LESSON 2 GENDER AND SEXUALITY ACROSS TIME

Lesson Objectives: At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss the historical roots of our understanding of gender and sexuality; and

2. show appreciation of how this understanding evolved through time, affected various aspect of human
life.

Definition of Terms:

Patriarchy - social system where men primarily holds power in the political and the private spheres.
Feminism - continuing series of social movements that aim to challenge the patriarchal society that
creates these oppressive political structures, beliefs, and practices against women.

Introduction

Society has progressed so much in a way that information and knowledge is available to everyone. This
gives us an opportunity to examine our social and political conditions in more detail than when
information was scarce and limited to only a few individuals.

Historical accounts show that across time, humans' conception of gender and sexuality has also
changed. Archeological artifacts reveal that in the distant past, during the dawn of civilizations, human
societies have high regard for women. The concept of the divine feminine (the sacredness of the woman
due to her ability to conceive children) has prevailed, and thus, women are treated equally with men.
This make societies egalitarian (men and women have equitable power and roles).

However, humans' discovery of paternity (fatherhood/ role of the father in conception), presumably
during the Agricultural era, when societies began to establish communities and tame rear cattle and
stocks, have also changed how societies have viewed women and men therefrom.

For the longest time thereafter, societies have privileged men over other genders, mainly because of the
preferential given to them in the productive sphere (world of public work). Women who have been
revered due to their ability to conceive have been viewed as solely capable only of reproductive affairs
(world of the home and related tasks such as suckling the young, child rearing, and home management).
The gender disparity was intensified by the Industrial era where factors were built and men were
preferred because they did not have to bear children for nine months and because of their perceived
physical strength. But how did really the conceptualization of gender and sexuality changed? This lesson
tackles movements in history which shows how men, women, and people of other genders are viewed
in human societies.

PATRIARCHY

A close examination of our society can lead us to see the invisible layers of oppression in our society like
patriarchy-a system based on the control and oppression of women wherein they are perceived to be
the weaker sex. It is a structure that upholds male supremacy in the law, at home, in the work place, and
in society.
Patriarchy is from the Greek word Patriarkhes which means “the rule of the father". It is a social system
where men primarily holds power in the political and the private spheres. This means that in this social
system, society is organized and maintained in a way that men rule over women and their children. In
the social, legal, political, and economic spheres, men are expected to lead while women are expected
to obey and are relegated to house chores, bearing children, and child care.

A patrilineal society often follows a patriarchal society, this means only men can inherit property and the
family name. Women were left with no inheritance and are expected to marry a man who can support
her economically. In fact, women were not allowed to go to schools, or even vote, because they are
viewed as a weaker sex and should not concern themselves in learning science or politics. Women had
to fight for the right to vote, to go to school, to go to work, and even participate in politics.

Patriarchy is viewed by most sociologists as a social construct and not as a biological phenomenon. This
is because history proves that in the prehistoric hunter-gatherer tribes and civilization, they prioritized
equality of all members, male and female. History suggests an egalitarian system rather than a
patriarchal system. Men and women contribute to society, and they enjoy the same social status.

Friedrich Engels, a German philosopher and sociologist, argues that patriarchy came about when people
started having private property instead of a communal living. The development in agriculture and
domestication of animals led to creating product surplus which allows people to have private property.
As a way to control the excess wealth generated by these advancements, male dominance was asserted
over women so only the male heir can inherit family wealth.

HISTORICAL VIEWS ON GENDER

Greek

Aristotle, Plato, and other Greek philosophers viewed women as the inferior sex and are properties of
men whose only job was to obey their husbands, bear children, and take care of the household. They
were forbidden to learn philosophy, politics, and science.

Egypt

Herodotus, a Greek historian, observed the Egyptian civilization citing that Egyptian women enjoyed
higher social status than Greek women because they can inherit property and engage in trade and
politics. However, Greek influence quickly spread in Egypt through the conquests of Alexander the Great
across Asia and Africa.

China

Confucianism has stringent written rules that dictate how women should conduct themselves. The
written documents titled “Three obedience's and four virtues” and “Precepts of women” states that
women should obey their father, when married she is to obey her husband, and when widowed she is to
obey her son.
Gendered biases in ancient patriarchal societies were very strict, heavily enforced, and often violent.
Imagine not being able to go to school just because you are a woman, not being able to express your
opinion on important matters even when it concerns your future, and not being able to say no to any
man.

Women have come a long way since the ancient times through the feminist movement, however,
patriarchy has taken on subtle forms of oppression that often go unnoticed such as:

 sexism – prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination based on sex;

 gender pay gap - men earn more that women;
 underrepresentation in politics, military, executive positions, etc;
 rape on women and the stigma making women ashamed to report the crime;
 very conservative expectations on women on how they behave;
 unrealistic depictions of women in fiction, often very sexualized;
 women do more housework and childcare;
 boys were trained to be leaders while women were trained to do house chores.

CONTEMPLATE. Find a friend whom you are comfortable to discuss your thoughts. On your own, reflect
on the following question. Share ideas with them.

Think about the phrases babae kase, lalake kase, haligi ng tahanan, ilaw ng tahanan, and pakipot.

How do these words communicate patriarchy?

Women's liberation movement, women's movement, or feminism is a continuing series of social

movements that aim to challenge the patriarchal society that creates these oppressive political
structures, beliefs, and practices against women. It started at different decades in different countries,
some are far more advance in their struggle while others are still starting a movement. During the 19th
and early 20th century, first-wave feminism spread across the western countries as women demanded
for their right to vote or participate in elections and to be able to legally own property.

In France, Simone de Beauvoir wrote book titled “The Second Sex” in 1949. It outlined how the
patriarchal society disadvantaged women by slowly raising her into submission and hindering their
productivity and happiness by relegating them to housecleaning. This inspired many women to write
and speak their truths, such as Betty Friedan (The Feminine Mystique, 2963), Kate Millet (Sexual Politics,
1969), and Germaine Greer (The Female Eunuch, 1970). Beauvoir's book was instrumental in awakening
women about their plight as the “wife-servant” to their husbands in her famous quote “one is not born,
but rather becomes, a woman".

Le Mouvement de Liberation des Femmes or the women's liberation movement was formed in Europe
and they sought the right to education, right to work, and right to vote in the 1940s. Later, they also
won women's right to decide on their own bodies and their sexualities. This liberation movement views
the intersectionality of economic status or class to patriarchy.
Inspired by Beauvoir's book, second-wave feminism in 1960's through the 80's, women drew attention
to various social and cultural inequalities such as domestic violence especially marital rape, reproductive
rights, wage inequality, and etc. The 90's gave birth to the 3rd wave and 2012 started the forth wave.
These movements only show that there is still much to be done for women's rights.

The United Nations reports that women do more work than men because even they work at the office,
they are still expected to do household tasks. Another report UN Women states that "women perform
66 percent of the worlds work, produce 50 percent of the food, but earn 10 of the income and own 1
percent of the property". This is because in agricultural countries, women participate in making the
produce, but only the father or the male head of the family controls the income.

To put simply, feminism demands equality. Here are a few salient points that feminism demands.

1. Women suffrage - women were not allowed to vote before because they were viewed as irrational
and temperamental and therefore, not able to make rational decisions. This changed after World War I
(1914 to 1918) wherein women were uprooted from the household. They took on jobs and made
significant contributions to their country. Many countries soon started letting women vote since they
can no longer argue that women are “irrational and temperamental”.

2. Equality in politics and society - for hundreds of years, women's voices were silenced, so society must
make an effort to restore their rights. Representation is very important for women, so that their genuine
concerns are heard in politics and in society. Feminist have always criticized that old, privileged men
always make the decisions for women at home and in politics.

3. Reproductive rights means the woman is in control of her body, and she can decide for herself on
what she sees is best for her. Contraception, abortion, and other reproductive options should be
available to women because it is their body.

4. Domestic violence - such as marital rape and physical abuse are often dismissed by society as part of a
“marriage". Although we have RA 9262 or Anti Violence Against Women and their Children, our culture
still dismiss such incidents as "away mag-asawa".

5. Sexual harassment and sexual violence - The Center for Women's Resources in the Philippines
estimates that one woman or child is raped every hour mostly by someone they know.

6. Other rights include the right to divorce their husbands, the right to make decisions on her pregnancy,
equitable wages, and equal employment opportunity.

Summary

Recognizing patriarchy in the simple things we do is very important for us to identify these instances so
we can change it. Even the simplest acts that are seemingly harmless can be analyzed and seen as a way
to force women into submission and compliance. That is the power of putting labels on oppressive acts,
and you can call it out and stop it.

Feminism gained women access to education, right to vote, right to work, take control of their
reproduction, and the right to say no instead of just obeying. However, there is still much to be done for
gender equality.

You can help in making the world a better place for women by learning to respect and recognizing that
women deserve the same rights as men-that women are not to be treated as the weaker sex or the
submissive sex, but rather as an equal.

Also, use gender neutral language that is not sexist: humanity instead of mankind, the unsteady of he, to
emphasize inclusion. You can also counter gendered metaphors by vocally criticizing its oppressive
nature such as: the aggressive sperm and the passive e.g., babae kase, lalake kase, etc. You can also
advocate for laws and policies that would empower women.

You do not have to be a woman to understand that everyone must be treated with the same respect
and that everyone is free and equal in dignity and in rights.

Assessment

1. Create a collage showing the progression of human understanding and attitude of gender and
sexuality in modern societies.

2. Interview people from different age groups (adolescent, adult, elderly) and ask them what they can
think of when they hear the words gender and sexuality. Ask them what influenced them to have these
thoughts?

LESSON 3

GENDER AND SEXUALITY AS A SUBJECT OF INQUIRY

Lesson Objectives:

When you finish reading this chapter, you should be able to:

1. define gender studies;

2. discuss its historical origins; and

3. explain its importance in society.

Definition of Terms:

Gender studies - a field of study concerned about how reproductive roles are interpreted and
negotiated in the society through gender.
Social Research - the process of investigating social realities.

Research approach - the orientation in understanding social realities. This can be qualitative
(interpretive), quantitative (deductive), or both.

Ethics in research - these are considerations in conducting research to make sure that the well-being of
the participants are ensured, and that the outcome of the study is sound without undue harm to people
involved.

Introduction

Gender seems so obvious and so simple, many would ask why we have to study it. Well, gender studies
as an area of knowledge, is about looking into, analyzing, and examining society so that we notice power
relations in the seemingly “simple things”. It helps us see the issues in our everyday lives through a
different lens.

The goal of this lesson is to define and appreciate gender studies. Gender is a big part of our
individuality and society; it is a form of social organization, and it is often unnoticed. In different cultures
and different times in our history, gender roles played a big part of social organization.

Gender studies emerged from the need to analyze how gender, sex, and sexuality impact our lives,
especially how it creates gender inequality. It came about in the mid 1970's after the second wave of
feminism as a way to challenge the male-defined and male-centered knowledge.

Gender role or sex role are "sets of culturally defined behaviors such as masculinity and femininity'
according to the Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender (2019). These roles are not fixed such that the
“culturally defined behaviors” for men and women may be very different 50 years ago or very different
for people from other countries or tribe. In a binary system of viewing gender roles, we only see the
male and the female where men are expected to be masculine while women are expected to be
feminine. This is the norm or the accepted standards of how to behave like a woman (mahinhin) or how
to behave like a man (matipuno/ matapang). In gender studies, we are asked to disrupt and question
these kinds of social expectations, gender roles, and gender norms.

The following are common statements we hear from people. Reflect why you think people 'agree or
disagree with the statement. Reflect about your own thoughts: Do you agree or disagree with each
statement? Why or why not?

Boys should not cry.

Girls are bad drivers while boys are superb drivers.

Boys should not be allowed to play dolls.

Women should be prim and proper. It is ok for men to be rowdy, they are men anyway.
Gender studies are not just for women or all about women, it is about everyone. It explores how our
gender roles have changed throughout our history and how it created inequalities. One hundred years
ago, women were not allowed to study at universities since their role was only restricted to domestic or
the household. This repressed women's potential in shaping the social and political landscape in the
past, but it also placed the burden on the men to provide for the whole family.

Our society has changed so much since then; the jobs available for everyone is not so much dependent
on physical strength, making these jobs accessible to women as well. Most mothers also have a job now,
so they also provide for the family. Gender studies would ask us to question, is it still right to say that
the men are the providers of the family when both mothers and fathers now work and earn money.

Diversity and Inclusion

Gender roles are socially constructed and are not something that we are “born with". Society, through a
lifelong process of normalization, encourages or reprimands behaviors to make a child adapt to these
social expectations.

A young boy is always encouraged to be brave, to play rough, to be loud, and to not show signs of
weakness such as crying. A young girl is discouraged from playing rough and being loud, instead they are
told to be gentle and soft. If a child does not follow these gender roles, they are reprimanded by
parents, relatives, friends, or anybody that they interact with. That is how gender norm is forced upon
an individual, a lifelong process of normalization.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people often do not fit in the traditional binary gender roles so
they are often reprimanded, bullied, and discriminated. They are often subjected to violence and hate
just because they do not fit in what society calls “normal”.

Gender studies lets us analyze the creation and maintenance of these gender norms so that it does not
create inequalities in our social, political, and economic spheres.

COMMUNICATE. The following are common statements we hear from people. Reflect why you think
people agree or disagree with the statement. Reflect about your own thoughts: Do you agree or
disagree with each statement? Why or why not?

Would you be Willing to Befriend Someone who...

Is a native of a different country?

Does not have the same religious belief as you do?

Has a physical or mental disability?

Does not speak your language?

GENDER STUDIES AND RESEARCH

As a subject of inquiry, Gender Studies utilizes a systematic approach in identifying problems, making
hypotheses and assumptions, gathering data, and making conclusions. This systematic process is
referred to as the research process.

Approaches in Research

Since Gender and Sexuality cuts across a variety of issues that could be biomedical, psychosocial, or
political-legal, there is no singular way in conducting the research process. There are however a variety
of approaches which can be used.

Qualitative approach focuses more on the meanings created and interpretations made by people about
their own personal or vicarious (observed) experiences. For example, if you want to know how women,
men, or LGBTQ+ live their lives on a daily basis and how they make sense of their lived experiences, then
the qualitative approach is fitting. Some of the methods used in the qualitative approach are as follows:
• phenomenology - conducting intensive interviews with individuals who have experienced a particular
event and understanding their “lived experience”;

• hermeneutics - understanding the meaning of texts (literary works, art works) and what they convey
about human realities; and

• ethnography and ethnomethodology - immersing in a community and taking note of their experiences,
beliefs, attitudes, and practices.

Quantitative approach, on the other hand, focuses more on characterizing a population (total number of
individual in a group) or a sample (a sub-group within the population), and in some cases, making
generalizations about the population based on the behavior of a sample. For instance, if you want to
know how many Filipino adolescents are engaged in a romantic relationship or how many of them still
believe in marriage, then a quantitative approach is appropriate. Some of the methods used in the
quantitative approach are as follows:

survey - collecting information from a sample; and

experiment – creating actual set-ups to observe behavior of people in an experimental group (a group
receiving treatment such as training or a new experience) and comparing it to the behavior of people in
a control group (a group without any treatment).

In most cases, information from both qualitative and quantitative approaches provide a holistic
view about certain social realities, such that there are researchers who prefer to use mixed methods
(combining qualitative and quantitative methods to derive data from multiple sources).
Ethics in Gender and Sexuality Research

There are some principles to remember in conducting gender and sexuality researches. These principles
are referred to as ethical principles because they make sure that people involved in the research are
protected from harm. Ethics is a prerequisite to a properly conducted study. The following are the
principles to remember:

• Informed consent - Researchers should make sure that the participants in the study are aware of the
purpose and processes of the study they are participating in. They should also ensure that only those
participants who agree (in writing) will be included, and that they shall not force any participant to join.

• Confidentiality and anonymity - Researchers should not reveal any information provided by the
participants, much so, their identity to anyone who are not concerned with the study. All data gathered
from surveys or interviews should also be placed in a secure location or filing system.

• Non-maleficence and beneficence - A study should do no harm (nonmaleficence) to anyone. Especially

in researches involving humans, a study should be beneficial (beneficence) for it to be worth
implementing.

• Distributive justice -- Any study should not disadvantage a particular group, especially the marginalized
and the oppressed (e.g., poor people, women, LGBTQ+, the elderly). The benefits of a study should be
for all.

GENDER, SEXUALITY, AND HUMAN ECOLOGY

Human Ecology, as a field, recognizes the interplay among internal and external environments-
physical, socio-economic, cultural (Bronfenbrenner 1994; Bubolz and Sontag 1983). Hence, to look at
realities from an ecological perspective is to appreciate that human development across lifespan is
influenced by these environments. In the context of gender and sexuality, a human ecological approach
looks at human sexual lives and experiences at various levels and spheres of analysis.

First, it sees gender and sexuality as an organismic and personal experience.

Summary

Gender, being male or female, has socially constructed meanings, and it is different in every
culture and may change with time. It is important to analyze how society enforce gender roles on
everyone so we can further understand how power relations in gender roles can limit an individual's
freedom and promote inequality. To help us have a holistic view, we need to use frameworks and
methods from different disciplines--psychology, sociology, medicine, and law-among others. This book
will provide you with sufficient theoretical and practical perspectives, so you can understand gender and
sexuality,
Assessment

1. Look for books or articles that have gender and sexuality as its focus area. Identify possible topics
which will fall under gender studies. Distinguish whether they are quantitative, qualitative, or mixed
methods researches.

2. List down five questions which you want to be answered related to Gender and Sexuality. Explain why
you want to answer these questions. Identify why you think these questions are within the scope of
gender studies.