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Toaz - Info Report On Antenna PR
Toaz - Info Report On Antenna PR
A Project Report
on
In
Electronics & Communication Engineering
By
Arjun Arya(0802931019)
Lakshya Kumar(0802931044)
Parv Jain(0802931058)
Pranay Diwakar(0802931062)
Under guidance of
Ms.Monika
CERTIFICATE
Certified that
Arjun Arya
Lakshya Kumar
Parv Jain
Pranay Diwakar
has carried out the project work presented in this project report entitled
“Design and analysis of slot antenna” for the award of Bachelor of
Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering from Krishna
Institute of Engineering & Technology, Ghaziabad (Gautam Bhudh
Technical University, Lucknow) under my supervision. The project report
embodies result of original work and studies carried out by Student himself and
the contents of the report do not form the basis for the award of any other
degree to the candidate or to anybody else.
ABSTRACT
slot antenna and its complementary antenna. First the electric and magnetic
fields are interchanged. In the case of the dipole antenna shown in figure 3-
18,the electric lines are horizontal while the magnetic lines form loops in the
vertical plane. With the slot antenna, the magnetic lines are horizontal and the
electric lines are vertical. The electric lines are built up across the narrow
dimensions of the slot. As a result, the polarization of the radiation produced by
a horizontal slot is vertical. If a vertical slot is used, the polarization is
horizontal .A second difference between the slot antenna and its complementary
dipole is that the direction of the lines of electric and magnetic force abruptly
reverse from one side of the metal sheet to the other. In the case of the dipole,
the electric lines have the same general direction while the magnetic lines form
continuous closed loops. When energy is applied to the slot antenna, currents
flow in the metal sheet. These currents are not confined to the edges of the slot
but rather spread out over the sheet. Radiation then takes place from both sides
of the sheet. In the case of the complementary dipole, however, the currents are
more confined; so a much greater magnitude of current is required to produce a
given power output using the dipole antenna.
v
ACKNOWEDGMENT
It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B.Tech Project
undertaking during the B.Tech final year. We owe special debt of gratitude to
our project mentor Mrs. Monika, Department Of Electronics And
Communication, KRISHNA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLGY, Ghaziabad for her constant support and guidance throughout
the course of our work. Her sincerity ,thoroughness and perseverance have been
a constant source of inspiration for us. It is only her cognizant efforts that our
endeavors have seen light of the day.
PROJECT MEMBERS :
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT III
LIST OF FIGURES XI
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.3.1ANTENNA GAIN 7
1.3.4 DIRECTIVITY 10
1.3.9 BEAMWIDTH 15
1.5 OBJECTIVE 16
1.6 SCOPE 17
1.7 METHODOLOGY 17
1.8 FLOWCHART 18
2. SLOT ANTENNA 21
OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNA 25
2.4 BASIC CHARATERSTICKS 26
2.7.1 ADVANTAGES 36
2.7.2 WORKING 38
CRYSTAL SUBSTRATE 41
3. LITERATURE REVIEW 45
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 50
3.7 DIRECTIVITY 53
ix
3.10 BANDWIDTH 59
3.14 SUMMARY 64
4. SOFTWARE SIMULATION 65
SLOTS 69
4.5 SUMMARY 85
5. RESULTS 86
x
REFRENCES 93
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.4.17 Photonic band gap ground patch with 1.0mm slot patch 75
Fig.4.23 Photonic band gap ground patch with 0.5mm slot patch 79
LIST OF SYMBOLS
1. RF – Radio Frequency
2. UHF – Ultra High Frequency
3. WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network
4. SFCP- Singly FED Circularly Polarized
5. MIC – Microwave Integrated Circuits
6. VSWR – Voltage Standing Wave Ratio.
7. 𝑝𝑟 –Radiated power
8. 𝐺𝑟 – Radiance Conductance of patch
9. 𝑒𝑟 - Radiation Intensity of Antenna
10. Pd – Power Loss in lossy dielectric
11. Pc – Power loss due to finite conductivity of the metallization
12. Pr - Power radiated in the form of space wave.
13. Psur - Power loss in form of power carried away by the surface wave
14. tan - the loss tangent of the substrate
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
probably exceeds that of any other type of antenna element. During the past
ten years, the mobile radio communications industry has grown by orders of
magnitude, fuelled by digital and RF circuit fabrication improvements, new
large -scale circuit integration, and other miniaturization technologies which
make portable radio equipment smaller, cheaper, and more reliable. These
trends will continue at an even greater pace during the next decade. Wireless
operations, such as long range communications, are impossible or impractical to
implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the
telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g.,
radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network
terminals, etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g.,radio frequency (RF),
infrared light, laser light, visible light, acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer
information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner
over both short and long distances. Applications may involve point-to-point
Communication, point-to-multipoint communication, broadcasting, cellular
networks and other wireless networks. Antenna is a very important
component for the wireless communication systems using radio frequency
and microwaves. By definition, an antenna is a device used to transform an
RF signal, traveling on a conductor, into an electromagnetic wave in free space.
The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 145-1983)
defines the antenna or aerial as ―a means for radiating or receiving radio
waves‖. In other words it is a transitional structure between free space and a
guiding device that is made to efficiently radiate and receive radiated
electromagnetic waves. Antennas are commonly used in radio, television
broadcasting, cell phones, radar and other systems involving the use of
electromagnetic waves. Antennas demonstrate a property known as reciprocity,
which means that an antenna will maintain the same characteristics
regardless if it is transmitting or receiving.The modern trends in wireless
communication systems require wide bandwidth antennas, by which the voice,
3
Most slots, similar to dipoles, have a finite length with either short or
open circuits at both ends. The voltage along the slot forms a standing wave. Of
course, magnetic currents are fictitious, and real electric currents flow in the
4
conductive sheet around the slot. These currents do not have a simple
distribution and are difficult to use for analysis, so we use simpler magnetic
currents, although when analyzing a slot using the method of moments, we
model the conductors around the slot and calculate patterns.
where k, the wave number, is given by 2π/λ. λ is the wavelength of the wave
given by c/f, where c is the velocity of light (3 × 108 m/s in free space) and f is
the frequency. Increasing the distance from the source decreases the phase of the
wave. Consider a two-wire transmission line with fields bound to it. The
currents on a single wire will radiate, but as long as the ground return path is
near, its radiation will nearly cancel the other line’s radiation because the two
are 180◦ out of phase and the waves travel about the same distance. As the lines
become farther and farther apart, in terms of wavelengths, the fields produced
by the two currents will no longer cancel in all directions. In some directions the
phase delay is different for radiation from the current on each line, and power
escapes from the line. We keep circuits from radiating by providing close
ground returns. Hence, high-speed logic requires ground planes to reduce
radiation and its unwanted crosstalk.
antenna radiates equally in all directions, and its radiated power density S is
2
found by dividing the radiated power by the area of the sphere 4πR .An
isotropic radiator is considered to be 100% efficient. The gain of an actual
antenna increases the power density in the direction of the peak radiation:
1 PO G
2
PG E
S O 2 or E S (1.1)
4R R 4
Gain is achieved by directing the radiation away from other parts of the
radiation sphere. In general, gain is defined as the gain-biased pattern of the
antenna.
POG( , )
S ( , ) power density
4R 2
8
POG( , )
U ( , ) radiation intensity (1.2)
4
The surface integral of the radiation intensity over the radiation sphere
divided by the input power P0 is a measure of the relative power radiated by the
2π π
Pr G(θ(θ,
PO
0 0
4π
sin θ.dθ.dφ ηe efficiency (1.3)
Pd SAeff (1.4)
For an aperture antenna such as a horn, parabolic reflector, or flat-
plate array, effective area is physical area multiplied by aperture efficiency. In
general, losses due to material, distribution, and mismatch reduce the ratio of
9
the effective area to the physical area. Typical estimated aperture efficiency for
a parabolic reflector is 55%. Even antennas with infinitesimal physical areas,
such as dipoles, have effective areas because they remove power from passing
waves.
1.3.4 Directivity:
This is the radiated power divided by the area of a unit sphere. The
radiation intensity U(θ,φ) separates into a sum of co- and cross-polarization
components: Both co- and cross-polarization directivities can be defined:
2
1
UO
4 [U ( , ) U
0 0
C X ( , )] sin .d .d (1.7)
10
Pd A G ( , )
2 1 2 (1.8)
Pt 4R
Antenna 1 transmits, and antenna 2 receives. If the materials in the
antennas are linear and isotropic, the transmitting and receiving patterns are
identical . When we consider antenna 2 as the transmitting antenna and antenna
1 as the receiving antenna, the path loss is
Pd A G ( , )
1 2 2 (1.9)
Pt 4R
We make quick evaluations of path loss for various units of distance R and for
frequency f in megahertz using the formula.
Z in Rin jX in (1.11)
The imaginary part, Xin of the input impedance represents the power stored in
the near field of the antenna. The resistive part, R in of the input impedance
consists of two components, the radiation resistance Rr and the loss resistance
RL. The power associated with the radiation resistance is the power actually
radiated by the antenna, while the power dissipated in the loss resistance is lost
as heat in the antenna itself due to dielectric or conducting losses.
12
antenna factor AF times the received voltage V . We relate this to the antenna
rec
effective height:
Ei 2 (1.12)
AF
Vrec h
−1 −1
AF has units meter but is often given as dB(m ). Sometimes, antenna
factor is referred to the open-circuit voltage and it would be one-half the value
given by equation 1.11. We assume that the antenna is aligned with the electric
field; in other words, the antenna polarization is the electric field component
measured:
1 4
AF (1.13)
Z L Aeff Z LG
1.3.9 Beamwidth:
supporting technology are called adaptive or ―smart‖ antennas and may be used
for the higher frequency bands in the future. A few commonly used antennas are
described in the following sections:
1. Microstrip antennas
2. Wire antennas
3. Aperture antennas
4. Reflector antennas
1.5 OBJECTIVE:
For a square patch element, the easiest way to excite ideally circular
polarization is to feed the element at two adjacent edges to excite the two
orthogonal modes. Circular polarization can be obtained if two orthogonal
modes are excited with a 90 time-phase difference between them. This can be
accomplished by adjusting the physical dimensions of the patch and using either
single, or two, or more feeds. To overcome the complexities inherent in dual-
feed arrangements, circular polarization can also be achieved with a single feed.
The objective of this project is to design slot antenna .The output of the antenna
after cutting slot it should be improved. For this first the designing of simple
microstrip patch antenna is done and then the slot antenna of different shape.
1.5 SCOPE:
1.6 METHODOLOGY:
1.7 FLOWCHART:
START
ANALYSIS OF ANTENNA
RESULT OF ANALYSIS
STOP
For over two decades, research scientists have developed several methods to
increase the bandwidth of a patch antenna. Many of these techniques involve
adjusting the placement and/or type of element used to feed (or excite) the
antenna. The simplest and most direct approach is to increase the thickness of
the substrate, while using a low dielectric substrate. This can extend efficiency
(as much as 90% if the surface waves are not included) and bandwidth (up to
35%). However, surface waves must be included, since surface waves extract
power from the direct radiation pattern, resulting in increased sidelobe levels,
antenna loss, and a decrease in efficiency. The probability of surface wave
formation increases as the thickness of the substrate increases. As a patch
antenna radiates, a portion of the total available power for direct radiation
becomes trapped along the surface of the substrate. This trapped
electromagnetic energy leads to the development of surface waves5. In fact, the
ratio of power that radiates into the substrate compared to the power that
radiates into air is approximately (e3/2:1). This is governed by the rules of
total internal reflection, which state that any field line radiated into the substrate
at angles greater than the critical angle are totally internally reflected at the top
and bottom surfaces. Therefore, for a substrate with dielectric constant e = 10.2,
nearly of the total radiated power is trapped in the substrate with a critical angle
of roughly 18.2 degrees. Surface wave effects can be eliminated by using
cavities or stacked substrate techniques. However, this has the fundamental
drawback of increasing the weight, thickness, and complexity of the microstrip
antenna, thus negating many of the advantages of using microstrip antennas.
These complications and others prevent microstrip antennas from becoming the
19
Figure 1.4. Field lines radiating from a patch antenna; illustrates the formation
of surface waves
CHAPTER 2
SLOT ANTENNA
The microstrip antenna was first introduced in the 1950’s, but it was
not until the 1970’s and the development of printed-circuit technology7,8 that
serious advancements in this research area had begun. Through decades of
research, it was identified that the performance and operation of a microstrip
antenna is driven mainly by the geometry of the printed patch and the material
characteristics of the substrate onto which the antenna is printed. Therefore, it is
conceivable that with proper manipulations to the substrate, i.e. the inclusion of
photonic crystals, improved antenna performance can result. stated by R.C.
Hansen (IEEE Fellow, 18 Sept 98), ―there is little improvement to be realized in
the arrangement of wires in the antenna; a significant improvement will come
from the use of new materials.‖ The following sections discuss the fundamental
parameters and manufacturing requirements associated with the design of
microstrip antennas.
Microstrip antennas are planar resonant cavities that leak from their
edges and radiate. Printed circuit techniques can be used to etch the antennas on
21
soft substrates to produce low-cost and repeatable antennas in a low profile. The
antennas fabricated on compliant substrates withstand tremendous shock and
vibration environments.Manufacturers for mobile communication base stations
often fabricate these antennas directly in sheet metal and mount them on
dielectric posts or foam in a variety of ways to eliminate the cost of substrates
and etching. This also eliminates the problem of radiation from surface waves
excited in a thick dielectric substrate used to increase bandwidth.
is selected to be very thin such that t << λ (where t is the patch thickness). The
o
A patch radiates from fringing fields around its edges. The situation is
shown in figure. Impedance match occurs when a patch resonates as a resonant
cavity. When matched, the antenna achieves peak efficiency. A normal
transmission line radiates little power because the fringing fields are matched by
nearby counteracting fields. Power radiates from open circuits and from
discontinuities such as corners, but the amount depends on the radiation
conductance load to the line relative to the patches. Without proper matching,
little power radiates. The edges of a patch appear as slots whose excitations
23
Microstrip patch antennas have a very high antenna quality factor (Q). Q
represents the losses associated with the antenna and a large Q leads to narrow
bandwidth and low efficiency. Q can be reduced by increasing the thickness of
the dielectric substrate. But as the thickness increases, an increasing fraction of
the total power delivered by the source goes into a surface wave. This surface
wave contribution can be counted as an unwanted power loss since it is
ultimately scattered at the dielectric bends and causes degradation of the
antenna characteristics. However, surface waves can be minimized by use of
photonic bandgap structure. Other problems such as low gain and low power
handling capacity can be overcome by using an array configuration for the
elements.
antenna and are compatible with MMIC devices, since the fringing fields are
tightly bound to the substrate. With thin substrates, coupling and
electromagnetic interference(EMI) issues are less probable. However, because
of the relatively higher loss tangents(dissipation factors), they are less efficient
and have relatively smaller bandwidths13. Therefore, there is a fundamental
tradeoff that must be evaluated in the initial stages of the microstrip antenna
design - to obtain loosely bound fields to radiate into free space while keeping
the fields tightly bound for the feeding circuitry and to avoid EMI.
the advantage that the feed can be etched on the same substrate to provide a
planar structure.
The purpose of the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed
line to the patch without the need for any additional matching element. This is
achieved by properly controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy
feeding scheme, since it provides ease of fabrication and simplicity in modelling
as well as impedance matching. However as the thickness of the dielectric
substrate being used, increases, surface waves and spurious feed radiation also
increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna. The feed radiation also
leads to undesired cross polarized radiation.
2.5.2Coaxial Feed:
The Coaxial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for
feeding Microstrip patch antennas. As seen from Figure, the inner conductor of
29
the coaxial connector extends through the dielectric and is soldered to the
radiating patch, while the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane.
The main advantage of this type of feeding scheme is that the feed can be
placed at any desired location inside the patch in order to match with its input
impedance. This feed method is easy to fabricate and has low spurious
radiation. However, its major disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth
and is difficult to model since a hole has to be drilled in the substrate and the
connector protrudes outside the ground plane, thus not making it completely
planar for thick substrates (h > 0.02λ ). Also, for thicker substrates, the
o
increased probe length makes the input impedance more inductive, leading to
matching problems. It is seen above that for a thick dielectric substrate, which
provides broad bandwidth, the microstrip line feed and the coaxial feed suffer
from numerous disadvantages. The non-contacting feed techniques discussed
below, solve these problems.
In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip
feed line are separated by the ground plane as shown in Figure. Coupling
between the patch and the feed line is made through a slot or an aperture in the
ground plane. The coupling aperture is usually cantered under the patch, leading
to lower cross polarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The amount of
coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and
location of the aperture. Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed
line, spurious radiation is minimized. Generally, a high dielectric material is
used for the bottom substrate and a thick, low dielectric constant material is
used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch. The major
disadvantage of this feed technique is that it is difficult to fabricate due to
multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness.
Satellite communications
Doppler and other radars Radio altimeter.
33
2.7 SLOTANTENNA:
to stand in a fixed ratio of strengths to each other, and to be found in phase, with
maxima and nodes in each found at the same places in space.
2.7.1 Advantages:
would just fit into the slot cut out of the large metal sheet .This type of antenna
is called the COMPLEMENTARY DIPOLE.
The slot antenna is compared to its complementary dipole to illustrate that the
radiation patterns produced by a slot antenna cut into an infinitely large metal
sheet and that of the complementary dipole antenna are the same .Several
important differences exist between the slot antenna and its complementary
antenna. First, the electric and magnetic fields are interchanged. In the case of
the dipole antenna shown in figure , the electric lines are horizontal while the
magnetic lines form loops in the vertical plane. With the slot antenna, the
magnetic lines are horizontal and the electric lines are vertical. The electric lines
are built up across the narrow dimensions of the slot. As a result, the
polarization of the radiation produced by a horizontal slot is vertical. If a
vertical slot is used, the polarization is horizontal .A second difference between
the slot antenna and its complementary dipole is that the direction of the lines of
electric and magnetic force abruptly reverse from one side of the metal sheet to
the other. In the case of the dipole, the electric lines have the same general
direction while the magnetic lines form continuous closed loops .When energy
is applied to the slot antenna, currents flow in the metal sheet. These currents
are not confined to the edges of the slot but rather spread out over the sheet.
Radiation then takes place from both sides of the sheet. In the case of the
complementary dipole, however, the currents are more confined; so a much
greater magnitude of current is required to produce a given power output using
the dipole antenna.
37
2.7.2 Working:
(1) the dielectric and/ or magnetic potential created by the sample rods and (2)
the Bragg diffraction.
38
Though we can have analogy with electronic band gaps, the dispersion relations
are completely different. These structures can be constructed over a wide
frequency region specifically from microwave to visible region. In acoustic
region also, these structures can be prepared and are called Phononic Band Gaps
. Photonic crystals can also be made by drilling holes in a high dielectric
constant material. Also, depending on the polarization of the incident electric
and magnetic fields, one can study these crystals with E
polarization or H – polarization.
Most of the applications of photonic crystals depend on two main factors; due
to efficient reflectors within the band gap frequencies and the creation of defect
mode within the band gap. By creating a defect, the structure acts as a resonator
at the defect site resulting in a defect mode. The width of the defect mode tends
to zero as the size of the crystal tends to infinity The defects can be either point
defects or line defects. Defects can be created in different ways such as
removing a sample from a particular position, insert a sample at particular
interstitial site, increasing the refractive index locally and by changing the
radius of the sample locally. By creating the line defects, the structure can be
made to act like a Fabry-Perot resonator or waveguide depending on the
direction of propagation. Fabry-Perot resonators can be used for tuning
mechanism or for a MASER cavity.
The photonic band gap structures can be analyzed theoretically using various
methods such as plane wave method, transfer matrix method, finite difference
40
time domain method and finite element method etc. Of all these methods, plane
wave method is best suited and is widely used to know the position of the band
gap.
These thin substrate designs exhibit comparable results to that of the thick
substrate designs. The only drawback, however, is that the bandgap is reduced
to two dimensions, due to the inclusion of the ground plane – total internal
reflections condition scarified. To reestablish the third dimension of the
bandgap, a new approach is required.
44
CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
deducts from the radiated power causing a reduction in antenna efficiency, and
can also call pattern degradation. It also increases the effective length of the
antenna, thereby decreasing the resonant frequency, Directivity of the antenna
increase marginally due to effective aperture area and efficiency is decreases
due to increase in cross polar level. The low value of the substrate dielectric
constant ( ) will increase the fringing field at the patch periphery and thus
radiated power. Therefore, substrate with are preferred unless a
smaller patch size is desired. An increase in the substrate thickness has a similar
effect on antenna characteristics as decrease in the value of . A high loss
tangent can increased dielectric loss and therefore reduce antenna efficiency.
For a rectangular Microstrip patch antenna, the resonance frequency for any
TMmn mode is given by James and Hall as:
1
c m 2 n 2 2
fo (3.1)
2 reff L W
The patch length determine the resonant frequency, and is a critical parameter in
the design because of the inherent narrow bandwidth of the patch, To zeroth
order approximation, the patch length L for the TM 10 mode is given by
c
L (3.2)
2 f r re
The next requirement is obtained by including the effect of the fringing fields at
the other end of the patch ,that is, along the edges x=0,and x=L, this effect can
be describe in terms of additional line length L on either ends of the patch than
Leff L L (3.3)
Where
h 1 3 5
L (3.4)
4
And
47
re0.81 0.26
1 0.434907 0.81 h
W 0.8544
0.236
(3.5)
re 0.189 W h 0.8544
0.87
2 0.434907
W
h
0.371
(3.6)
2.35 re 1
3 1
0.5274 tan 1 0.084 W h 1.9413
2
(3.7)
re0.9236
4 1 0.0377 tan 1 0.067 W h
1.456
6 5 exp 0.036 1
r (3.8)
5 1 0.218 exp 7.5 W h (3.9)
W
re 0.3
0.246
L 0.412h h
(3.10)
W
re 0.258 0.813
h
c
Leff L L (3.11)
2 re f o
48
c
W (3.12)
re 1
2 fo
2
2h
We (3.13)
W
2
ln hF 1 2h
W
Where
F 6 2 6 exp 4
2
h
3 W
3
4
(3.14)
And
t h
2
1
W W 2
1 ln 4
t
2
(3.15)
1.1 W
t
49
ab
re 2 re 2 10
re 1 u
2 2 (3.16)
Where
u W
h
4 u 2
1 u 52
a 1 ln 4
1 u 3
ln 1 (3.17)
49 u 0.432 18.7 18.1
0.053
0.9
b 0.564 r (3.18)
r 0.3
r re
re f r (3.19)
1 p f
Where
p f p1 p2 0.1844 p3 p4 f n
1.5763
(3.20)
50
p1 0.27488 u 0.6315 0.525 20 0.065683 exp 8.7513u (3.21)
1 0.0157 f n
f n 4,97
p3 0.0363 exp 4.64u 1 exp (3.23)
38.7
8
p 4 1 2.7511 exp r (3.24)
15.916
1
r 1 r 1 h 2
reff 1 12 W (3.26)
2 2
o F 4
Zo ln 1 1 2 (3.27)
2 re u u
Where
o 120 , u W h (3.28)
F1 6 2 6 exp 30.666
u
0.7528
(3.29)
The half power beam width of the antenna is equal to the angular
width between directions where radiated fields reduces to 1 of the maximum
2
1
1 2
H 2 sin
1
(3.30)
2 k o
52
1
7.03 2
E 2 sin 1 2 2 2
(3.31)
3k o L k o h
Where and are the half power beam width in the H and E plans
respectively. The beam width of a microstrip antenna can be increased by
choosing a smaller element, thus reducing the W and L, for a given resonant
frequencies, thus dimensions can be reduced by selecting a substrate having a
higher relative permittivity. As beam width increases, an antenna gain and
directivity decreases.
3.7 Directivity:
1
Re E H 0
D 2 (3.32)
pr
4r 2
53
r2
2
E E
2 2
0
o (3.33)
pr
4r 2
Where Pr →Radiated power , ŋ→120Ω
4k o
D (3.34)
Gr
G er D (3.35)
Gain of an antenna is always less than directivity because lies in the range
0 er 1 .
D 0.2W 6.6 10 log1.6 dB
(3.36)
r
54
E
2 2
1 2
pr E r 2 sin dd
2
(3.37)
2 o 0 0
E0 h2 A 4 A A2 B 2 A A 2
pr 1 B 1 2 (3.38)
23040 15 420 5 7 189
Where
2 2
2L
A and B (3.39)
o
o
The resonant radiation conductance G r for the patch feed at an edge can be
determined from the power radiated pr as follows:
55
Gr Eo h GrVo
1 1
pr
2 2
(3.40)
2 2
1
Rr (3.41)
Gr
Vo2 Z o2
Rr re (3.42)
2 pr 120 I 2
Where for r 5 :
2
I 2 k o h 0.53 0.03795 k o
2
2
0.03553
re (3.43)
IL
For 5 r 10 : I2 (3.44)
I1
I 1 r 1
1.29 3.57h r
(3.45)
9
0.53 k W 2 0.03795
2 o
4
1.3 0.08856 0.08856
3 r r 2 r r2
2
I L k o h 0.373071 0.159887 (3.46)
0.248714
r r2
r
56
1 1 1 1 1
(3.47)
QT Qd Qc Qr Qsur
Where
wr wT
QT (3.48)
associated power loss
1 P Pc Pr Psur
d (3.49)
QT wr wT
Psur → Power loss in form of power carried away by the surface wave.
57
Expression for
1
Qd (3.50)
tan
Qc h f o
wT wr
Qr (3.51)
pr
1
WT r o hLW
4
Where
2
1
p r Re E Z H ddz (3.52)
2 0 0
Where and are the field of the dominant TM0 surface wave mode.
2
cos 2 xo cos 2 re sin c Wk x
Psur 60 re As x sin cos 2 d
2
(3.53)
0
2
o cos 2 re
2
o o
2
Where
58
re x o2 1x o
As (3.54)
r xo
1
x 1
2
o
x o k o h 1
r2 x o2 1
x o2 1 r x o2
r x o2
Let us approximate
wr wT
QT (3.55)
pr
3.10 Bandwidth:
S 1
BW (3.57)
QT S
Where S → VSWR
59
Then BW W and BW h .
r
16 P 1 h W
BW q. for h 0.05 (3.58)
3 2 er r o L o
Where
P 1
0.16605
k oW 2 0.02283 k oW 4 0.009142k o L2 (3.59)
20 560
1 2
q 1 (3.60)
r 5 r2
er = radiation efficiency
1 L
f r and QT R (3.61)
2 LC C
fr
BW (3.62)
QT
component to improve the match of the radiators to the feed line or by parasitic
loading of the radiators.
It is defined as the ratio of the radiated power Pr to the input power Pi,
that is
Pr
er (3.63)
Pi
The input power gets distributed in the form of radiated power, surface wave
power and dissipation in conductors and dielectrics. Therefore
Pr
er (3.64)
Pr Pc Pd Psur
The dissipated power is generally small for the low loss substrate at microwave
frequency, and one can write
Pr
er (3.65)
Pr Psur
It has been observes that radiation efficiency depends primarily on the substrate
thickness and permittivity, and not effected very much either by patch shape or
the feed. Numerical results indicate that radiation efficiency is almost
independent of the aspect ratio W/L of the rectangular patch.
2
Pr 40k o2 k o h 1
1 2
(3.66)
r 5 r
r xo2 1
Psur 30k o2 (3.66)
r
1
x 1
2
r2 xo2 1
o 1
o
k h
xo2 1 r xo2
r xo2
x
Rin Rr cos 2 f
L
Rr ≥ Rin for 0 x f L (3.67)
x
Rr sin 2 f for 0 x f L (3.68)
L 2
The inset distance xf is selected such that R in is equal to the feed line impedance
usually taken to be 50 .although the feed point can be selected anywhere along
62
the patch width. It is better to choose yf=w/2 if w>L. so that TM0n(n odd) modes
are not exited along with the TM10 modes.
Impedance
Current
L/2
Voltage
It is found that for a patch antenna with ground plane size equal to the patch
metallization, the resonant frequency is higher compared to that of an infinitely
sized ground plane antenna. As the size of the ground plane is increased, the
63
resonant frequency decreases and approaches of the infinite size ground plane
case when the increase in size is about lam/20 on all sides. In finite ground
plane, the resonance frequency of the patch antenna is almost the same but the
input impedance is slightly higher than that of infinite ground plane, back lobes
are also present, whereas for infinite ground plane, there are no back lobes in
the radiation pattern.
3.14 SUMMARY:
CHAPTER 4
SOFWARE SIMULATION
In order to get good accuracy in the results and to get the improve
performance slot antenna design is first simulated using the software and the
results of software simulations can be used as ideal results.In proper conditions
and by accurate designing of Printed circuit board better results can be
obtained.In order to simulate the design we have use the software IE3D. The
software used to perform all simulations is Zealand Inc’s IE3D. IE3D is a full-
wave electromagnetic simulator based on the method of moments. It analyzes
3D and multilayer structures of general shapes. It has been widely used in the
design of MICs, RFICs, patch antennas, wire antennas, and other RF/wireless
antennas. It can be used to calculate and plot the S parameters, VSWR, current
distributions as well as the radiation patterns. Some of IE3D’s features are :
2) High efficiency, high accuracy and low cost electromagnetic simulation tool
on PCs with windows based graphic interface
65
Parameters Values
Material used Glass epoxy
Thickness of material 1.6mm
Permittivity 4.4
Length 18.24982345mm
Width 18.24982345mm
Loss tangent 0.001
Feed point At 16.5mm x4.5 mm.
Table 4.1 Parameters of rectangular patch
Now the S11 parameters of the patch that shows its return loss, can be
calculated and this -13.8191db to be at 2.45 GHz.The return loss pattern is
as shown in figure 4.2:
67
The gain pattern is also drawn by using the software.The pattern is shown in
figure 4.4:
have used two sided PCB. On one side there is slot and other side is having
photonic band gap ground. The current distribution of above 2mm width
photonic band gap slot antenna is shown in which different colour shows
different amount of losses.The red colour shows maximum amount of loss and
blue colour shows minimum amount loss and as the colour varies amount of
losse also varies.
Figure 4.5 Photonic band gap ground patch with 2 mm slot patch
Figure 4.6 shows the amount of dip in S11 parameter of photonic band
gap slot antenna. We have taken reference mode as X axis. The maximum dip
of -18 Db comes at 11.25 GHz. It shows that maximum power is radiated at
11.25 GHz. Hence the antenna will work at 11.25 GHz .
70
Figure 4.6 shows the 2D polar plot of photonic band gap slot antenna .
The blue line shows the radiation pattern at phi =0(deg) and green is for
phi=90(deg). The maximum directivity occurs at angle equals to 30
degree.Figure 4.7 shows graph plotted between total directivity vs frequency.
The blue line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,0). The
green line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,0). The red
line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,90). The brown line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,90).As the photonic
band gap slot antenna is designed for 11.25 GHz frequency, the different
directivity variations at 11.25 GHz can be observed .
The photonic band gap slot antenna having slot width of 1.5mm in
figure 4.9. The middle portion shows the slot having zigzag pattern with a width
of 1.5mm. The area covering the slot is the photonic band gap ground. Here we
have used two sided PCB. On one side there is slot and other side is having
photonic band gap ground. The current distribution of above 1.5mm width
photonic band gap slot antenna is shown in which different colour shows
different amount of losses.The red colour shows maximum amount of loss and
73
blue colour shows minimum amount loss and as the colour varies amount of
losse also varies.
Figure 4.11 Photonic band gap ground patch with1.5mm slot patch
Figure 4.12 shows the 2D polar plot of photonic band gap slot
antenna. The blue line shows the radiation pattern at phi =0(deg) and green is for
phi=90(deg). The maximum directivity occurs at angle equals to 30 degree
.Figure 4.13 shows graph plotted between total directivity vs frequency. The
blue line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,0). The green
line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,0). The red line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,90). The brown line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,90).As the photonic
band gap slot antenna is designed for 11.5 GHz frequency, the different
directivity variations at 11.5 GHz can be observed .
75
The photonic band gap slot antenna having slot width of 1.0mm in
figure 4.15. The middle portion shows the slot having zigzag pattern with a
width of 1.0mm. The area covering the slot is the photonic band gap ground.
Here we have used two sided PCB. On one side there is slot and other side is
having photonic band gap ground. The current distribution of above 1.0mm
width photonic band gap slot antenna is shown in which different colour shows
different amount of losses. The red colour shows maximum amount of loss and
blue colour shows minimum amount loss and as the colour varies amount of
losse also varies.
77
portion shows the back lobe of the radiation pattern of the antenna. These major
lobes shows the direction of radiation of photonic band gap slot antenna.
Figure 4.18 shows the 2D polar plot of photonic band gap slot
antenna. The blue line shows the radiation pattern at phi =0(deg) and green is for
phi=90(deg). The maximum directivity occurs at angle equals to 30
degree.Figure 4.19 shows graph plotted between total directivity vs frequency.
The blue line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,0). The
green line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,0). The red
line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,90). The brown line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,90).As the photonic
band gap slot antenna is designed for 11.75 GHz frequency, the different
directivity variations at 11.75 GHz can be observed .
79
The photonic band gap slot antenna having slot width of 0.5mm in
figure 4.21. The middle portion shows the slot having zigzag pattern with a
width of 0.5mm. The area covering the slot is the photonic band gap ground.
Here we have used two sided PCB. On one side there is slot and other side is
having photonic band gap ground. The current distribution of above 0.5mm
width photonic band gap slot antenna is shown in which different colour shows
different amount of losses. The red colour shows maximum amount of loss and
blue colour shows minimum amount loss and as the colour varies amount of
losses also varies.
81
Figure 4.24 shows the 2D polar plot of photonic band gap slot
antenna. The blue line shows the radiation pattern at phi =0(deg) and green is for
phi=90(deg). The maximum directivity occurs at angle equals to 30 degree.
Figure 4.25 shows graph plotted between total directivity vs frequency. The
blue line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,0). The green
line shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,0). The red line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (0,90). The brown line
shows total field directivity variation vs frequency at (90,90).As the photonic
band gap slot antenna is designed for 11.5 GHz frequency, the different
directivity variations at 11.5 GHz can be observed.
83
4.5 SUMMARY:
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS
In the above figure, a photonic band gap ground patch is shown. A coaxial
probe is feed to it. The slots in the figure shows the gaps that are created to
make it photonic band gap. This ground patch is common to all designs .
86
In the above figure, a rectangular slot is cut on the other side of PCB. A zig-zag
slot of 0.5mm is made in the middle of the rectangular patch and coaxial probe
feed is given to it.
In the figure on adjacent page, a rectangular slot is cut on the other side of PCB.
A zig-zag slot of 1.0 mm is made in the middle of the rectangular patch and
coaxial probe feed is given to it.
In the above figure, a rectangular slot is cut on the other side of PCB. A zig-zag
slot of 1.5mm is made in the middle of the rectangular patch and coaxial probe
feed is given to it.
88
In the above figure, a rectangular slot is cut on the other side of PCB. A zig-zag
slot of 2.0 mm is made in the middle of the rectangular patch and coaxial probe
feed is given to it.
Return losses for the hardware are measured and the graph
showing above are as shown:
89
From the graph, it is clear that the return loss of slot of 0.5 mm is -36 Db at 11.5
GHz frequency. Showing a considerable amount of return loss at 14 GHz. This
also radiate power at 14 GHz but here mainly it is focused at 11.5 GHz only.
From the graph, it is clear that the return loss of slot of 1.0 mm is -34 Db at 11.5
GHz frequency. It is also showing a considerable amount of return loss at 14
GHz. But on comparison to slot of 0.5 mm, the return loss is less.
From the graph, it is clear that the return loss of slot of 1.5 mm is -32 Db at 11.5
GHz frequency. It is also showing a considerable amount of return loss at 14
GHz. But on comparison to slot of 0.5 and 1.0 mm, the return loss is less.
91
From the graph, it is clear that the return loss of slot of 2.0 mm is -18 Db at 11.5
GHz frequency. It is also showing a considerable amount of return loss at 14
GHz. But on comparison to slot of 0.5 and 1.0 and 1.5 mm, the return loss is
very much less.
92
FUTURE SCOPE
The bandwidth of the antenna can be increase more by using a new type of
antenna called METAMATERIAL ANTENNA. Metamaterial antennas are a
class of antennas which use metamaterials to increase performance of
miniaturized (electrically small) antenna systems. Their purpose, as with any
electromagnetic antenna, is to launch energy into free space. However, these
incorporate metamaterials, which are materials engineered with novel,
often microscopic, structures to produce unusual physical properties. Antenna
designs incorporating metamaterials can step-up the radiated power of an
antenna. Novel components such as compact resonators and metamaterial
loaded waveguides offer the possibility of previously unavailable applications.
With conventional antennas that are very small compared to the wavelength,
most of the signal is reflected back to the source. The metamaterial, on the other
hand, makes the antenna behave as if it were much larger than it really is,
because the novel antenna structure stores energy, and re-radiates it. These
novel antennas appear to be useful for wireless systems that continue to
decrease in size, such as emergency communications devices, micro-
sensors and portable ground-penetrating radars to search for tunnels, caverns
and other geophysical features.
93
REFERENCES