GLYCOLYSIS

● TWO TYPES: Aerobic and Anaerobic Glycolysis

● Aerobic- happens with oxygen
● Anaerobic- happens without oxygen
● Happens in the Cytoplasm
● Glucose gets rearranged and 2 phosphate groups gets attached to it
● Glucose is composed of 6 molecules of carbons
● The glucose gets split into half and forms 2 sets of Pyruvic acid/ Pyruvate (3 Carbons)
● At the end of the glycolysis, there are 2 ATPs produced and 2 NADH
TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE/ KREBS CYCLE/ CITRIC ACID CYCLE
● WHY CITRIC ACID CYCLE?
- Refers to the first molecule that forms during the cycle’s reaction— CITRATE
or in its protonated form, CITRIC ACID. (Protonation: is the adding of a proton
to a molecule or atom forming a conjugate acid.)
● WHY TRICARBOXYLIC ACID CYCLE?
- For the 3 Carboxylic groups on its first 2 intermediates
● WHY KREBS CYCLE?
- Because it was discovered by Hans Krebs
● IMPORTANCE OF KREBS CYCLE
○ It is the central driver of cellular respiration. It bridges glycolysis and the electron
transport chain. ( Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic processes that take place in
the cells of living organisms to convert chemical energy from oxygen molecules or
nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.)

○ Take acetyl CoA- produced by oxidation of pyruvate which is derived from

glycolysis- as its starting material and in a series of redox reactions (the
processes happen in krebs cycle) that harvests much of its bond energy in the
form of NADH, FADH2, and ATP molecules.
○ The reduced (they gained electron) electron carriers— NADH and FADH2—
generated in the krebs cycle will pass their electrons into the electron transport
chain (ETC), and through oxidative phosphorylation, will generate most of the
ATP produced in the cellular respiration.

● LOCATION
 ○ The Krebs Cycle in eukaryotes occurs in the matrix of the
mitochondria,specifically in the inner membrane of the mitochondria (CRISTAE),
just like the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA.
○ The Krebs cycle in prokaryotes occurs in the cytoplasm.
● STEPS OF KREBS CYCLE
1. Acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate (a four-carbon molecule) in a reaction
catalyzed by citrate synthase (a specific enzyme).
a. This reaction takes a molecule of H2O (water) as a reactant, and it releases a
SH-CoA molecule as a product.
b. Acetyl CoA (2 carbons) + 4 Oxaloacetate = (through Citrate synthase with the
aid of water) CITRIC ACID (6-CARBON MOLECULE)
REMOVED: CoA
2. Citrate will be converted into its isomer, isocitrate, in a reaction catalyzed by
aconitase (enzyme). (reconfiguration of structure)
3. Isocitrate is oxidized (lose an electron) into α-ketoglutarate (a 5 carbon
molecule) in a reaction catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase (enzyme).
a. An NAD+ molecule is reduced to NADH and H+ in this reaction, and
b. A carbon dioxide molecule is released as a product.
c. Isocitrate (6 Carbons) — (catalyzed by isocitrate dehydrogenase) → (RELEASE:
Carbon Dioxide) ( NAD+ - 2 electrons = NADH & H+) = α-
ketoglutarate (5-CARBON MOLECULE)
4. α-ketoglutarate is oxidized to succinyl CoA (unstable 4 carbon molecule) in a
reaction catalyzed by α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.
a. An NAD+ molecule is reduced to NADH and H+ in this reaction, which also
b. Takes a SH-CoA molecule as a reactant
c. A carbon dioxide molecule is released as a product.
d. α-ketoglutarate (5 carbon molecule) — (catalyzed by α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase)
→ (RELEASE: Carbon Dioxide) ( NAD+ - 2 electrons = NADH & H+) (CoA) =
Succinyl CoA (4 UNSTABLE CARBON MOLECULE)

5. CoA of succinyl CoA is replaced by a phosphate group, which is then transferred

to ADP to make ATP. In some cells, GDP (guanine diphosphate) is used instead
of ADP forming GTP (guanine triphosphate) as a product.
a. The 4 Carbon molecules produced in this step are called succinate.
b. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme succinyl-CoA synthetase.
 c. succinyl CoA (4 Unstable carbon molecules) → succinyl + inorganic phosphate group
(RELEASE: CoA) — (catalyzed by succinyl-CoA synthetase) ADP to ATP or GDP
to GTP = Succinate (4-CARBON MOLECULE)
6. Succinate is oxidized to another 4-carbon molecule Fumarate in a reaction
catalyzed by succinate dehydrogenase.
a. FAD is reduced to FADH2 in this reaction
b. Succinate (4-Carbon molecule) — (catalyzed by succinate dehydrogenase) →
(FAD - 2 electrons = FADH2) = Fumarate (4-CARBON MOLECULE)
7. This reaction requires a water molecule as a reactant.
a. Fumarate is converted to malate in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme
fumarase.
b. Fumarate (4 carbon molecule) — (catalyzed by fumarase) (water molecule as
reactant) → = Malate (4- CARBON MOLECULE)
8. Malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate — the starting 4-carbon compound catalyzed
by malate dehydrogenase.
a. This reaction reduces an NAD+ molecule to NADH and H+.
b. Malate (4-Carbon molecule) — (catalyzed by malate dehydrogenase)→ ( NAD+
- 2 electrons = NADH & H+) = Oxaloacetate (4-CARBON MOLECULE)
● PRODUCTS
○ NOTE: Everything is always multiplied by 2 as, 2 acetyl CoA were produced
from pyruvate oxidation.
○ 4 water (H2O) molecules were used
○ 2 ATP produced from step 5
○ 4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) were released
○ 6 NADH were produced
○ 2 FADH2 were produced
○ Regenerated 2-Carbon molecule Oxaloacetate