (10.1) shows that G11 (C1>1 ) • 0 when G12 (C1>1) • I • and G12 (CI> ,> = 0
when G11(C1>1)• I. Thus, lhe Chebyshcv response diplcxer and the nonsymmctrical elliptic response diplcxer with complete
transmission arc mot realizable.
for even n, K is the complete elliptic integral of modulus k, and m.- is the normalization
frequency and we set m.. = mP.
Substituting ( 10.169) and ( 10.170) or ( 10.172) and (10.173) in (10.167) and (10 .168)
shows r 2 (m) ~ 0 and r3 {m) ~ 0 for all real m. In addition, we require that
(10.176a)
(10.176b)
be strictly Hurwitz, serving as the constraints during the following optimization operations. The
unique impedances within an additive Foster function can be recovered as
(10.177)
(10.178)
They are positive real, the coefficients of the numerator polynomials of which are determined by
the Gewertz formulas
1 0 0 0 0 ho Bo
02 -a. 1 0 0 b, B,
a,. -al 02 0 0 b2 B2
= (10.179)
a6 -a, a,.
{-l)n•2an-2 (-1)"-lan-3 bn-2 Bn-2
0 0 0 (-l)"an (-l)n-lQn-1 bn-1 Bn-1.
or, more compactly,

Ab=B (10.180)
and
-c, Co 0 0 d, D,
-C3 C2 -c, 0 d2 D2
-C5 C4 -C3 0 d3 = D3 (10.181)
0 0 0 (-lY' d,,, D.,
where c,,, =1, or

Cd=D (10.182)
where
B=[l, 0, ···, of (10.183)
D=[O, 0, ···, (-trJ (10.184)
are an n-dimensional and an m-dimensional vectors, respectively, for the Butterworth responses.
Substituting ro = s/ j in ( 10.172) and ( 10.113) and expanding the resulting functions give the
entries of Band D for the elliptic response diplexer.
After solving for b and d, we can obtain the imaginary parts of z 2 (jro) and z 3 (jro)
uniquely, within an additive Foster function, as follows:
_ h,ro - h3ro 3 + · ••+ ( - })n-1 h ,,_,ro 2n -I

x,• (Ci) ) -
2
• • ' (10.185)
[1-a2 ro +···+ -l) a ro I + aro-a
2 ( -1
I 11
n 2 [
( })--
3 ro +···+ -
•
1 a,,_, ro n-1 ]2 3
(10.186)
where h's and k's can be found by the formulas
h, -a, 1 0 0 bo
h-' -a3 U2 -a, 0 b,

hs = -as U4 -al 0 b2 (10.187)
h2n-1_ 0 0 0 (-l)"an bn_,_
k, Co 0 0 0 d,
k3 C2 -c, Co 0 di
ks = C4 -CJ C2 0 d3 (10.188)
_k2m-l _ 0 0 0 (-tr·• C m-1. dm
Finding the imaginary parts ( 10.185) and (I 0.186) from the given real parts of two minimum
reactance positive real impedances ( 10.167) and ( 10.168) may be accomplished by the Hilbert
transform [4]. However, the integration of a Hilbert transform often results in an irrational
function. Carlin [3] successfully uses a piecewise-linear segment Hilbert transform to obtain the
results. Even so, in the case of a lumped physical system there is still the need for a rational
interpolation to find rational expressions of z 2 (s) and z3 (s).
Another reason for choosing the real-frequency technique is its physical significance.
Applying the para-unitary property of (I 0.2), we have
(10.189)
If perfect transmission is achieved in one channel at the frequencies ro = ro,, there must be
infinite attenuation in the other channel at ro = ro,. Assuming
(10.190)
and substituting ( 10.190) and (10 .166) in (10.189) show that a necessary condition for perfect
transmission of G12 ( ro,) is
(10.191)
Substituting (10.190) and (10.191) in (10.165), the conditions for perfect transmission of
G12 (ro,) are found to be
(10.192)
(10.193)
Similar results are obtained for the complete transmission G13 (ro J) = 1. They are
(10.194)
(10.195)
(10.196)
Optimization Procedure
Define an N-dimcnsional vector
... • q,, ... • qN1 (10.197)t

a2, ... ' an, Co, ..., c•• J
in which N =n + m, and an M-dimension vector
t Note thatq2 (s) and ql(s) arc 1hc dcnomin11tor polynominls of (10.176a) and (10.176b), whereas, q2 •a2 and q, .. a, arc
entries ofq in (10.191).
(10.198)
Observe that the transducer power gains (10.165) and (10.166) arc functions of two sets of
variables q and w, written as G12 (q,w) and G13 (q,w), where q is to be adjusted to yield the
desired responses and w is the sample frequency vector, on which G 12 {q,w) and G13 {q,w) are
measured. In order to be successful, M is chosen to be 4N~SN.
Let g 02 (w) and g 03 (w) be the desired transducer power gains. The error functions are
defined by
(10,199)
(10,200)
Our aim is to minimize the combined objective functions
(10.201)
where pis an even integer from 4 to 10. Ternes and Zai [8] and Bander [ 1] show that to minimize
the objective function, the next iteration should be
(10.202)
(10,203)
in which A is the optimum step length detennined by the one-dimensional search using a
quadratic interpolation subroutine in every direction ~q , J is the 2M x N Jacobian matrix
~.'
ae, ae, ... , ae,
aq2 ' aqN
ae,., , aeA( ... , ae"'
aq, aq2 aqN
J=
~.,
a1. aJ;
aq/
a1.
aqN
(10.204)
afu a1,., , a1,.,

-aq, ' aq2 aqN
in which e, denotes e(q,ro,) and f, denotes /(q,roi), and
V = diag[er2 , ••• t e,,-2

,., ' f.P-2 ... 1:,-2] (10.205)
I ' '
is a 2M x 2M matrix, and
e= ~e1p-1 , ... p-1 f.p-1 ... , 1:,-•J (10.206)
' eM ' I '
is a 2M-dimensional vector.
In (10.203), IN stands for the NxN unit matrix and µ is real and positive called the
damping coefficient. The damping technique is effective for getting out from a local minimum by
choosing a differentµ, where the convergence and downhill properties are still preserved [1]. As
µ ➔ 0 , the process is undamped, while µ ➔ co the step is in the steepest descent.
To form the Jacobian matrix

Differentiating (10.199) and (10.200) gives
aek aG,2{q,ro.)
-=-;.::;..;..;;;......;;;.;.. (10.207)
aq, aq,
(10.208)
By applying the classical chain rule, we differentiate (10.165) and (10.166) with respect to q1
and obtain
(10.209)
(10.210)
(10.211)
(10.212)
where G,u denotes G12 (q,ro1:) and Gm for G13 (q,ro1:), and oG,1./or, and oG,1.fox,, j = 2,3;
i = 2, 3 can be found by any standard method.
Substituting (10.187) and (10.188) in (10.185) and (10.186), respectively, and

differentiating the resulting functions give
(10.213)
(10.214)
In (10.213) and (10.214), we are required to compute the derivatives of the unknown variable b,
of b with respect to the entries of A in (10.180) and the derivatives of d1 of d with respect to the
entries ofC in (10.182). We have
(10.215)
(10.216)
where H is an n x n matrix derived from (10.179) by setting all entries of A to zero except a,
which is 1, and K is an mxm matrix obtained from (10.181) in the same way.
Buttenvorth Diplexer
We wish to design a Butterworth diplexer, the requirements of which are shown in Fig.
10.18, where
a.P 2 s0.24dB, for (J) S (J) pl = 0.6 (10.217)
for (J) ~ (J)s2 = 2.0 (10.218)
for the low-pass channel, and
ex pl s 0.1 dB, for (J) ~ (J) pl = 2.0 (10.219)
for ro S roJJ = 0.5 (10.220)
for the high-pass channelt.
t Let a 2(m) nnd a,((J)) denote the upper bound of the nllenunlion in the pass-band nnd lower bound in stop-band of the low-
pass nnd high-pass channels given in (I0.211)-(10.214), respectively, satisfying 10"°1<•z<al + 10"'° 1a 1<0 > :SI. These requirements
arc rcaliznble by n lossless network.
~~~ ·•
?re
-.... /f~:\-.: -.~\'.r
'- ~ . '/. ~ . /'
1
·:• ·•·.
0 m,2 (!)
•·i,~1
t.~~
·{;t¥; r:rt-t~~~
0 m,, (!)
Fig. 10.18 Specifiations for a diplexer.
Determination ofthe degrees ofthe prototype.filter pair

Consider the nth-order Butterworth low-pass response g1 (oo) and the mth-order
Butterworth high-pass response gh(oo):
(10.221)
(10.222)
where 00 02 and 00 03 arc the normalization frequencies. Using the above specifications, we choose
n = 5 and m = 4, and 00 02 = 0.8 and ro 03 = 1.25 [See Chapter 4]. The desired diplexer responses
arc modified as
lrols 0.8
(10.223)
lcol > o.8
lcol s 1.2s
(10.224)
lrol > 1.2s
From (10.223) and (10.224), we find that the frequency bands of interest are 0~ 0.8rad/s
for the low-pass channel and 1.25 rad/s ~oo for the high-pass channel. Note that in the pass-band
the Butterworth response also gives a monotonic rise in the transitional band and yields a higher
loss than g,(ro) and g.t(ro) in the stop-band.
Choice ofthe initial values of a and c

From the above discussion, write
1
(10.225)
' 2 (ro) (1-a2 ro 2 +a4 ro 4 )2 +(a1ro-a3ro 3 +a,00 5 )2
(10.226)
and denote
(10.227)
(10.228)
Use the values of the independently designed doubly-terminated low-pass and high-pass filters as
the initial values of a and c. For instance, for n = S, ( 10.221) becomes
(10.229)
After analytic continuation, we obtain the minimum-phase solution of the input unit-normalized
reflection coefficient
y'
(10.230)
Pu(Y) 1+3.2361y+S.2361y2 +S.2362/ +3.2361y 4 + y5
where y = s/00 02 • The input impedance is found to be

z<0>(y) = 1-p.. (y) = 3.236ly'' +5.236ly3 +5.2361y2 +3.2361y+l (10.231)

2 l+p11(y) 2y' +3.2361y 4 +5.236ly 3 +5.236ly 2 +3.2361y+l
Substituting 0> 02 = 0.8 in (10.225) gives the initial values of a as
a(O) = [4.0451, 8.1814, 10.2268, 7.9006, 6.10351 (10.232)
In the same way, the initial values of care obtained as
C(O) = [4.8828, 5.1037, 5.3346, 3.22641 (10.233)
Result
During optimization, the combined objective function starts from the initial value
E(q)<0> =0.95379193 (10.234)
to final value
E(q)<32> =O.46992147xl0·3 (10.235)
which reduces to 1/2030 without using any penalty function in (10.201). The constraint
subroutine computes the zeros of q2 (s) and q3 (s), as follows:
zeros of q2 (s):
-O.31O5O59842D+OO + jO.Sl 13782O84D+OO
-O.31O5O59842D+OO - jO.Sl 13782O84D+OO
-O.1384769821D+OO + jO.1O286362O3D+Ol (10.236)
-O.1384769821D+OO -j0.1O286362O3D+Ol
-O.4586O2539SD + 00 + jO.OOOOOOOOOOD + 00
zeros of q3 (s):
-O.3912OO73O1D-O1 + jO.1O55961732D+Ol
-O.3912OO73O1D-O1 - jO.1O55961732D+Ol
(10.237)
-O.141219728OD+Ol + jO.1554911O58D+Ol
-O.141219728OD+Ol - jO.1554911O58D+Ol
This ensures that q2 (s) and· q3(s) are strictly Hurwitz. The final results are given by
a, -4.172676620
al 8.512178030
a3 = 11.41789682 (10.238)
a4 7.671731974
as 5.655248615
Co 4.9264307460
c, 3.4988775320
= (10.239)
C2 5.7496161410
C3_ 2.9026347060
Substituting (10.183) and (10.238) in (10.179), and (10.184) and (10.239) in (10.181), we
obtain
2.9495992s 4 + 4.0013333s3 + 5.0845029s 2 + 3.2585034s + 1

z (s) = 5.6552486s 5 + 7.6717320s 4 +l I.4178968s 3 +8.5121780s 2 +4.I 726776s+ 1 (10. 24 0)
2
s 4 +3.4908102s 3 +4.3829308s 2 +6.1711805s

z (s)---,------=-------=--------- (10.241)
3 - s 4 +2.9026347s 3 +5.7496161s 2 +3.4988775s+4.9264307
A realization is presented in Fig.10.19. Inserting (10.240) and (10.241) in (10.163), (10.164); the
subsequentresults in (10.165) and (10.166) yield the transducer power-gain characteristic. It is as
plotted in Fig. 10.20.
1.766911 1.491711
11.9173 F 1.S183 F
0.4801 F 0.7102 F
,_..,__ _Hf...- - - ; ; , . . . . - - - - - ; I i , - - - .
~ I
1.2527 H 0.4752 H Hl
Fig. IO.I 9 A realization of a Butterworth diplexer.

_ 12 , t - - - - - - - - \ - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
m
:!
~ 9+-------v-------------1
C
ii
0 6+-------1-~-----------1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Fig. I 0.20 The responses of a Butterworth diplexer.
Elliptic Response Diplexer
We wish to design a symmetric elliptic response diplexer, the specifications of which are
shown in Fig. I 0.17, where
mP 2 =m.r3 =l.0rad/s, mP3 =m.,2 =2.0rad/s (10.242)
ex pl = ex pl = 0.02 dB, ex,2 = ex13 = 45 dB (10.243)
Prototype filter pair and the choice ofinitial values

Define the selectivity factor k and its complementary modulus k' of the elliptic function
filter as
(10.244)
k' = ..Jt-k 2 = 0.8660254038 (10.245)
The complete elliptic integral of moduli k and k' are found to be

(10.246)
(10.247)
Define the discrimination parameter k1 and its complementary modulus k: as
lQO,la,1 -l 1/2
k, = ( ) = 0.0003820585 (10.248)
10 01. a,2 -1
k; = ✓1-k12 = 0.9999999270 (10.249)
We next compute the complete elliptic integrals of moduli k 1 and k: by means of the
Landen transformation (see Section 4.5.1):
K 1 = 1.570796341 (10.250)
K: = 9.2561242878 (I 0.251)
The degree n of an elliptic function filter satisfying the specifications is determined by
KK'
n=--' =4.60 (10.252)
K'KI
We choose n = 5. The low-pass transducer power gain is found to be
(10.253)
in which
(10.254)
ro 1 =sn( 2: ,k) =sin(37.9679°) =0.6152198952 (10.255)
ro 2 =sn( 4: ,k)=sin(73.1912°)=0.9572750941 (10.256)

(10.257)
Substituting (10.254) and (10.257) in the following fonnula gives attenuation at ro 62
(10.258)
Using (10.253) and following the same procedure as (10.230) and (10.231), we obtain the input
impedance of a doubly tenninated low-pass network as
101 ( ) _ 0.699476s 4 + 1.62472s3 + 2.44904s 2 + 2.11058s + I

z2 s - 0.91288ss +2.121 l0s" +3.3.64606s 3 +3.817045s 2 +2.66212s+l (l0. 259)
giving the initial values of a as
aCO) =(2.66212, 3.817045, 3.64606, 2.12110, 0.912881 (10.260)
The entries ofB of (10.183) can be found by expanding
(10.261)
Using the frequency transfonnation Q=l/(kro) in (10.253) obtains the symmetrical high-
pass elliptic function response
(10.262)
The input impedance of the corresponding prototype filter becomes
101 ss +4.221202s" +9.7962746s3 +12.99798s 2 + 11.191769s

z3 (s)= ss +5.32424s 4 +15.268180s 3 +29.168448s 2 +33.93765s+29.21239 (I0. 263 )
providing the initial values of c as
C(O) = [29.212396, 33.93765, 29.168448, 15.268180, 5.5324241 (10.264)
The entries ofD of(l0.184) are found from
(10.265)
Results
Substituting (10.260) and (10.261) in (10.167) and putting (10.264) and (10.265) in
(10.168) with s = jro give the real parts of z~0>(jro) and z~0>(jro), respectively. Using the
rational Hilbert transfonnation given by (10.179) and (10. 194), we obtain the imaginary parts
expressed in tenns of a and c. Substituting these results in (10.165) and (10.166) yields the
expressions of G12 (s) and G13 (s).
If the desired diplexer responses are specified as
lrol~ t.o
(10.266)
lrol > t.o
lrol ~ t.o
(10.267)
lrol> t.o
using the least pth method of (10.202) and (10.203), we obtain the following results after the
29th iteration:
2.192898s 4 + 2.698534s 3 +3.968672s 2 +2.461416s+ 1

z2 (s)= 2.969135s 5 +3.653968s 4 +6.844718s3 +5.149172s 2 +3.441275s+l (I0. 268)
z s = s 5 +3.926158s'+8.528628s 3 +ll.522607s 2 +8.391710s 10269

3( ) ss +4.950158s 4 +13.496216s 3 +23.37275ls 2 +27.678298s+20.147174 ( · )
Since all transmission zeros of z 2 (s) and z3 (s) lie on the jro-axis and satisfy the mid-
series or mid-shunt condition, ladder realizations are possible by means of partial pole removal
or using program P303. The results are presented in Fig. 10.21, the frequency response of which
is given in Fig. 10.22.
1.3777H 1.0837 H
JO
1.2880 F J.S273F 0.6260F
6.8802H 1.4427H
m
S.S96S H
'°• = 3.250870 m1 = 2.089264

GIJ "' 0.61 S220 '°• ■ 0.957275
Fig. 10.21 A realization of an elliptic response diplexer.
iii
l, 40 o t - - - - - - \ , - - # - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
.5
] 30ot-----\--l-------------1
20~----\--1-------------1
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 4.8
Normalized frequency
Fig.10.22 The frequency responseofthe elliptic diplexerofFig. 10.21.

References
I. Bandier. J. W. (1969) "Optimization methods for computer-aided design," IEEE Trans.

Microwave Theory Tech. Vol. MTI-17, pp. 533-552.
2. Belevitch, V. (1980) "Synthesis of nonconstant-impedance filter pairs," Philips J. Res., Vol.
35, pp. 104-121.
3. Carlin, H. (1977) "A new approach to gain-bandwidth problems," IEEE Trans. Circuits and
Systems, Vol. CAS-24, No. 4, pp. 170-175.
4. Chen, W. K. (1988) Broadband Matching Networks: Theory and Implementations,
Singapore: World Scientific.
5. Ledennann, W. ( 1981) Handbook of Applicable Mathematics, Chichester, England: John
Wiley.
6. Neirynck, J. and Carlin, C. H. (1981) "Synthesis of the lossless reciprocal three-port based on
a canonic form of its scattering matrix," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., Vol. CAS-28, no. 7, pp.
736-744.
7. Norton, E. L. (1937) "Constant resistance networks and applications to filter groups," Bell
System Tech. J., Vol. 16, pp. 178-193.
8. Ternes, G. C. and Zai, D. Y. F. (1969) "Least pth approximation," IEEE Trans. Circuit
Theory, Vol. CT-16, pp. 235-237.
9. Wang, Z. M. and Chen, W. K. (l 984) "Broad-band matching of multiport networks," IEEE
Trans. Circuits Syst., Vol. CAS-31, No. 9, pp. 788-796.
10. Youla, D. C. and Winter, F. (1990) "New theorems in the synthesis of passive multiplexers,"
Int ..I. Circuit Theor. and Appl.• Vol. 19, pp. 341-364.
11. Youla, D. C., Pillai, S. U. and Winter, F. (1992) "Theory and design of maximally flat low-
pass high-pass reactance ladder diplexers," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., Vol. CAS-39, No. 5,
pp. 337-350.
12. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1988) "On the design of a diplexer having Butterworth
characteristics," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., Vol. CAS-35, pp. 1455-1457.
13. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1993) "A real-frequency approach to the design of a low-pass
high-pass reactance-ladder diplexer," Circuits, Systems, Computers, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 773-
795.
14. Zhu, Y. S. and Chen, W. K. (1996) "An analytic method for the design of a constant
resistance multiplexer," Circuits, Syst., Signal Processing, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 453-466.
Appendix _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Commonly Used Fortran Programs

for Network Synthesis
1.1 The Determinant of an N x N Matrix
Given an N x N matrix A, the following program is used to calculate its determinant.
Program A 101: Calculate the Determinant of an N x N Matrix
1. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the determinant of a given N x N matrix t.

2. Usage. In the main program, the entries of a matrix A are the input. The determinate is
computed by calling the subroutine DETERM.
Input: A(ij) are the entries of A, read sequentially from A(l ,l), A(2, I), ... , A(N,l ).
A(l ,2), A(2,2), ... A(N,2), ... , A (l,N), A(2,N), ... , A(N,N).
Eps is a small positive real number for a required accuracy.
N is the order of the matrix.
Yield: Det: is the determinant of A.
SUBROUTINE DETERM (A,N,EPS,DET)

DIMENSION A(N,N)
SQN=l. 0
PR=l.0D0
Nl-N-1
DO 14 K=l,Nl
P=O,ODO
DO 11 z..K, N
DO 11 J=K,N
IF (ABS(A(I,J}).LE.P) GO TO 11
P=ABS(A(I,J))
IO=I
JO=J
11 CONTINUE
IF (P.LE.EPS) GO TO 20
IF (IO.EQ.K) GO TO 15
SQN=-SQN
DO 12 J=K,N
C=A(IO, J)
A(IO, J)=A(K,J)
12 A(K,J)=C
'Programs AIOI to AIOJ arc referred to Liu et al (4].

587
588 APPENDIX
SQN=-SQN
DO 13 I=K,N
C=A{I,JO)
A{I,JO)=A{I,K)
13 A(I,K)=C
16 PR=PR*A(K,K)
Kl=K+l
DO 14 I=Kl, N
Q=A( I, K) /A(K, K)
DO 14 J=I<l, N
A(I,J)=A(I,J)-Q*A(K,J)
14 CONTINUE
DET=SQN*PR*A(N,N)
GO TO 21
20 DET=0.000
21 RETURN
END
Example A.01 We wish to find the detenninant of the matrix
2
-3 1 2
-3 5 -2 -1
A= (A.1)
1 -2 7 -5
2 -1 -5 16
Use Program A 101:
Program determinant
!This Program is to find the determinant of given square matrix
Dimension A(4,4)
DATA A/2,-3,1,2,-3,5,-2,-1,l,-2,7,-5,2,-1,-5,16/
Call Determ (A,4,0.lE-10,DET)
Write (*,111) DET
111 Format (SH DET=,1F20.10)
End
This shows that

DET: 19.9999942780
and the detenninant of (A. l) is
detA =20.0 (A.2)
1.2 Matrix Inversion
The inverse of an N x N matrix A is noted as A -i , for which both the products AA- 1 and
A -i A are equal to the identity matrix.
MATRIX INVERSION 589
Program A 102: Inverse of an N x N Matrix A
I. Purpose. This program is used to calculate the inversion of a given N x N matrix.
2. Usage. In the main program the entries of a matrix A are the input. The inversion is
computed by the subroutine IVSNC.
Input: A(i.j) are the entries of A, read sequentially from A(l, I). A(2, I), ... , A(N, 1),
A(l,2), A(2,2), ... ,A(N,2), ... ,.A(l,N), A(2,N), .... A(N,N).
B(I) are N dimensional real numbers.
C(I) are N dimensional real numbers.
ME(I) are N dimensional real numbers.
MF(!) are N dimensional real numbers.
Ep is a small positive real number for u required accuracy.
N is the order of A.
Yield: The entries of A -i are stored in A(ij).
Subroutine ivsnc(A,B,C,ME,MF,N,EP)
Dimension A(N,NJ,B(N),C(N),ME(N),MF(NI
Do 10 K=l,N
Y=0.0D0
Do 20 I=K,N
Do 20 J=K,N
If (ABS(A{I,J)) .LE.ABS(Y)} Go to 20
Y=A (I, J)
I2mI
J2-J
20 Continue
IF (ABS(Y).LT.EP) Go to 32
If (I2.EQ.K) Go to 33
Do 11 J=l, N
W=A(I2,J)
A(I2, J)=A(K, J)
11 A(K,J}=W
33 If (J2.EQ.K) Go to 44
Do 22 I=l, N
W=A ( I, J2)
1'. ( I, J2) =A ( I, I<)
22 A(I,K)=W
44 ME(K)=I2
MF(!<} =J2
Do 50 J=l,N
If (J-K) 2,3,2
3 B{J)=l.0D0/Y
C(J)=l.0D0
Go to 4
2 B(J)=-A(K,J)/Y
C(J)=A(J,K)
4 A{K,J)=0.0D0
A(J,K)=0.0D0
50 Continue
Do 40 I=l,N
590 APPENDIX
Do 40 J=l,N
40 A(I,J)=A(I,J)+C(I)*B(J)
10 Continue
Do 60 L=l,N
K=N-L+l
Kl=ME (K)
K2=MF(K)
IF(Kl.EQ.K) Go to 70
Do 55 I=l, N
W=A(I,Kl)
A (I, Kl ) =A (I, K)
55 A(I,K)=W
70 If (K2.EQ.K) Go to 60
Do 66 J=l,N
W=A(K2,J)
A(K2,J)=A(K,J)
66 A(K,J)=W
60 Continue
Return
32 EP=-EP
Return
End
Example A.02 We wish to compute the inverse of the matrix
1.0 -1.0
1.0]
A= [ 5.0 -4.0 3.0 (A.3)
2.0 1.0 1.0
Running Program A102 gives
Program inversion
Dimension A(3,3),B(3),C(3),ME(3),MF(3)
Data A/l.OD0,5.0D0,2.0D0,-1.0D0,-4.0DO,l.OD0,1.0D0,3.000,l.ODO/
EP=O.lD-10
Write(*,*) 'Given Matrix A'
Do 14 I=l,3
Write {*,12) A(I,1),A(I,2),A(I,3)
12 Format (3X,3F20.10)
14 Continue
Call ivsnc(A,B,C,ME,MF,3,EP)
Write{*,*)
Write(*,*) 'Inverse of A'
Do 4 I=l,3
Write (*,2) A(I,1),A(I,2),A(I,3)
2 Format (3X,3F20.10)
4 Continue
END
Given Matrix A
1.0000000000 -1.0000000000 1.0000000000
5.0000000000 -4.0000000000 3.0000000000
2.0000000000 1.0000000000 1.0000000000
GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION ALGORITHM 591
Inverse of A
-1.4000000954 0.4000000358 0.2000000030
0.2000000626 -0.2000000179 0.4000000060
2.6000001431 -0.6000000238 0.2000000030
obtaining
-1.4 0.4
[ 0.2]
A-'= 0.2 -0.2 0.4 (A.4)
2.6 -0.6 0.2
1.3 Gaussian Elimination Algorithm
The Gaussian elimination algorithm is used to solve a linear system of N equations in N

unknowns:
a" a,2 a,n x, b,
a2, a22 a2n X2 b2
= (A.5)
an, an2 ann xn _bn
Program A103: Gaussian Elimination Algorithm
1. Purpose. This program is used to solve a linear system of N equations in N unknowns of

(A.5) by Gaussian elimination algorithm.
2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of A.
A(ij) arc the entries of an N x N matrix that stores the elements of the
coefficient matrix of (A.5).
I3(i) is an N dimensional vector that stores the constants b,.
Yield: Solution of the system and stored in B(i).
Subroutine Gauss(N,A,B,EP,KWJI)
DIMENSION A(N,N),B(N),M(lOO)
DO 10 I-=l,N
10 M{I)=-I
DO 20 K=l, N
P=O.O
DO 30 I .. K,N
DO 30 J=K,N
IF (ABS(A{I,J)).LE.ABS(P)) GO TO 30
P=A(I, J)
IO-I
JO=J
30 CONTINUE
IF (ABS(P)-EP) 200,200,300
200 KWJI .. 1
592 APPENDIX
RETURN
DO 40 I=l, N
T=A(I,JO)
A(I,JO)=A(I,K)
40 A(I,K)=T
J=M(K)
M(K)=M(JO)
M(JO)=J
400 IF(IO.EQ.K} GO TO 500
DO 50 J=K,N
T=A(IO,J)
A(IO,J)=A(K,J)
50 A(K,J)=T
T=B(IO)
B (IO) =B (K)
B(K)=T
500 P=l/P
IN=N-1
DO 60 J=K, IN
60 A(K,J+l)=A(K,J+l)*P
600 B(K)=B{K}*P
DO 70 I=K,IN
DO 80 J=K,IN
80 A(I+l,J+l)=A(I+l,J+l)-A(I+l,K)*A(K,J+l)
70 B(I+l)=B{I+l)-A(I+l,K)*B(K)
20 CONTINUE
DO 90 Il=2, N
I=N+l-Il
DO 90 J=I, IN
90 B(I)=B(I)-A(I,J+l)*B(J+l)
DO 1 K=l,N
I=M(K)
1 A(l,I)=B(K)
DO 2 K=l,N
2 B(K)=A(l,K)
KWJI=0
RETURN
END
Example A.03 We wish to solve the following system of linear equations:
1.0 -1.0
[ l.0][X = [-4.0]
5.0 -4.0 3.0 1
X2
]
-}2.0 (A.6)
2.0 1.0 1.0 x3 1}.Q
Running Program A 103
Program Solveroot
Dimension C(3,3),B(3)
Data C/1.0,S.0,2.0,-l.0,-4.0,l.0,l.0,3.0,1.0/
Data B/-4.0,-12.0,11.0/
EVALUATION OF A POLYNOMIAL 593
Ep=O. lE-9
Call Gauss(3,C,B,Ep,Kwji)
Do 10 I=l,3
10 Write(*,*) B(I)
End
gives
3.0000002
6.0000005
-0.9999998
Thus, the solution of (A.6) is given by
(A.7)
2.1 Evaluation of a Polynomial
Given a real polynomial
(A.8)
we wish to compute /(x0 ).
Program A201: Evaluation of a Polynomial f (x) at x 0

1. Purpose. This program is used to evaluate a polynomial f(x) at x 0 •
2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of a polynomial.
XO is the value at which the polynomial f(x) is computed.
A(I) are the coefficients of f(x), read sequentially in A(N), A(N-1), ... ,
A(l), A(O).
Output: Sum: is the result of f (x 0 ) •
Dimension A(0:30)
Write(*,*) ' This program is to Evaluate a polynomial F(xO)'
Write(*,*) ' Given a polynomial &
& f(x)aA(N)*x**n+A(N-l)*x**(N-1)+ ... +A(l)*~+A(O)'
Write(*,*} 'Input N and XO'
Read(+,•) N,XO
Write(*,*) 'Input A(I): A(N) ,A(N-1), ... ,A(l) ,A{O)'
Read(*,*) (A(I),I=N,0,-1)
Do 8 I=N,0,-1
Write(*,6) I,A(I)
6 Format(3X,'A(',I2,')=',Gl4.8)
8 Continue
Sum=A(N)
594 APPENDIX
Do 10 I=N-1,0,-1
Sum=-Sum*XO+A(I)
10 Continue
Write(•,*) 'f(xO)=',Sum
End
Example A.04 We wish to compute
f(x) =3.2x 3 -4.5x 2 +2.31x+l.237 at x 0 =0.7941 (A.9)
Running Program A20 I gives
This program is to Evaluate a polynomial F(xO)

Given a polynomial f(x)=A(N)*x**n+A(N-l)*x**(N-1)+ •.. +A(l)*x+A(O)
Input N and XO
3
0.7941
Input A(I): A(N),A(N-1}, ••. ,A(l},A(O)
A( 3)= 3.2000000
A ( 2) c-4. 5000000
A( l)c 2.3099999
A( 0)= 1.2370000
f(xO)= 1.8361114
obtaining
/(0.7941) = 1.836111 (A.IO)
2.2 Determination of a Polynomial from its Complex Zeros
Given
n
Pn(s)= [l[s-(A, + jB,)] (A.11)
,~,
we wish to find the coefficients of Pn (s) :
(A.12)
Program A202: Determine a Polynomial from Its Zeros
1. Purpose. This program is used to determine a polynomial from its zeros.t

2. Usage.
Input: N is the number of zeros.
A(I) is the real part of the ith zero.
B( I) is the imaginary part of the ith zero.
• This subroutine is cited fonn P.213 (6).

DETERMINATION OF A POLYNOMIAL FROM ITS COMPLEX ZEROS 595
Output: G(I) is the real part of the coefficient of s'-1 •

H(I) is the imaginary part of the coefficient of s'-'.
! Determine Polynomial from Its complex Zeros

Dimension A(25),B(25),G(25},H(25}
Write(•,*) 'Input N'
5 Read(*,*) N
Do 10 I=l,N
Write(*,12) I,I
12 Format('Input A(',I2,')',3:<,'and B(',I2,')')
10 Read(*,*) A(I),B(IJ
G(l)=l.O
G(2)=0.0
H(l)=O.O
H(2)=0.0
Do 4 J=l,N
G(J+l)=G(J)
H(J+l)=H(J)
IF(J-1,GT.O.O) Goto 2
2 Do 3 L=2,J
K=J-L+2
X=G(k-1)-A(J)*G(K)+B(J)*H(K)
Y=H(K-1)-A(J)*H{K)-B(J)*G{K)
G(K)=X
H(K)=Y
3 Continue
1 x--G(l)*A(J)+H(ll*B(J)
H(l)=-H(l)•A(J)-G(l)*B(J)
G(l)=X
4 Continue
Do 20 I=l,N+l
Write(*,22) I,G(I),I,H(I)
20 Continue
22 Format (3X, 'G(',I3, ') .. ',F20.12,6X, 'H(',I3, ')=',F20.12)
End
Example A.05 Let
Pn(s)=(s+2.0-j)(s+2.0+ j)(s+1-3j)(s+1+3j) (A.13)
Input N
4
Input A( l) and B( 1)
-2.0, -1.0
Input A( 2) and B( 2)
-2.0, 1.0
Input A( 3) and B{ 3)
-1.0, -3.0
Input A ( 4) and B{ 4)
-1.0, 3.0
G( l)= 50.000000000000 H( l)= 0.000000000000
G( 2)= 50,000000000000 H( 2)= 0.000000000000
596 APPENDIX
G( 3)= 23.000000000000 H( 3)= 0.000000000000

G( 4)-= 6.000000000000 H( 4)= 0.000000000000
G( 5)= 1.000000000000 H( 5)= 0.000000000000
Running the program gives
P4 (s) = s 4 + 6.0s 3 + 23 .0s 2 +SO.Os+ 50.0 (A.14)
2.3 Multiplication of 1\vo Polynomials
Given two polynomials of the fonn
(A.15)
(A.16)
Their product is a polynomial of order m + n.
(A.17)
Program A203: Find Product of Two Polynomials
1. Purpose. This program is used to find the product of two polynomialst.

2. Usage.
Input: P(I) are the coefficients of Pi (x).
M-1 is the order of the polynomial Pi (x ).
Q(I) are the coefficients of P2 (x).
N-1 is the order of polynomial P2 (x).
Yield: S(I) are the coefficients of the product P(x).
L: is equal to M + N -1 .
SUBROUTINE OPMUL(P,M,Q,N,S,L)
Dimension P(M),Q(N),S(N)
Double Precision P,Q,S
DO 10 I=l, L
10 S(I)=O.O
DO 50 I=l,M
DO 50 J=l, N
K=I+J-1
S(K)=S(K)+P(I)*Q(J)
50 CONTINUE
RETURN
END
' Subroutine opmul is cited from page 520 of Xu [7).

MULTIPLICATION OF TWO POLYNOMIALS 597
Example A.06 Given
Pi (x) = 4.0x 4 + 3.0x 3 -10.0x 2 + 9.0x-2.0 (A.18)
P2 (x) = -7.0x 3 -11.0x 2 +9.0x +5.0 (A.19)
we wish to compute their product. Running Program A203 gives
Program Test
Double Precision A(20),B(20),P(40)
Write(*,•) 'Input M, M = Order+l; A(M),A(M-1), •.. ,A(ll'
Read(*,*} M
Do 10 I--M,1,-1
10 Read(*,*) A{I)
Write(*,*} 'Input N, N = Order+l; B(N),B(N-1), ... ,B(l)'
Read(*,*) N
Do 20 J=N,1,-1
20 Read(*,*) B(Jl
L=M+N-1
Call opmul{A,M,B,N,P,L)
Do 30 K=L,1,-1
30 Write{*,40} K,P(K)
40 Format(3X,'P(',I2, ')=',G20.10)
End
Input M, M = Order+l; A(M),A(M-1), .•. ,A(l)

5
4.0
3.0
-10.0
9.0
-2.0
Input N, N = Order+l; B{N),B(N-1), ... ,B{l)
4
-7.0
-11.0
9.0
5.0
P( 8)= -28.00000000
P( 7)- -65.00000000
P( 6)= 73.00000000
P( 5)= 94.00000000
P( 4) = -160.0000000
P( 3)• 53.00000000
P{ 2)= 27.00000000
P( l)= -10.00000000
or
P(s) = -28x 7 -65x 6 + 73x 5 + 94x 4 -160x 3 + 53x 2 + 27 x-10 (A.20)

598 APPENDIX
2.4 Solution of a Cubic Equation
The subroutine is used to solve a cubic equation with real coefficients:
(A.21)
Program A204: Find Roots of a Cubic Equationt
1. Purpose. This program is used to find roots ofa cubic equation of (A.21).
2. Usage.
Input: Real numbers P(l) ➔ a3
P(2) ➔ a2
P(3) ➔ a1
P(4) ➔ a 0
Output: Three roots written as x, = a., + j~,, where
Subroutine Pr3(P,R)
Dimension P(4),R(2,3)
IF(P(l).EQ.1.0) Go to 100
Do 40 K=2, 4
40 P(k)=P(k)/P(l)
100 R(2,1}=0.0
R(2,2)=0.0
R(2,3) .. 0.0
SmP(2)/3.0
T-S* P (2)
B=0.5*{s*(T/1.5-P(3))+P(4))
T-(T-P(3))/3.0
C=T**3
!PB*B-C
IF(D} 101,103,103
103 D={sqrt(D)+ABS(B))**(l.0/3.0)
IF{D.EQ.0.0) Go to 104
IF(B.GT.0.0) 81=-D
IF(B.LT.0.0) Bl=D
B=Bl
C=T/8
104 D=SQRT(0.75)*(8-C)
R(2,2)=0
B=B+C
c... -0.5*8-S
R{l, 2)=C
R(l,l)=C
' This subroutine is referred to pp. 293-302 of Liu et al [4).

SOLUTION OF A CUBIC EQUATION 599
R(2,1)=-D
R{l,3)=B-S
Goto 30
101 IF (B.EQ.0.0) D=ATAN(l.0)/1.5
IF(B.NE.0.0) D=ATAN(SQRT(-D)/ABS(B))/3.0
BB=SQRT(T)*2.0
IF(B.GE.0.0) BB=SQRT(T)*(-2.0)
B=BB
C""-Cos(D)*B
Tm-SQRT(0.75)*Sin(D)*B-0.5*C
R(l,l)=-T-C-S
D=R(l,l)
R(l,2)aC-S
C=R(l,2)
R(l,3)=T-S
T=R(l,3)
30 Return
End
Example A.07 We wish to find the roots of
x 3 + 2x 2 +3x+4 = 0 (A.22)
Running program
Program test3
Implicit real (L}
dimension p3{4),R3(2,3)
Write(*,*) 'Input P(l),P(2),P(3),P(4)'
Do 10 I=l,4
10 Read(*,*) P3(I)
Call Pr3 (P3, R3)
Write(*,11) R3(1,l),R3(2,l)
Write(*,11) R3(1,2),R3(2,2)
Write(*,11) R3(1,3),R3(2,3)
11 Format (3X, Fl5.10, SX, '+', F15 .10, 'j •}
End
gives
Input P(l),P(2),P(3l,P(4)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
-0.1746854186 + 1.5468688011j
-0.1746854186 + -l.54686880llj
-1.6506292820 + 0.000O000000j
The roots of (A.22) are given by
x 1 =-0.1746854186+1.546868801 lj
X2 = -0.1746854186-1.5468688011} (A.23)
X3 = -0.16506292820
600 APPENDIX
2.5 Find Real Roots of a Nonlinear Equation
This program is used to find all real roots of the nonlinear equation
(A.23)
in a given interval [a,b ].
Program A205: Find All Real Roots of a Nonlinear Equation in a Given Interval
[a, b]
1. Purpose. This program is used to find all real roots of(A.23) in a given interval [a, b(
2. Usage.
Input: Equation (A.23) is written as F(x).
A is the lower point in the search interval [a, b].
B is the upper point in the search interval [a, b].
H is the step length.
Eps is a small positive number for a required accuracy.
Yield: M is the number of real roots of (A.23) in [a, b].
X(I) are the real roots.
SUBROUTINE DDHRT(A,B,H,EPS,X,N,M,F}
DIMENSION X(N)
M=O
Z=A
Y=F(Z)
10 IF ((Z.GT.B+H/2.0).0R. (M.EQ.N)) RETURN
IF (ABS(Y).LT.EPS) THEN
M=M+l
X(M)=Z
Z=Z+H/2.0
Y=F(Z)
GOTO 10
END IF
Zl=Z+H
Yl=F(Zl)
IF (ABS(Yl}.LT.EPS) THEN
M=M+l
X(M)=Zl
Z=Zl+H/2.0
Y=F(Z)
GOTO 10
END IF
IF (Y*Yl.GT.0.0) THEN
Y=Yl
Z=Zl
GOTO 10
END IF
20 IF (ABS(Zl-Z).LT.EPS) THEN
M=M+l
'This subroutine is cited from P.121 of Xu (7)
FIND REAL ROOTS OF A NONLINEAR EQUATION 601
X(M) ... (Zl+Z)/2,0

z .. zl+H/2.0
Y=-F(Z)
GOTO 10
END IF
Z0=(Zl+Z)/2.0
YO=F(ZO)
IF (ABS(YO) .LT.EPS) THEN
M=M+l
X(M)=ZO
Z=ZO+H/2.0
Y=F (Z)
GOTO 10
END IF
IF (Y*Y0.LT.0.0) THEN
Zl=ZO
'x'l=Y0
ELSE
Z=ZO
Y=Y0
END IF
GOTO 20
END
Example A.08 We wish to find all real roots of
x 5 + 5.0x 4 + 1l.0x 3 + l 7.0x 2 + I 8.0x + 8.0 = 0 (A.23)
in the interval [-3.0, 5.0]. Running the program
DIMENSION X(6)
EXTERNAL F
CALL DDHRT(-3.0,5.0,0.2,l.OE-06,X,N,M,F)
WRITE('•, 10) M
10 FORMAT (lX, 'M=', I2)
DO 20 I=l,M
20 WRITE(*,30) I,X(I)
30 FORMAT ( lX, ' X( ' , I2, ' ) = ' , E15 • 6 l
END
FUNCTION F(X)
F=X**5+5.0*X**4+11.0*X**3+17.0*X**2+18.0*X+8.0
RETURN
END
gives
M= 3
X( 1)- -0.200000E+0l
X( 2)~ -0.165063E+Ol
X( 3)= -0.l00000E+0l
602 APPENDIX
2.6 Find the Roots of a Nonlinear Equation
Given a polynomial with real coefficients
(A.24)
program A206 is used to find its roots.
Program A206: Solve an Nth-Order Nonlinear Equation of (A.24)t
1. Purpose. This program is used to solve an nth-order nonlinear equation of (A.24).

2. Usage.
Input: N is the order of an equation.
A(I) are the coefficient of (A.24).
Yield: X(I) are the real parts of the roots.
Y(I) are the imaginary parts of the roots.
Subroutine srpe(N,A,B,C,ES,ESD 1 KT,X,Y)

Dimension A(N),B(N),C(N),X(N),Y(N)
Double erecision A,B,C,X,Y,p,q,s,t,d,dp,dq,FX
NlcoN
C(l).,.1.0D0
t-11--1
do 10 I=l,N
10 Y(I)=O.ODO
11 if (Nl.LT.1.0D0) go to 15
if (Nl.EQ.1.0D0) go to 16
if (Nl.EQ.2.0D0) go to 17
p=O.ODO
q=O.ODO
k"'O
12 B(l)=A(l)-p
B(2)=A(2)-p*B(l)-q
do 1 I=3,Nl
l B(I)=A(I)-p*B(I-1)-q*B(I-2)
s=B (Nl-1)
t=B{Nl)+p*B(Nl-1)
if (ABS(s).GT.ES) go to 3
if (ABS(t) ,LT.ES) go to 14
3 C(2)=B(l)-p*C(l)
do 2 I=3,Nl
2 C{I)=B(I-l)-p*C{I-l)-q*C(I-2)
d=C(Nl-1)**2-(C(Nl)-B(Nl-l))*C(Nl-2}
dp=B(Nl-l)*C(Nl-l)-B(Nl)*C(Nl-2)
dq=-B(Nl-l)*(C(Nl)-B(Nl-l))+B(Nl)*C{Nl-1)
if (ABS(d}.GT. ESD) go to 13
p=p+l.0D0
q=q+l.000
go to 12
13 k=k+l
t This subroutine is referred to pp. 313-333 of Liu el al [ 4].

FIND REAL ROOTS OF A NONLINEAR EQUATION 603
p=p+dp/d
q=q+dq/d
if (k,LT.KT) go to 12
go to 15
14 X(Ml)=-p/2.0D0
X(Ml+l)=-p/2.0D0
FX--p/2.0D0
FX=FX**2-q
if (ABS(FX).LT.l.OD-10) go to 4
if (FX.LT.0.0D0) go to 5
X(Ml)=X(Ml)+SQRT(FX)
X(Ml+l)=X{Ml+l)-SQRT(FX)
go to 4
5 Y(Ml)-SQRT(ABS(FX))
Y {!11+ 1) ,.._y (Ml)
4 Mlmt-11+2
Nl=Nl-2
do 6 l=l, Nl
6 A(I)=B(I)
go to 11
17 p•B(Nl-1)
q=B (Nl)
go to 14
16 X(Ml)=-B(Nl)
15 return
end
Example A.09 We wish to calculate the roots of the equation
x 6 + 1.2x 5 + 3.5x 4 + 7.1x 3 + 4.5x 2 + 3.2x + I 0.3 = 0 (A.25)
Using the following main program
Program findroot
Dimension A{20),B(20),C(20),X(20},Y(20)
Double precision A,B,C,X,Y
Write(*,*) 'Input N, the order of polynomial'
Read(*,*) N
Write(*,*) 'Input A(ll,A(2),.,.,A(n)'
Do 10 I=l, N
10 Read(*,*) A(I}
Do 15 I•l,N
15 Write(*,*) 'A{', I,')=' ,A(Il
ES=l.OD-12
ESD=l. Od-20
K'l'=lOOO
Call srpe(N,A,B,C,ES,ESD,KT,X,Y)
Do 20 I=l,N
Write (*,22) I,X(I),I,Y{I)
22 Format ( 3X, 'X (', I2, ') =', G20 .10, 6X, 'Y ( ', I2, '} = •, G20. 10)
20 Continue
End
604 APPENDIX
and program A206 gives
Input N, the order of polynomial

Input A(l),A(2), .•• ,A(n)
A( 1 )= 1.2000000000000000
A( 2 )= 3.5000000000000000
A( 3 )= 7.0999999999999997
A( 4 )= 4.5000000000000000
A( 5 )= 3.2000000000000002
A( 6 )= 10.3000000000000008
X( l}= 0.5221767613 Y( l)= 1. 007715228
X( 2)= 0.5221767613 y( 2) = -1.007715228
X( 3)= 0.2381206453 y( 3)= 1. 902595729
X( 4)= 0.2381206453 y( 4) = -1. 902595729
X( 5)= -1.360297407 y( 5)= 0. 5695775248
X( 6)= -1.360297407 Y( 6)= -0.5695775248
3.1 Expansion of a Rational Function into a Continued Fraction
Consider a rational function in one of the following forms or their reciprocals:
(A.26)
(A.27)
Program A301: Expand a Rational Function into a Continued Fractiont
1. Purpose. This program is used to expand a rational function into a continued fraction.
2. Usage.
Input: N: is the order of a rational function, i.e. max {order of the denominator
polynomial, order of the numerator polynomial}.
A(I): are the coefficients of numerator polynomial defined in (A.26) or (A.27).
Yield: Q(I) : stores the result.
Program expand
Dimension A(30),Q(30}
Write(*,*) 'Continual Fraction Expansion of PR Function'
• Programs A301 and A302 are cited form pp. 222-224, Vlach (6).
EXPANSION OF A RATIONAL FUNCTION INTO A CONTINUED FRACTION 605
Write(*,•) 'Input the Order of PR function'

Read(*,*) N
M=N+l
K=M+l
A(K)=0.0
Write(*,*) 'Input the coefficient of PR Function'
Do 1 I=l,M
1 Read(*,*) A(I)
Do 2 J=l,M
2 Write(*,*) 'A(',J,')=',A(J)
Write(*,*)
K==l
4 Q(k)=A(k)/A(k+l}
Write(*,5) k,Q(k)
5 Format(3X, 'Q{',!2, 'l=',Gl4.8}
I=K+2
IF{I>M) Goto 8
7 Do 6 L•I,N,2
6 A(L)=A(L}-Q(k)*A(L+l)
kak+l
Goto 4
8 End
Example A.10 Given a rational function
2s 5 +40s 3 + 128s
F(s) = -s....,.4_+_l_Os--=2,-+_9_ (A.28)
we wish to expand F(s) about s =co and s =0. To expand F(s) about s =co and to apply
program A301 give
Continual Fraction Expansion of PR Function

A( 1 Ja 2.0000000
A( 2 l• l.0000000
A( 3 l= 40.0000000
A( 4 )= 10.0000000
A( 5 )= 1.2800000E+02
A( 6 )= 9.0000000
Q( 1)= 2.0000000
Q( 2)=0.S000000lE-01
Q( 3)= 4.4444447
Q( 4)=0.64285718E-0l
Q( 5)= 7.7777777
obtaining
F(s) = 2 s + - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - (A.29)
0.05s+-------1---
4.4444s + - - - - -1-
0.6429s + - - -
7.7778s
606 APPENDIX
To expand F(s) about s = 0, write
F(s) =-1- = 9+ 10s 2 +s 4 (A.30)

F(s) 128s + 40s 3 + 2ss

A( l )= 9.0000000
A( 2 )• l.2800000E+02
A( 3 )= 10.0000000
A( 4 )m 40.0000000
A( 5 )= 1.0000000
A( 6 )= 2.0000000
Q( 1)=0.70312500E-01
Q( 2)= 17.808695
Q( 3)=0.29104313
Q( 4)= 89.061142
Q( 5}=0.13864437
F(s)= 1 1 (A.3 I)
0.07031¼+ l
17~09¼+ l
0.2910¼+ l
89.061f+---
0.1386¼
3.2 Determination of a Rational Function from a Continued Fraction
This program is the converse of Program A301. Given
n odd (A.32)
2 n
F(s) = :lJ..+---,---= al +a3S +···+an+ls n even (A.33)
S q2 + a2s+a4s 3 +···+ansn-l '
S •·.+ qn
s
we wish to express F(s)in form of(A.28) or (A.29).

DETERMINATION OF A RATIONAL FUNCTION FROM A CONTINUED FRACTION 607
Program A302: Determine a Rational Function from a Continued Fraction
1. Purpose. This program is used to determine a rational function from a continued fraction.
2. Usage.
Input: N is an integer.
Q(I) are N dimensional real numbers, defined in (A.32) or (A.33).
Yield: A(I) are N dimensional real numbers, defined in (A.32) or (A.33).
! To Determine a Rational Function from Continued Fraction

Dimension Q(30),A(30,30)
Read(",*) N
Read(*,*) (Q(I),I=l,N)
A{l,l)•Q(l)
IF(N<=l) Goto 10
IF(N>l) Goto 9
9 Do 2 I=2,N
A(I, I-1)-1.0
A(l,I)=Q(I)*A(l,I-1)
A(2,IJ~Q{I)*A(2,I-l)
2 Continue
Do 3 K=3,N
Do 3 I=K,N
3 A(K,I)=Q(I)*A(K,I-l)+A(K-2,I-2)
10 K=N+l
A(K,N)=l.O
Do 11 I=l,K
11 Write(*,12) I,A(I,N)
12 Format (3X, 'A(', I2, ')=' ,G20.8)
End
Example A.11 Let
1 1
F(s) =-;+-2--1- (A.34)
-+--
s 3 1
-+-
s 5
s
A( l)= 30.000000
A( 2)= 30.000000
A( 3)= 22.000000
A( 4)= 7.0000000
A( 5)= 1.0000000
F(s) = 30+22s2 +s 4 (A.35)

30s+7s3
608 APPENDIX
3.3 Partial Fraction Expansion
Chin and Steiglitz [I] present a partial fraction expansion algorithm, which was reedited in
Basic version by Cuthbert [2]. Consider the real rational function
(A.36)
The given function must be in proper fraction: The numerator is in polynomial form and the
denominator is in factored form. In other words, the denominator roots are known, either real or
complex conjugate.
Program A303: Expand a Real Rational Function into a Partial Fraction
1. Purpose. This program is used to expand a real rational function of (A.36) into a partial
fraction.
2. Usage.
Input: N is number of poles of the rational function.

A(I) are the coefficients of the numerator polynomial.
P(I) are the poles of the rational function, inputting in the form '(*, *)'.
Yield: K(I) are complex numbers.
Program Partial
Dimension A(25),B(25),P(25)
Complex A,P
Write(*,*) 'Partial Fraction Expansion of PR rational Function'
Write(*,*) 'The order of Denominator Polynomial N=?'
Read(*,*) N
Write(*,*) 'Input Real numerator coefficients:'
Do 10 I=l,N
Write(*,12) N-I
Read {*, *) B (I)
10 A(I)=Cmplx(B(I),0.0)
12 Format(2X,'Real Coefficient of S**',I2)
Write(*,*) 'Input Denominator Roots in Order of'
Do 20 I=l,N
Write(*,*) 'Root #',I,'in (*,*) form'
Read{*,*) P(I}
20 Write(*,*) P(I)
Ep=l. 0E-10
Call PF(N,A,P,Ep)
Write(*,*) • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Do 40 I=l,N
40 Write(*,*) "k", N+l-I, "=" ,A{I)
End
Subroutine PF(N,A,P,Ep)
Complex A(N),P(N),Y
PARTIAL FRACTION EXPANSION 609
Do 4 I=l,N
Il=N-I+l
IF(Il.EQ.l) Goto 3
Do 2 J=2, Il
A(J}=A(JJ+P(I)*A(J-1)
2 Continue
3 Do 5 J=l,I
Jl=N-J+l
IF(J,EQ.l) Goto 7
IF(CABS(P(J)-P(J-1)).LE.Ep) Goto 6
A(Il}=A(Il)-A(Jl+l)
7 IF{CABS(P(j)-P(IJJ .LE. Ep) Goto 4
Y=P(JJ-P(I)
A{Jl)=A(Jl)/Y
Goto 5
6 A(Jl)={A{Jl)-A(Jl+l))/Y
5 Continue
Write("',*) P(IJ,A(I)
4 Continue
Return
End
Example A.12 We wish to expand
F(s) = 16s 3 +127s 2 +320s+257 (A.37)

(s + l)(s + 2)(s + 3)(s + 5)
in a partial fraction. Running Program A303 gives
Partial Fraction Expansion of PR rational Function

The order of Denominator Polynomial N"'?
4
Input Real numerator coefficients:
Real Coefficient of S*" 3
16.0
127.0
320.0
Real Coefficient of S** 0
257.0
Input Denominator Roots in Order of
Root# 1 in (*,*) form
( -1.0000000, 0.0000000E+00J
Root ff 2 in {*,*) form
{ -2.0000000, 0.0000000E+00)
Root D 3 in(*,*) form
( -3.0000000, 0.0000000E+00)
Root i 4 in (*,*) form
( -5.0000000, 0.0000000E+00)
k 4 "' 7.0000000, 0.0000000E+00J

k 3 "' 2. 0000000, 0.0000000E+00)
k 2 = 1.0000000, 0.0000000E+O0)
610 APPENDIX
k 1 6.0000000, 0.0000000E+00)
The result is
6 1 2 7
F(s)=-+--+-+- (A.38)
s+l s+2 s+3 s+5
3.4 Long Division
(A.39)
Program A304: Long Divisiont
1. Purpose. This program is used to divide a polynomial by another one.

2. Usage.
Input: P(I) : are the coefficients of the numerator polynomial.
M: is the order of P(I).

Q(I): are the coefficients of denominator polynomial.
N: is the order of Q(I).
S(K): is the quotient polynomial.
Yield: K: is equal to M - N + 1, the order of quotient polynomial.

R(L): is the numerator polynomial of the remainder rational function.
L: is equal to N -1, the order of R(L).
SUBROUTINE OPDIV(P,M,Q,N,S,K,R,L}
Dimension P(M),Q(N),S(K),R(L)
DO 10 I=l, K
10 S(I)=0.0
IF (Q(N)+l.0.EQ.l.0) RETURN
LL=M-1
Do 50 I=K,1,-1
S(I)QP(LL+ll/Q(N)
MM=LL
Do 30 J=l, N-1
P(MM)=P(MM)-S(I}*Q(N-J)
MM=MM-l
30 CONTINUE
LL=LL-1
50 CONTINUE
DO 80 I=l,L
80 R(I}=P(I)
RETURN
t This subroutine is cited from P.522 of Xu (7).

LONG DIVISION 611
END
Example A.13 Let
F(s)= 2s 5 +40s 3 +128s

(A.40)
s 4 +10s 2 +9
We use the following main program:
Dimension P(6),Q(5),S(2),R(4)
Data P/0.0, 128.0, 0.0, 40.0, 0.0, 2.0/
Data Q/9.0, 0.0, 10.0, 0.0, LO/
Call OPDIV(P,6,Q,5,S,2,R,4)
Do 10 I=l,2
10 Write(*,100) I,S(I)
Do 20 I=l,4
20 Write(*,200) I,R(I)
100 Format(lX, 'S(',I2, ')=',D13.6)
200 Format(lX,'R(',I2,')•',D13.6)
End
Running program A304 gives
S( l)a 0.000000D+OO
S( 2)= 0.200000D+Ol
R( l)c 0.000000D+OO
R( 2)= 0.110000D+03
R( 3)= 0.000000D+OO
R( 4)= 0.2000000+02
The result is given by

F(s) = 2s+ 20s 3 +I I Os (A.41)
s4+10s 2 +9
4.1 The Golden Section Search
Given the objective function of a multi-variables system U (xCk> + tp<k>), and a initial
Point x(k) = [x<*> x<k) .•. x<k)1 and search direction vector
I ' 2 ' ' n
p(k) = r_(k) p<k) ... p(k)
LP1 ' 2 ' ' n
1the Program
"
A401 is used to find tmm to minimize U(x<k> +tp<k>) by using the Golden Section search (sec
Section 5.5).
Program A401: One-Dimensional Search by Golden Section
I. Purpose. This program is used to find the step length by using the Golden section search t.
2. Usage.
Input: X(N) are the initial variable values.
• This subroutine is referred to pp. 444-448 ofHimmelblau 13].

612 APPENDIX

Output: F(X) is the objective function.
X(N) are result.
Subroutine Golden(X,Fx,Y,Fy,S,Delx,N,!ndic,&
& Tol,!tol,Iter,Iex,W,R,P)
Dimension X{N),Y(N),Delx(Nl,l?(N),R(N),Z{30),W(N),&
& Diff(30),S(N),SS(30)
Fl"'0. 618033989
IF(Itol==l) goto l
Tol=0.000001
1 Times=l.0
IF(Indic==2) Goto 5
If(Iter==0) Goto 5
Dxnorm=O.O
Snorm=0,0
Do 2 I=l,N
Dxnorm=Dxnorrn+Delx(I)*Delx(I)
2 Snorm=Snorm+S{I)*S(I)
If(indic/=1) Goto 3
If(Dxnorm>=Snorm) Goto 5
3 Dxnorm=Sqrt(Dxnorm)
Snorrn=Sqrt{Snorm}
Ratio=Dxnorm/Snorm
Do 4 I=l,N
4 SS(I)=S(I)*Ratio
Is=l
Goto 9
5 Is=0
Do 6 I=l,N
6 SS{I)=S{I)
9 Iex=0
Ntimes=O
10 Do 20 I=l,N
Z {I) =X (I)
20 W{I)=X{I)+SS(I)
Fz=Fx
Ntimes=Ntimes+l
Call Obf (W, Fw)
IF{Fw<Fz) goto 30
IF{Fw==FZ) Goto 70
IF(FW>Fz) Goto 50
30 Do 40 I=l,N
P(!)=Z{I)
Z(I)=W(I)
SS(I)=2.0*SS(I)
40 W(I)=W(I)+SS(I)
Fl?=FZ
Ntirnes=Ntimes+l
Call Obf {W, Fw)
If(Fw<Fz) goto 30
THE GOLDEN SECTION SEARCH 613
If(Fw==Fz) Goto 70
If(Fw>Fz) Goto 120
50 IF{ Ntirnes/•l) Goto 120
Do 60 I=l,N
SS(I)=-SS(I)
60 P(I)=W(I)
Goto 10
70 Do 80 I=l,N
80 R(I)=!Z(I)+W(I))/2.0
Ntimes=Ntimes+l
Call Obf {R, Fr)
t1in=l
If(Fr<Fz) Goto 140
If(Fr==Fz) Goto 295
If(Fr>Fz) Goto 90
90 IF(Ntimes/=2) Goto 110
Do 100 I=l,N
SS(I)=-SS(I)
100 P(I)=R(I)
Fp=Fr
Goto 10
110 Do 115 I=l,N
W(I)=R{I}
R(I)=Z(I)
115 Z(i)•P(I)
Min=l
Fw=Fr
Fr=Fz
Fz=Fp
Goto 140
120 Do 130 I=l,N
R(I)=Z(I)
130 Z(I)•P(I)
Min=l
FR=FZ
Fz=Fp
140 Wznorm=O.O
Do 145 I=l,N
Diff(I)=W(I}-Z(I}
145 Wznorm=Wznorm+Diff(I)*Diff(I)
If(wznorm.LT.Tol} Goto 290
146 Do 150 I=l,N
Sect-Fl *Diff {I)
P(I)=Z(I}+Sect
150 R(I)=W(I)-Sect
Call Obf(P,Fp)
Call Obf {R, Fr)
160 IF(Fr<Fp) Goto 170
If(Fr==Fp) Goto 230
IF{Fr>Fp) goto 200
170 Wznorm=O.O
Do 180 I=l,N
W(I)aP(Il
P(I}=R(I}
Diff(I)-W{I)-Z(I)
Wznorm=Wznorm+Diff (I) *Diff ( I)
614 APPENDIX
180 R(I)=W(I)-Fl*Diff(I)
Fw=Fp
Fp=Fr
If(Wznorm<Tol) Goto 320
Call obf Cr, Fr)
Goto 160
200 Wznorm=O.O
Do 210 I=l,N
Z(I)=R(I)
R(I)=P(I)
Diff(I)=W(I)-Z(I)
Wznorm=Wznorm+Diff(I)*Diff(I)
210 P(I)=Z(I)+Fl*Diff(I)
Fz=Fr
Fr=Fp
If(Wznorm<Tol) Goto 300
Call obf (p, Fp)
Goto 160
230 Do 240 r-1,N
240 Y{I)=(P(i)+R(I))/2.0
Call Obf (y, Fy)
- If(Fy<Fp) Goto 250
If(Fy==Fp) Goto 245
If(Fy>Fp) Goto 270
245 IEx=2
Goto 340
250 Do 260 I=l,N
Z{I)=R(I)
W(I)=P(I)
260 R{I)=Y(Il
Fz=Fr
Fw=Fp
Fr=Fy
Min=l
Goto 140
270 Do 280 I=l,N
280 Z(I)=Y(I)
Fz=Fy
Min=2
Goto 140
290 Goto (300,320), Min
295 Iex=2
300 Do 310 I=l,N
310 Y(I)=R(I)
Fy=Fr
Goto 340
320 Do 330 I=l,N
330 Y(I)=P(I)
Fy=Fp
340 Continue
Do 345 I=l,N
IF(X(I)/=Y(I)) Goto 346
345 Continue
Goto 350
346 If(Fy>=FX) Goto 350
Return
350 If(Times<0.0001) Goto 380
THE GOLDEN SECTION SEARCH 615
Times=times/10.0
Tol=Tol/100.0
Tra=Times
If(Is==0) Goto 360
Tra=Tra*Ratio
360 Do 370 I=l,N
370 SS(I)=S(I)*Tra
Goto 9
380 Iex=l
Return
End
Example A.14 We use the Golden Section search program P508 to find the minimum of
(A.42)
using the initial guess x10 > = [o.o, r r

0.0 on the search direction s = [1.0, 2.0 with accuracy 0.00 I.
The main program is
Program A401
Dimension X(2),Y(2),S(2),Delx(2),R(2),W(2),P(2)
X(l)=0.0
X(2)=0.0
S(l).,,1.0
S(2}=2.0
Tol=0.00001
Call Golden(X,1.0,Y,Fy,S,Delx, 2,2,Tol,2,0,Iex,R,W,P)
Do 10 I-1,2
10 Nrite(*,12) I,Y(I)
12 Format (5X, 'Xl (', I2, ') =', G20 .10}
Write(*,18) Fy, Iex
18 Format(/, SX, 'U (xl, x2) =', G20 .10, 6X, 'Iex"'', I3)
End
Subroutine Obf{X,F}
DIMENSION X(2}
F=lO0* (X ( 2 )-X (1) **2) **2+ ( l. 0-X ( l)} **2
Write(*,*) 'F=',F
Return
End
Running Program gives
F= 1.0000000E+02
F= 9.0400000E+02
F= 29.3919163
F= 17.9231453
F= 60.6094322
F= 2.0656323
F= 2.4270029
F"' 6. 227664 9
F= 1.0421822
F= 1.0966265
616 APPENDIX
F= 1.2780641
F= 0.9976444
F= 1.0100909
F= 1.0053155
F= 0.9987491
F= 0.9991997
F= 0.9975367
F= 0.9977973
F= 0.9975007
F= 0.9975262
F= 0.9975032
Xl ( 1 l .. 0,2545530442E-02
Xl( 2)= 0.5091060884E-02
U(xl,x2)= 0.9975007176 Iex= 0
4.2 Interpolation Method
Given an objective function of a multi-variable system U(x<*> + rp<*>), an initial point

x<* 1=[xi*',x~*>, .. ,x~k)r and a search direction vector p 1*1 =[p)* 1,p?>, ... ,p~*>r, the program
A402 is used to find tmin to minimize U(x<*> +tp<*>) by using DSCPOW algorithm (see Section
5.5).
Program A402: One-Dimensional Search by Using the DSCPOW Method
1. Purpose. This program is used to find the step length by using .the dscpow method.t
2. Usage.
Input: X(N) are the initial variable values.
S(N) is a search direction vector.
Yield: X(N) are the final variable values.
Fx is the corresponding function value
Dimension X(N),Y(N),S(N),Delx(N)
If (Itol.EQ.1) Go to 110
Tol=0.10-10
110 Ftol2=Tol/100.0D0
Ntol=O
Iex=l
Call obf (X, Fx)
Fa=Fx
Fb=Fx
Fc=Fx
Da=O.O
Db=O.O
'This subroutine is referred to pp. 442-443, ofHimmelblau (3].

INTERPOLATION METHOD 617
Dc=O.O
K=-2
M.. 0
Da=O.ODO
Step=l.ODO
D=Step
If {Indic.EQ.2) Go to 1
If (Iter.EQ.O) Go to 1
Dxnorm=O.ODO
Snorm=O.ODO
Do 102 I=l,N
Dxnorm=Dxnorm+Delx(I)*Delx(I)
102 Snorm=Snorm+S(I)*S(I)
If {Indic.NE.l) Go to 103
If (Dxnorrn.GE.Snorm) Go to 1
103 Ratio=Dxnorm/Snorm
Step=SQRT(Ratio)
D=Step
1 Do 2 I=l,N
2 Y(I}=X(I)+D*S(I)
Call Obf (Y, Fl
K=K+l
If (F<Fa) Goto 5
If (F==Fa} Goto 3
If {F>Fa) Goto 6
3 D=O.S*(Da+D)
Do 4 I"'l,N
4 Y(I)zX(I)+D*S(I)
Call Obf (Y, F)
If (F-Fa <0.0) Goto 204
If (F-Fa=O.O) Goto 202
IF (F-Fa >0.0) Goto 205
202 Do 203 I=l,N
203 Y(I)=X(I)+Da*S(I)
Fy=Fa
Go to 326
! F<Fa
204 Fc=Fa
Dc=Da+2.0*(D-Da)
Fb=F
Db=D
Go to 21
! F>Fa
205 Step=O.S*Step
If (K <0) Goto 7
If {K==O) Goto 8
If (K >0) Goto 206
206 Dc-D
D=Da
Da=Db
Db=D
Fc=F
F=Fa
Fa=Fb
Fb=F
Go to 10
618 APPENDIX
!F<Fa
5 Fc=Fb
Fb.. Fa
Fa=F
Dc=Db
Db=Da
Da=D
D.. 2.0*D+Step
Go to 1
6 If (K<O) Goto 7
If (K==O) Goto 8
If (K>O) Goto 9
7 Fb=F
Db=D
D=-D
Step=-Step
Go to 1
8 Fc=Fb
Fb.. Fa
Fa=F
Dc=Db
Db=Da
Da=D
Go to 21
9 Dc=Db
Db..,Da
oa .. D
Fc•Fb
Fb .. Fa
Fa=F
10 D=O.S*(Da+Db)
Do 11 I=l, N
11 Y(I)=X(I)+D*S(I)
Call Obf (Y, F)
12 If ((DC-Dl*(D-Db)<O.O} Goto 15
If ((DC-D)*{D-Db}=0.0) Goto 13
If ((DC-D)*(D-Db)>O.O) Goto 18
13 Do 14 I=l,N
14 Y(I}=X(I)+Db*S(I)
Fy=Fb
If(Iex.EQ.O) Go to 32
Go to 326
15 If (F<Fb} Goto 16
If(F==Fb) Goto 13
If(F>Fb) Goto 17
16 Fc"'Fb
Fb .. f
Dc=-Db
Db=D
Go to 21
17 Fa=F
Da=O
Go to 21
18 If (F<Fb) Goto 19
If(F==Fb) Goto 13
IF(F>Fb) Goto 20
19 Fa-Fb
Fb«F
Da=Db
Db=D
Go to 21
20 Fc=F
Dc=D
21 If (ABS(Da-Db).GE.ABS(Dc-Db)} Go to 50
D=Da
Da=Dc
Dc=D
F=Fa
Fa=Fc
FccF
50 If(ABS((Dc-Db}/{Da-Db}).GT.0.25) Go to 26
D=0.S*(Da+Db)
Do 51 I=l,N
51 Y(I)=X(I)+D*S(I)
Call OBF(Y, F)
If{F<Fb} Goto 52
IF(F==Fb) Goto 13
If(F>Fb) Goto 53
52 Fc•Fb
Fb=F
Dc=Db
Db D
0
Go to 26
53 Fa=F
Da=D
26 A=Fa*(Db-Dc)+Fb*(Dc-Da)+Fc*(Da-Db)
If (A<0.0) Goto 22
If(A==O.O) Goto 30
IF(A>0.0) Goto 22
22 D=0.5*((Db*Db-Dc*Dc)*Fa+(Dc*Dc-Da*Da)*Fb+(Da*Da-Db*Db)*Fc)/A
If ((Da-D)*(D-Dc)<=0.0) Goto 13
If ((Da-D)*(D-Dc)>0.0) Goto 23
23 Do 24 I=l,N
24 Y(Il=X(I)+D*S(I)
Call Obf (Y, F)
If (ABS{FB-f)-(ABS(Fb)+Ftol2)*Tol<=0.0) Goto 28
If (ABS(FB-F)-(ABS{Fb)+Ftol2)*Tol>0.0) Goto 12
28 Iex=0
If(F<Fb) Goto 29
If ( F>==Fb) Goto 13
29 Fy-F
Go to 32
30 If (t1<=0) Goto 31
If (M>O) Goto 13
31 M=M+l
Go to 10
32 Do 99 I=l, N
If ( Y{I) • NE. X (I) ) Go to 326
99 Continue
33 If(Ntol.EQ.5) Go to 34
Iex=l
Ntol=Ntol+l
Tol=Tol/10.0D0
Go to 12
620 APPENDIX
34 Iex""l
Go to 35
326 If{Fy.LT.Fx) go to 36
Iex=l
Go to 35
36 If(Iex.EQ.0) Go to 35
Iex=2
35 Return
End
Example A.15 We wish to find the minimum point of the function
(A.47)
The initial gauss is
X (0) =[- 1.2] (A.48)

1.5
The search direction is
8 =[24.4] (A.49)
12.0
Program A402
Iter=O
Iobf=O
X (1) =-1. 2
X(2)=1.5
5(1)=24.4
S(2)=12.0
Call dscpow(X,Fx,Y,Fy,S,Delx,2,2,0.lE-10,1,Iter,Iex)
Do 2 I=l,2
Write (*,l) I,Y(I)
1 Format (5X, 'X(',Il,')=',D20.10)
2 Continue
Write (*,3) Fy,Iex
3 Format (/,5X, 'U(xl,x2)=',G20.10,6X, 'Iex=',15)
End
Subroutine Obf(X,F)
DIMENSION X(2)
F=lOO*(X(2)-X(l)**2)**2+(1.0-X(l))**2
Write ( *, *) • F=' , F
Return
End
Rwming Program A402 gives

F= 5.1999993
F= 2.7535692E+07
F= 4.4337668E+07
F= 3.4342463
F= 2.1377030E+06
F= 4.6295078E+02
F=- l,9359894E+05
F= 2.6482101E+02
fm 2.1491625E+04
Fe 71. 7780457
F= 2.9499165E+03
F= 9.5451880
F= 4.7423242£+02
F= 1.0924842
F= 90.2972488
F= 0.5523993
F= 19.9089870
F= 0.5088459
F= 5.0360188
F= 0.5069668
F= 1.6061997
f"' o. 5069311
F"' 0.7783967
F.. 0.5069436
F= 0.5743477
X(l)= 0.1711571097D+Ol
X(2)= 0.2931920290D+Ol
U(xl,x2)= 0.5069310665 Ie>:= 2
References
I. Chin, F. Y. and Steigliz, K. (1977) "An 0( N 2 ) algorithm for partial fraction expansion,"
IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst., Vol. CAS-24, No.I, pp. 42-45.
2. Cuthbert, T. R. Jr. (1983) Circuit Design Using Personal Computers, New York: John
Wiley.
3. Himmelblau, D. M. (1972) Applied Nonlinear Programming, New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Liu, D. G, Fei, J. G., Yu, Y. J., and Li, G. Y. A. (1980) Collection ofAlgorithms in Fortran,
Beijing, China: Industry of National Defense Pub. (in Chinese).
5. Rosenrock, H. H. (1960) "An automatic method for finding the greatest or the least value of a
function," Computer J., Vol. 3, p.175.
6. Vlach, J. (1969), Computerized Approximation and Synthesis of Networks, New York: John
Wiley.
7. Xu, S. L. (1995) Fortran Programs, Beijing, China: Tsinghua Pub. (in Chinese).
Index
All-pole networks, 163 Chebyshev impedance transformers,
Amplitude, 172 283
Analytic continuation, 102 Chebyshev ladder impedance matching
Antimetric, 261 networks, 366
Attenuation poles, 107 Chebyshev matching networks, 315
Augmentation factor, 400,424 Chebyshev polynomial, 152
Augmented two-port network, 44,400 Chebyshev response, 151
A.•1erage electrical energy, 6 Chebyshev transducer power-gain
characteristic, 381
Basic constraints, 306 Circuit optimization, 207
Basis-dependent scattering Classification of zeros of
matrices, 52 transmission, 305
Bessel-Thomson filter, 197 Coaxial short-step impedance
Bessel-Thomson polynomial, 195 transformer, 282
Bessel-Thomson response, 190 Common factors, 400,527
Bode formula, 470,474 Compact pole, 106
Bode method, 508 Compatible impedances, 399
Bede's gain-bandwidth limitations, Complete elliptic integral, 165
297 Complex frequency, 1
Bounded-real function, 40,66 Complex normalization, 50
Bounded-real matrix, 66 Conjugate directions, 220
Bounded-real reflection Conjugate gradient method, 219
coefficient, 304 Conjugately matched, 35
Broadband matching problem, 303 Consistency, 70
Brune section, 121 Constant resistance multiplexer,
Brune-Gewertz method, 510 542
Butterworth diplexer, 576 Constant transducer power gain, 389
Butterworth filter, 139 Continued fraction expansion, 87,
Butterworth impedance 281,604
transformation networks, Contour integral, 298
263,275 Couple coils, 7
Butterworth ladder impedance Crossover frequency, 565
matching networks, 361 Cubic equation, 326,598
Butterworth matching networks, 309 Current reflection coefficient, 37
Butterworth multiplexer, 545 Current-basis scattering matrix,
Butterworth transducer power-gain 42, 52
characteristic, 373
Carlin-Yarman algorithm, 517,519 Damping coefficient, 226,575
Cascade synthesis, 113 Darlington synthesis, 100,403
Cauchy integral theorem, 471 Darlington type-A section, 122
Cauchy's theorem, 298 Darlington type-B section, 122
Cauchy-Riemann equations, 470 Darlington type-C section, 120
Cauer canonical forms, 85 Darlington type-C Section, 332
Cauer, 85 Darlington type-D Section, 127
Chain matrix, 11 Darlington type-E section, 130
Chain parameter approach, 422 Delay, 191
Chain parameters, 423,523 Design procedure, 306
Characteristic impedance, 258 Determinant, 587
Chebyshev filter, 160 Diplexers, 535
Chebyshev impedance transformation Direct real-frequency approach, 463
networks, 265, 278
623
624 INDEX
Direct search optimization method, Grid tabulation, 229

228 Group delay, 17,191
Direct search, 228 Guass-Newton method, 225
Discrimination parameter, 582 Gyration resistance, 10
Divisible three-port networks, 539 Gyrator, 7
Double match, 400 Hazony, 113
Double matching problem, 446,514, Hessian matrix, 209
526 Hilbert transform, 465,470,472
Double-terminated LC network, 100 H-parameters, 12
Driving point immittance, 9 Hybrid matrix, 12
DSCPOW algorithms, 240 Hybrid parameters, 12
Electrical length, 283 Ideal transformer, 7

Element values of an elliptic Ideal transmission system, 191
symmetrical filter, 178 Identity matrix, 588
Elimination method, 241 Impedance augmentation, 424
Elliptic filter, 163 Impedance ratio, 262
Elliptic integral, 551 Impedance transformation network,
Elliptic network, 176 285
Elliptic response diplexer, 581 Impedance transformation, 245
Elliptic response multiplexer, 550 Incident current, 36,51
Elliptic type-B realization, 185 Incident current vector, 41
Elliptic type-C realization, 185 Incident voltage vector, 41, 51
Energy, 5 Incident voltage, 36
Envelope delay, 191 Index set, 115
Equilateral triangle, 229 Initial guess, 487,519
Equivalent conditions, 261 Inner product, 213
Equivalent Conditions, 436 Insertion Loss, 17
Evaluation of a Polynomial, 593 Interconnection of multiport
Even order elliptic filter, 184 networks, 67
Even part, 79 Interface impedance, 246
Explicit formulas for low-pass Interlace, 81
Butterworth response, 327 Interpolation method, 237,616,621
Explicit Formulas, 347 Jacobian elliptic functions, 165
Factorizing of Para-Hermitian Jacobian elliptic sine function,
matrix, 54 172,550
Jacobian matrix, 486,574
Fielder, 520
First Cauer canonical form, 85 L section, 245
First Foster Canonical Form, 81 Ladder configuration, 94
Flexible Polyhedron Search, 228, Ladder impedance, 361
231 Ladder, 93
Foster function, 408 Landen transformation, 167
Foster, 407 Laplace transformation, 1,5
Frequency transformation constant, Leading principal minors, 210
262 Least pth method, 531,569
Frequency transformations, 182 Least squares method, 225,498
Frequency-domain synthesis, 1 Legendre standard form, 165
Gain objective function, 481 Levenberg-Marquardt technique, 486
Gain-slope theorem, 474 Levy, 501
Gaussian elimination algorithm, 591 Lin, 106
Gauss-Newton procedure, 486 Linear interpolation functions, 478
Gewertz formula, 547,571 Linear interpolation, 467
Global minimum, 229 Load, 301
Golden section search, 242,612 Local minimum, 209
Gradient method, 212 Long division, 610
Gradient vector, 209 Loss, 17
INDEX 625
Low-pass Butterworth matching Odd part, 79

networks, 322 One-Dimensional search, 237
Low-pass Chebyshev networks, 343 Open-circuit impedance matrix, 9
Low-pass impedance transformation Open-circuit impedance parameters,
networks, 260 405,407
Optimization procedure, 573
Magnetic energy, 6 Orthogonality, 220
Magnitude, 502
Matrix inversion, 588 Para-Hermitian part, 53
Maximally flat low-pass high-pass Parallel decomposability, 537
reactance-ladder diplexers, Parallel RC load, 308,321
263 Parallel tuned circuit, l
Maximally-flat delay Para-unitary matrix, 48
characteristic, 191 Para-unitary property, 436
Maximum available average power, 39 Partial Fraction Expansion, 608
McMillan degree, 409,535 Partial fraction expansion, 81
Mid-shunt ladder networks, 107 Partial Pole Removal, 95
Minimum conductance, 113 Pass-band ripple, 151
Minimum function, 113 Passivity criterion, 65
Minimum reactance function, 113 Perfectly coupled coils, 8
Minimum resistance function, 113 Phase, 17,502
Minimum susceptance function, 113 Phasor, 6
Minimum-phase reflection Piecewise linear approximation,
coefficient, 143 466,487
Modules, 165 Piecewise linear Hilbert
Multiplexer, 535 transforms, 470
Multiplication of two polynomials, Polynomial matrix, 523
596 Positive definite, 210
Multiport network, 40 Principal value, 472
Private poles, 94
Natural frequencies, 94 Properties of the scattering
Network Functions, 8 matrix, 47
Network synthesis from a given real
part, 507,513 Rational function method, 505
Newton's method, 217 Rational Hilbert transformation,
N-linear segment approximation, 496 554
Nonconstant resistance diplexer, Rational impedance function, 499
556 Rational least-squared-error
Nonreciprocal two-port network, 460 approximation of, 496
Nonreciprocal, 524 RCR Load, 372
Non-terminated two-port network, 90 Reactance function, 81,471
Normalized incident and reflected Reactance two-port networks, 89
wave vectors, 43 Reactance, 80
Normalized incident and reflected Reactance-ladder diplexer, 555,568
waves, 38 Real frequency technique, 463
Normalized incident-wave vector, 53 Real normalization, 37
Normalized reflected wave vector, Real roots of a nonlinear equation,
53 600
Normalized reflection coefficient, Real-frequency approach, 568
38 Realizability, 519
Normalized scattering matrix, 43, Realization of a low-pass Chebyshev
53 filter, 161
Normalized voltage, 38 Realization of equalizer, 312
Norton, 543 Reciprocal, 524
Numerical differentiation, 507 Recurrence formula, 147,194
Reference impedance matrix, 447
Objective function, 208 Reference matrix, 40
626 INDEX
Reflected current vector, 42 Two-element impedance

Reflected current, 36 transformation network, 247
Reflected power, 40
Reflected voltage vector, 42 Unconstrained optimization, 208
Reflected voltage, 36 Undamped, 57
Reflection coefficients, 35 Uniform lossless transmission
Residue condition, 89 lines, 258
Resistance function, 471
Resistive generator, 337 Variable metric, 219
Return loss, 301 Voltage reflection coefficient, 37
Richards realization, 292 Voltage transfer function, 90
Richards section, 132 Voltage transfer ratio function,
RLC load, 322,343,356 207
Roots of a nonlinear equation, 602 Voltage transmission function, 101
Routh test, 562 Voltage-based scattering matrix, 52
Second Cauer canonical form, 86 Weighting factor, 208

Second Foster Canonical Form, 81 Weinberg's transformation, 363
Selectivity factors, 550 Wohlers• Compatibility Theorem, 430
Short-circuit admittance matrix, 10
Short-circuit admittance Youla, 113
parameters, 10 Youla's cascade synthesis, 554
Short-step Chebyshev impedance Youla's conditions, 523
transformers, 297,282 Youla's theory of broadband
Simplex search, 230 matching, 302
Simpson's rule, 165
Single terminated network, 92,207 Zero of transmission, 305
Specification vector, 207 Zero Producing Sections, 119
Steepest descent, 212 Zero Shifting, 95
Stop-band rejection, 179 Z-parameters, 9
Storch, 192
Straight-line segments, 469
Symmetrical high-pass ladder
filter, 178
Symmetrical low-pass ladder filter,
178
Tabulation method, 228

Tetrahedron, 229
Three-element impedance
transformation networks, 255
Three-port network, 538
Time-domain synthesis, l
Tokad, 106
Transducer function, 17
Transducer power gain, 3,15,526
Transfer admittance, 89
Transfer current ratio, 14
Transfer function synthesis, 89
Transfer functions, 13
Transfer impedance function, 90
Transfer voltage ratio, 13
Transitional band, 140
Transmission matrix, 11
Transmission zero, 94,423,568
Transmission-line circuit, 293
Two port elements, 7
Fortran Programs
Program P301: Partial Fraction Expansion, 82
Program P302: A Continued Fraction Expansion [12], 87
Program P303: Realization ofa Mid-Shunt Low-Pass Ladder Network, 109
Program P304: Find the Index Set Assigned to the Point by a Positive-Real Function, 116
Program P305: Realization of the Darlington Type-C Section, Brune Section, and the Darlington Type-
E Section, 123
Program P306: The Realization of a Darlington Type-D Section, 128
Program P401: Determine the Order n and the Nonnalization Frequency w0 for the Low-pass
Butterworth Filter, 141
Program P402: . Determine the coefficients of (4.15), 145
Program P403: Calculate the Element Values of a Low-pass Butterworth Filter, 149
Program P404: Compute the Coefficients of the Low-pass Chebyshev Polynomial, 152
Program P405: Determine the Order of a Low-pass Chebyshev Filter, 156
Program P406: Calculate the Element Values of a Low-pass Chebyshev Filter, 161
Program P407: Calculate the Elliptic Integral ofthe First Kind, 166
Program P408: Calculate the Elliptic Integration by Landen Transfonnation, 169
Program P409: Determine the Order of a Low-pass Elliptic Filter, 171
Program P410: Determine the Zeros of Fn(s), 174
Program P411: Calculate the Element Values of an Elliptic Symmetrical Filter, 179
Program P412: Transform Zero and Pole Locations of an Even Order Elliptic Filter, 184
Program P413: Generate the Elliptic Type-Band Type-C Realizations for an Even Order Elliptic Filter
as Shown in Fig. 4.19, 186
Program P414: Compute the coefficients of Bessel-Thomson polynomial, 195
Program P415: Determines the Order of a Bessel-Thomson Filter, 197
Program P416: Compute the Element Values of an Odd Order Bessel-Thomson Filter, 199
Program P417: Compute the Element Values of an Even Order Bessel-Thomson Filter. 203
Program P501: The Steepest Descent Method, 213

Program P502: Newton's Method, 218
Program P504: The Conjugate Gradient Method, 222
Program P505: The Least Square Method, 226
Program P506: The Flexible Polyhedron Search, 233
Program P507: One Dimensional Search using the DSPPOW Method, 240
Program P508: The Golden Section Search, 243
Program P601: Complex Source and Complex Load at a Given, 249

Program P602: Lossless Transmission Line Matching Network, 259
Program P603: Butterworth Low-Pass Impedance Transfonning Network, 275
Program P604: Chebyshev Low-Pass Impedance Transformation Network, 278
Program P605: Determine the Order of a Coaxial Short-Step Chebyshev Impedance Transformation
Network, 285
Program P606: Frequency Mapping, 288
Program P607: Determine the Reflection Coefficient and the Input Impedance, 290
Program P608: Richards Realization, 294
627
628 FORTRAN PROGRAM
Program P701: Constant Transducer Power-Gain Limitation Imposed by tl1e RC Load, 301
Program P702: Compute the Maximum DC Gain Imposed by the RC Load, 311
Program P703: Compute the Element Values of Butterworth Low-pass Network Matching a Parallel RC
Load to a Resistive Generator, 313
Program P704: Compute the Maximum DC Gain of nth Order Chebyshev Low-pass Filter Imposed by a
Parallel RC Load, 318
Program P705: Compute the Element Values of Chebyshev Low-pass Network Matching a Parallelo
RC Load to a Resistive Generator, 319
Program P706: Design Butterworth Equalizer to Match an Arbitrary RLC Load to a Resistive
Generator, 337
Program P707: Design of a Chebyshev Lossless Two-port Network to Match an RLC Load to a
Resistive Source, 356
Program P708: Determine DC Gain of Butterworth Network to Match RCR load to a Resistive Source, 375
Program P709: Determine DC Gain of Chebyshev Network to Match RCR Load to a Resistive Source, 383
Program P901: The Piecewise Linear Approximation of, 468

Program P902: Piecewise Linear Hilbert Transforms, 476
Program P903: Piecewise Linear Hilbert Transform, 479
Program P904: Optimization Routine to Find Resistive Excursions, 487
Program P905: The least square method used to determine a rational function, 498
Program P906: Determine a Rational Network Function by Using Levy Method, 503
Program P907: Solve a Linear System by Gaussian Elimination Algorithm, 513
Program A101: Calculate the Determinant of an Matrix, 587

Program A102: Inverse of an Matrix A, 589
Program A103: Gaussian Elimination Algorithm, 591
Program A201: Evaluation of a Polynomial f(x) at x 0 , 593
Program A202: Determine a Polynomial from Its Zeros, 594
Program A203: Find Product of Two Polynomials, 596
Program A204: Find Roots ofa Cubic Equation of(A.21), 598
Program A205: Find All Real Roots of a nonlinear equation in a Given Interval [a, b], 600
Program A206: Solve an Nth-Order Nonlinear Equation of (A.24), 602
Program A301: Expand a Rational Function into a Continued Fraction, 604
Program A302: Detennine a Rational Function from a Continued Fraction, 607
Program A303: Expand a Real Rational Function into a Partial Fraction, 608
Program A304: Long Division, 610
Program A401: One-Dimensional Search by Golden Section, 612
Program A402: One-Dimensional Search Using the DSCPOW Method, 616

Computer-Aided Design of Communication Networks - Zhu WORLD SCIENTIFIC 2000

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Computer-Aided Design of Communication Networks - Zhu WORLD SCIENTIFIC 2000

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computer-Aided Design of Communication Networks - Zhu WORLD SCIENTIFIC 2000

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Advanced Series in Circuits and Systems - Vol.

www.worldscientific.com 9 789810 223519

Editor-in-Charge: Wai-Kai Chen (Univ. Illinois, Chicago, USA)

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Printed in Singapore by Uto-Print

Communication network is an important topic for study by electrical engineering students

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Network Theory 1

Chapter 2 The Transmission and Reflection Coefficients 35

Chapter 3 Elements of Passive Network Synthesis 79

Chapter 4 Filter Approximation and Realization 139

Chapter 5 Circuit Optimization 207

Chapter 6 Impedance Transformation 245

Chapter 7 Broadband Matching Networks 297

Chapter 8 Compatible Impedances 399

Chapter 9 Real-Frequency Solutions of the Broadband

Chapter 10 Diplexer and Multiplexer 535

Appendix Basic Fortran Subroutines in Network Synthesis 587

2.5 Find a real root of a nonlinear equation 600

i (t) = C dv(t) +Gv(t)+ 1 þÿ# t

Fig. 1.1 A simple parallel tuned circuit

and solving for the unknown transfonned voltage V(s) yield

where H(s) is the network function ca11ed the impedance fimclion,

v(t) = inverse Laplace transfonns[H(s)]

where 11(1) is the step function and

where Re denotes "the real part of' and

v(t) = v.. cos(rot + P) = ✓2 Re {ve 1"' )= ✓2 {ve 1

from which the unknown phasor Vis found to be

1.2 Network Elements

One Port Elements

(a) Resistor (b) Capacitor (c) Inductor

Fig. 1.3 Symbols and definitions of basic network elements.

The energy delivered to each element from time l1 to l2 is found to be

W= r.J p(t)dt = r.J v(t)i(t)dt (1.19)

resistor capacitor inductor

Transformed equation VL (s) =L[sl(s)- /(0" )]

Wc(t) =f C dv(x)v(x)dx JV, (t) = [_ L dr\x)ca

Table 1.1 The voltage-current relations of one-port elements.

The average electrical energy v.v stored in the capacitor is found to be

The instantaneous power stored in the capacitor is given by

WL (t) = J:i(x)v(x)dr = J:[~ fo" V., cosroydy ]v. cosroxdx

The average electric energy T1 v stored in the inductor is given by

The instantaneous power stored in the inductor is

p(t) = Gv 2 (t) +~~Vc(t) +JVL (I)]

=GV,; cos2 rot - ,.J CV,: - V; 2 )sin 2rot (1.26)

VI =V(G+1·roc+-1-)v=.!..ov 2 +1·ro(CV,; - V,;2 )

Two Port Elements

Couple coils Ideal transformer Gyrator

Relationship (} L di1(1) M di2 (t)

Energy store in lhc Wu= [A-"C)dx

Table 1.2 The voltage-current relations of two-port elements.

From energy consideration, it is easy to verify that (1.28) will be non-negative if

1.3 Network Functions

(a) One-port network (b) Two-port network

Fig. I. 7 One-port and two-port networks.

The Open-Circuit Impedance Parameters

Likewise, a gyrator is a two-port network characterized by a single parameter r, known as the

The Short-Circuit Admittance Parameters

The term "short-circuit" becomes obvious.