Dry Type Transformers

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Dry-Type Transformers
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already
in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or
disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without
the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi
Aramco.
Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: EEX10801 W.A. Roussel on 874-1320
Engineering Encyclopedia Electrical
CONTENT PAGE
STANDARDS ......................................................................................................................................1
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards, Specifications, and

Practices ............................................................................................... 1
Electrical Pre-Commissioning Forms .................................................. 8
Industry Standards ............................................................................... 8
CONSTRUCTION.................................................................................................... 12
Core ............................................................................................................... 12
Core Material ..................................................................................... 12
Core Assembly................................................................................... 14
Types of Transformer Core Construction .......................................... 17
Grounding of Core ............................................................................. 24
Coil and Winding Assembly ......................................................................... 24
Coil Material ...................................................................................... 25
Coil Arrangement............................................................................... 25
Coil Stress .......................................................................................... 26
Core and Coil Assembly Clamping Construction .............................. 28
Insulation....................................................................................................... 31
Coil Assembly Insulation vs. Temperature ........................................ 31
Insulation System............................................................................... 31
Coordination of Insulation ................................................................. 33
Causes of Insulation Failure............................................................... 35
Enclosures ..................................................................................................... 35
Basic Requirements for All Dry-Type Enclosures............................. 36
ANSI/IEEE Enclosure Categories...................................................... 38
Cooling Systems............................................................................................ 38
Cooling Classes.................................................................................. 39
No-Load Manual Tap Jumpers or Jumper Board .......................................... 40
Construction....................................................................................... 40
Operation and Application ................................................................. 41
Nameplate Information ...................................................................... 42

K-FACTOR TRANSFORMERS .............................................................................. 45
Types of Nonlinear Loads ............................................................................. 45

Types of Harmonics Produced by Nonlinear Loads...................................... 47
Harmonic Effects on Transformers ............................................................... 49
What is K-Factor? ......................................................................................... 50
K-Factor Transformer Construction .............................................................. 52
INSPECTION AND TESTING ................................................................................ 53
Transformer Acceptance and Installation Overview ..................................... 53

Transformer Acceptance from Manufacturer/Vendor ................................... 54
Manufacturer Test Results ................................................................. 54
Transformer Specifications and Nameplate Data Verification........... 55
Transformer Acceptance or Receipt Inspection ................................. 55
Transformer Receipt or Acceptance Testing ................................................. 56
Transformer Storage .......................................................................... 57
Transformer Installation Inspection............................................................... 57
Transformer Location Verification .................................................... 58
Transformer Installation Inspection (Form P-024) ............................ 59
Transformer Installation Testing ................................................................... 60
Turns Ratio Test (TTR)...................................................................... 61
Winding-to-Winding Polarity Test .................................................... 72
Winding Resistance Test.................................................................... 80
Winding Insulation Resistance (Megger) Test................................... 85
Winding Insulation Polarization Index Test ...................................... 91
Core Ground Inspection and Test ...................................................... 93
Enclosure Ground Inspection and Test .............................................. 94
Tap Setting Verification..................................................................... 94
Applied Voltage (Hi-Pot) Test ........................................................... 95
TRANSFORMER SUBSYSTEM PRE-OPERATIONAL CHECKOUT ................. 96
Performance Testing...................................................................................... 96
Installation Checklist ..................................................................................... 97
Electrical External Connections......................................................... 97
Transformer Accessory Component Checkout.............................................. 98

TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL TESTING ..................................................... 102
Complete System Functional Test............................................................... 102

Operational Tests......................................................................................... 102
Exciting Current Check.................................................................... 103
No-Load Voltage Output (Secondary) Check.................................. 103
Voltage Phasing (or Rotation).......................................................... 103
Synchronizing for Parallel Operation .............................................. 104
Transformer Noise Level ................................................................. 104
TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL INSPECTION............................................... 106
TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL OBSERVATION PERIOD CHECKS

AND INSPECTIONS.............................................................................................. 107
Transformer and System Temperature Checks............................................ 107

Load Voltage, Current, and Temperature Relationship Checks .................. 107
MAINTENANCE ................................................................................................... 108
Routine Inspection and Testing ................................................................... 108

Failures ........................................................................................................ 109
Environment Caused Failures .......................................................... 109
WORK AID
WORK AID 1: HOW TO DETERMINE REQUIREMENTS FOR DRY

TYPE TRANSFORMERS..................................................................................... 114
Work Aid 1A: How to Match Transformer Standards ............................. 114

Work Aid 1B: Saudi Aramco Standards for Selection,
Specification, and Troubleshooting of Dry-Type
Transformers .................................................................... 116
Work Aid 1C: Industry Standards for Selection, Specification, and
Troubleshooting of Dry-Type Transformers
WORK AID 2: GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMING RECEIPT

INSPECTIONS OF NEW TRANSFORMERS....................................................... 117
Work Aid 2A: Receipt Testing................................................................. 117

Work Aid 2B: Receipt Tests For Transformers ....................................... 119

WORK AID 3: HOW TO PERFORM PREVENTIVE MAINTE-NANCE

AND ANALYZE FAILURE MODES.................................................................... 120
WORK AID 5: CHECKLIST FOR VERIFYING PROPER TRANS-

FORMER INSTALLATION .................................................................................. 122
Work Aid 5A: Transformer Installation Inspection ................................. 122

Work Aid 5B: Installation Test for New Dry-Type Transformers ........... 129
Work Aid 5C: Pre-Operational Field Installation Checklist .................... 132
WORK AID 10: TRANSFORMER TEST METHOD DATA.............................. 133
Work Aid 10A: Turns Ratio Test (TTR) ................................................. 133

Work Aid 10B: Polarity Test (3 Methods).............................................. 135
Work Aid 10C: Winding Resistance....................................................... 137
Work Aid 10D: Winding Insulation Resistance (Four Types of
Tests) ............................................................................. 138
Work Aid 10E: Core Ground Test .......................................................... 143
Work Aid 10F: Transformer Tank Ground Test..................................... 144
Work Aid 10G: Insulation Power-Factor Test ........................................ 145
Work Aid 10H: Oil Test Results Comparison......................................... 148
GLOSSARY

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. SAES-P-121 Table of Contents.......................................................................... 5

Figure 2. Sample Information from SAES-P-121.............................................................. 6
Figure 3. SADP-P-121 Table of Contents ......................................................................... 8
Figure 4. Hysteresis Effects on Magnetic Domains within the Core ............................... 15
Figure 5. Eddy Currents in a Solid Core.......................................................................... 17
Figure 6. Eddy Currents in Insulated Core ...................................................................... 17
Figure 7. Typical Core Construction and Lamination Configuration .............................. 18
Figure 8. Core- and Shell-Type Construction.................................................................. 20
Figure 9. Ventilation Ducts.............................................................................................. 21
Figure 10. Conventional 3-Phase Core .............................................................................. 22
Figure 11. Cruciform-Type Core ....................................................................................... 24
Figure 12. Wound Core ..................................................................................................... 25
Figure 13. Vertical (Axial) Forces ..................................................................................... 29
Figure 14. Horizontal Repulsion (Radial) Forces .............................................................. 31
Figure 15. Typical Old Type Construction of Core-Type Transformer............................. 32
Figure 16. Insulation Structure for a Core-Form Type Transformer ................................. 36
Figure 17. Dry-Type Transformers.................................................................................... 39
Figure 18. Typical Transformer Nameplate with No-load Tap Changer ........................... 44
Figure 19. Typical Waveform of a Switching Power Supply ............................................ 48
Figure 20. Fundamental Plus 3rd and 5th Harmonics........................................................ 50
Figure 21. Typical Harmonics for a 60 Hz Power System ................................................ 50
Figure 22. Deration Factors per ANSI/IEEE C57.110-1986 ............................................. 51
Figure 23. Transformer Turn Ratio (TTR) Test Set........................................................... 65
Figure 24. TTR Controls and Indicators ............................................................................ 66
Figure 25. Schematic Diagram for Transformer Turn Ratio (TTR) Test Set..................... 66
Figure 26. Polyphase Transformer Connections................................................................ 67
Figure 27. TTR Set Indications When Balanced ............................................................... 68
Figure 28. Sample TTR Readings (Set One) ..................................................................... 71
Figure 29. Sample TTR Readings (Set Two)..................................................................... 73
Figure 30. LV/HV Winding Markings/Polarity ................................................................. 76
Figure 31. Ratio Measuring Schemes ................................................................................ 77
Figure 32A. Angular Displacements .................................................................................... 78
Figure 32B. Voltmeter Flick Method Polarity Test.............................................................. 79

Figure 33. Phasor Diagrams............................................................................................... 81

Figure 34. Bridge Network Connections ........................................................................... 83
Figure 35. Wheatstone Bridge ........................................................................................... 84
Figure 36. Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeter................................................................... 85
Figure 37. Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Insulation Resistance of a
Typical Single-Phase (Two-Winding) Transformer ......................................... 91
Figure 38. Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Insulation Resistance of a
Typical Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer.................................................. 92

Standards
The engineer must consult both Saudi Aramco and Industry Standards for specifications
concerning dry-type transformers:
• Saudi Aramco Standards, Specifications, Practices, and Forms
– Saudi Aramco Engineering standards (SAES)
– Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications (SAMSS)
– Saudi Aramco Design Practices (SADP)
– Electrical Pre-Commissioning Forms
• Industry standards:
– National Electrical Code (NEC)
– National Electrical Safety Code (NESC)
– American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards
– Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
– National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards, Specifications, and Practices

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards (SAES's) contain the engineering requirements for
transformers used in Saudi Aramco. The pertinent SAES standards dealing with operation,
maintenance and testing of transformers are SAES-P-114 and SAES-P-121.
Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications (SAMSS) contain the minimum technical
requirements for transformers use in Saudi Aramco electrical systems. Engineers should use
these documents when specifying new transformers. As with the SAES’s, any deviations that
reduce the requirements must have written approval from the Saudi Aramco CSD, Dhahran.
User/specifier requirements that exceed the minimum requirements need no waiver approval.
SAMSSs do not directly state all of the specifications for new transformers. Saudi Aramco’s
practice is to adopt the ANSI standard specifications for transformers, and then modify the
ANSI specifications to meet the specific requirements of Saudi Aramco installations. The
modifications consist of exceptions, deletions, and additions to the ANSI standards.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

The ANSI standard that is the base document for the transformer specifications is referenced
in chapter D of each applicable SAMSS. The modifications to the base document are listed
through use of numbers that refer to the sections of the ANSI standard to be changed. The
type of modification is listed in parenthesis next to the ANSI standard section number.
Saudi Aramco Design Practices (SADP’s) give the background information needed to
explain, amplify, and apply the mandatory requirements of the SAES’s and SAMSS’s. The
information in the SADP’s is not mandatory and is not necessarily kept up to date. Written
approval is not needed to deviate from the SADP’s. If there is a conflict between an
SAES/SAMSS and an SADP, the SAES/SAMSS govern. Refer to the SADP’s when tutorial
or background information is needed on the selection, specification, or troubleshooting of
transformers. SADP-P-121 and SADP-P-433 apply to dry-type transformers.
The SAES's applicable to dry-type transformers are:
• SAES-P-114
• SAES-P-121
SAES-P-114 - This standard prescribes the minimum mandatory requirements for the design
and installation of protective relaying for power systems and equipment. Chapter 7 deals with
transformer protective devices and schemes for power and distribution transformers. The
major interest is the sections dealing with pad-mounted distribution and pole-mounted
distribution transformers. Also are the inherent devices built as part of the transformer such
as:
Chapter 7 Table of Contents
7.1 General
7.2 Transformer Protection Schemes
7.3 Protection Device Application Requirements
7.4 Fuse Protection Transformers
Also provides information on:
• Pressure-rise relay (Device 63T, 63GT)

• Overtemperature devices (Device 49T)
• Low oil level indication
• Lockout relays (Device 86T1, 86T2, 87T3)

SAES-P-121 - “Transformers, Reactors, Voltage Regulators,” contains the minimum

requirements for the design and installation of transformers, reactors, voltage regulating
transformers, and instrument transformers. Do not deviate from the requirements of this
standard. Any deviations that reduce the requirements must have written approval from the
Saudi Aramco Consulting Services Division (CSD), Dhahran. User/specifier requirements
that exceed the minimum requirements need no waiver approval. CSD must resolve any
conflicts between this standard and other SAESs, SAMSSs, and Forms.
The major topics discussed in this standard are as follows:
• Material Operation
• Material Requirements
• KVA Rating of Power and Voltage Regulating Transformers
• Installation
• Substation Requirements Relating to Transformers
This standard has six chapters. Figure 1 shows the table of contents.
CHAPTER SUBJECT PAGE
1 SCOPE 2
2 CONFLICTS AND DEVIATIONS 2
3 APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS 2
4 MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS 3
5 KVA RATINGS OF POWER AND VOLTAGE 5

REGULATING TRANSFORMERS
6 INSTALLATION 7
Figure 1. SAES-P-121 Table of Contents

Figure 2 shows a sample of the type of information contained in SAES-P-121.
5 KVA RATING OF POWER AND VOLTAGE REGULATING

TRANSFORMERS
5.1 Transformers shall be supplied with ANSI Standard preferred kVA Ratings at
normal service condition, unless otherwise specified on SAMSS Data
Schedule-1
5.2 The minimum OA self-cooled kVA rating of each OA/FA transformers shall
be equal to the maximum operating load, plus projected future load
5.3 For transformers that are self-cooled only, a 10 percent load growth factor
shall be added to the calculated load )maximum operating load plus projected
future load).
5.4 The forced-cooled FA site rating of each transformer serving a double-ended

substation shall be capable of feeding the entire load of both buses with the
bus-tie breaker closed.
5.5 Forced -air cooling fans and controls shall be provided on all transformers
rated 2500 kVA or larger. On transformers smaller than 3500 kVA, forced-
air cooling shall not be provided.
5.6 Two stages of forced cooling shall be allowed for transformers wit OA ratings
of 90 MVA or larger. The forced cooling may be forced air (FA) and/or
forced-oil-air (FOA).
Figure 2. Sample Information from SAES-P-121

14-SAMSS-533 - “Three-Phase Dry-Type Power Transformers.” The base document for 14-
SAMSS-533 is ANSI C57.12.01-1979. The most recent version of this ANSI standard is
ANSI C57.12.01-1989. The engineer should use ANSI C57.12.01-1989 as the base document
for developing new three-phase power transformer specifications. The specifications in the
base document should then be modified as required by 14-SAMSS-533.
A direct correlation exists between the section numbers in the revised version of ANSI
C57.12.01-1989 and the section numbers of the modifications required by 14-SAMSS-533.
Conflicts or questions concerning the requirements contained in ANSI C57.12.01-1989 and
14-SAMSS-533 should be resolved in the same fashion as any other conflict between a Saudi
Aramco and an Industry Standard. Deviations that reduce the requirements of 14-SAMSS-
533 must have written approval from the Saudi Aramco Chief Engineer. ANSI C57.12.01-
1989 requirements that exceed the minimum requirements of 14-SAMSS-533 need no waiver
approval.
SADP-P-121 - “Transformers.” This design practice has two parts. Part one has a single
page. The statements on the page give the rationale for the technical requirements in SAES-P-
121 that are not obvious. The basis of the rationale is many years of Aramco's experience.
Part two contains twelve chapters of information. Figure 3 shows the Table of Contents.
This part of the SADP has tutorial information. Use this information to clarify the technical
requirements given in the SAES’s and SAMSS’s. The sections that follow give the scope of
each chapter.

CHAPTER TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE
1 TRANSFORMER-INTRODUCTION 13
2 POWER AND DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS 31
3 TRANSFORMER THERMAL RATING 41
4 TRANSFORMERS IMPEDANCES AND VOLTAGES 53
5 TRANSFORMER INSULATION 71
6 TRANSFORMER ENCLOSURE 80
7 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS AND TERMINATIONS 84
8 TRANSFORMER AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT 95
9 TRANSFORMER PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS 102
10 TRANSFORMER TESTING AND DELIVERY 109
11 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS 115
12 SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 129
Figure 3. SADP-P-121 Table of Contents

Chapter One describes the selection, application, and general specifications of

transformers for use in Saudi Aramco installations.
Chapter Two contains the requirements and general guidelines for the following types
of transformers used by Saudi Aramco:
• Power
• Distribution
• Auxiliary Power
• Non-Flammable Insulating Liquid Filled
• Conventional Dry-Type
• Cast-Resin Type
Chapter Three covers the thermal aspects of transformers. This chapter includes
temperature rise, service conditions, and methods of cooling.
Chapter Four covers the selection of transformer impedance values and tap ranges.
Chapter Five gives guidance on the selection of transformer withstand levels, voltage
surge suppression, insulating liquids, and oil preservation techniques.
Chapter Six covers the selection of enclosures for transformers.
Chapter Seven covers general requirements and conventions relating to terminal

connections. The information applies to all transformer types, except instrument.
Chapter Seven also covers the operation of transformers in parallel and disconnecting
facilities.
Chapter Eight gives guidance on the selection of transformer accessories. This chapter
includes tap changers, monitoring, and protection equipment.
Chapter Nine covers the requirements for tolerances, losses, and noise levels. Chapter
Nine also gives guidance on how to capitalize losses.
Chapter Ten deals only with the general requirements and policies adopted with regard
to factory testing and inspections.
Chapter Eleven covers the requirements of current transformers and inductively

coupled voltage transformers.
Chapter Twelve covers reactors and special types of power transformers.

SADP-P-433 - gives the rationale for the technical requirements of 14-SAMSS-533 that are
not obvious.
Electrical Pre-Commissioning Forms

• P-000 - Testing Guidelines
• P-024 - Dry-type Transformers
The electrical pre-commissioning forms are not mandatory but are intended to simplify and
expedite the mechanical completion of a new facility as per GI-2.710. The forms are intended
to be flexible and are neither restrictive nor exhaustive and are intended to be used in part or
entirely as required for the specific project.
The forms are designed in the yes or no format providing spaces with sufficient room for
comments from the pre-commissioning engineer. Signature blocks are provided at the bottom
of the forms for the appropriate organizations for signing off when the work is completed.
Additional information on testing methods, test equipment, expected test results and
evaluation of actual test results can be obtained from CSD/ESD/Electrical Unit.
Industry Standards
Saudi Aramco standards often reference industry standards. This practice eliminates the need
to rewrite all the applicable industry standards into Saudi Aramco standards. Instead, the
Saudi Aramco standards give exceptions, additions, or deletions to the industry standards.
The following industry standards contain information that pertains to selection, specification,
and troubleshooting of transformers:
• National Electrical Code (NEC)

• National Electrical Safety Code (NESC)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• International Electrical and Electronic Engineers
• National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)

National Electrical Code -The purpose of the NEC is the practical safeguarding of persons
and property from the hazards of using electricity. The NEC only contains provisions needed
for safety and does not guarantee an efficient, convenient, expandable installation.
The specific section of the NEC that contains information pertinent to the selection and
specification of transformers is Article 450. The title of Article 450 is “Transformers and
Transformer Vaults”. This article applies to all transformers except the following:
• Current transformers.
• Dry-type transformers that constitute a component part of other apparatus and

comply with the requirements for such apparatus as motor control centers or
potential transformers (PT's).
• Transformers that are an integral part of an X-ray, high-frequency, or

electrostatic-coating apparatus.
• Transformers for use with Class 2 or Class 3 circuits that comply with Article
725-3(b) (such as communications small transformers).
• Transformers for sign and outline lighting that comply with Article 600.
• Transformers for electric-discharge lighting that comply with Article 410.
• Transformers for use with power-limited fire protective signaling circuits that
comply with Part C of Article 760.
• Liquid-filled and dry-type transformers for use in research, development, or

testing, where effective arrangements are provided to safeguard unqualified
persons from contacting high-voltage terminals or energized conductors.
Article 450 is divided into three major sections: part A, part B, and part C. Part A contains
the general provisions for all covered transformers. Part B contains specific provisions
applicable to different types of transformers. Part C contains the provisions for transformer
vaults.
National Electrical Safety Code - The purpose of the rules in the NESC is the practical
safeguarding of persons during the installation, operation, or maintenance of electric supply
and communication lines, and associated equipment. The rules contain the basic provisions
needed for the safety of employees and the public under the specified conditions.
Part 1, Section 15 has specific information on transformers. General Safety rules related to
troubleshooting and maintaining industrial/utility type electrical equipment are found
throughout the text.

ANSI/IEEE Standards and Guidelines - The Industry Standards used most often in
selection, specification, and troubleshooting of dry-type transformers are ANSI/IEEE
Standards.
IEEE standards give information on how to produce, test, measure, and buy equipment. This
information is the consensus opinion of a group of subject matter experts. The requirements
and procedures given in the standards are useful when selecting, specifying, and
troubleshooting dry-type transformers.
ANSI does not write standards. ANSI adopts standards written by other organizations. ANSI
standards give a uniform method of manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, and using a given
piece of equipment. This information is useful when selecting, specifying, or troubleshooting
transformers.
ANSI has adopted most of the IEEE standards that relate to transformers. All the applicable
standards are available in a single book titled “C57,” which is the name of this collective
group of standards. C57 contains information on distribution, power, and regulating
transformers.
The most frequently referenced ANSI/IEEE standard for dry-type transformers are:
• C57.12.01 - “General Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and

Power Transformers Including Those With Solid Cast and/or Resin-
Encapsulated Windings.” The intent of this standard is to establish the
basis for performance, interchangeability, and safety requirements of the
equipment covered. C57.12.01 also gives assistance in selecting the
right equipment.
• C57.12.91 - “Standard Test Code for Dry-Type Distribution and Power

Transformers.” This standard describes methods for performing tests
specified in C57.12.01. C57.12.91 also describes the general
requirements and other referenced standards applicable to dry-type
distribution and power transformers. C57.12.91 is intended for use as a
basis for performance, safety, and proper testing of transformers.
• C57.94 - “Recommended Practice for Installation, Application,

Operation, and Maintenance of Dry-Type General Purpose Distribution
and Power Transformers.” This standard covers the general
recommendations for the application, installation, operation, and
maintenance of single and poly-phase, dry-type, general purpose,
distribution, power, and autotransformers of the following types:
- Ventilated, indoor and outdoor, self-cooled or forced-air cooled
- Nonventilated, indoor and outdoor, self-cooled or forced-air

cooled

- Sealed, indoor and outdoor, self-cooled

NEMA Standards - NEMA is a trade association for manufacturers of products used in

generation, transmission, distribution, and end-use of electricity. These standards are useful
when selecting and specifying electrical equipment. NEMA designates the specifications that
various pieces of electrical equipment must be built to meet. If these are the same
specifications needed by a Saudi Aramco installation, specify the equipment to comply with
the given NEMA classification and eliminate the need to restate all the individual equipment
parameters. The NEMA standard pertaining to the dry-type transformer is designated ST-20.
The title of NEMA Standard ST-20 is “Dry-Type Transformers for General Applications”.
NEMA ST-20 applies to single-phase and polyphase dry-type transformers (including auto
transformers and noncurrent-limiting reactors) for supplying energy to power, heating and
lighting circuits.

CONSTRUCTION
Dry-type transformers have the following five major components or assemblies of

components:
• Core
• Core and Winding Assembly.
• Insulation System.
• Enclosure.
• Cooling System.
Core
The construction of a transformer starts with the core. In its simplest form, the transformer
consists of two coils which are mutually coupled and named:
• The Iron-core transformer is coupled through a ferromagnetic ring (circular or

otherwise.)
• Air-core transformers have no ferromagnetic material. It uses only air. This

type of transformer is usually very small and used for small electrical and
electronic circuits.
This module covers only iron-core transformers.
Core Material
The core is made of steel alloy because its molecular structure allows the material to carry and
hold a magnetic flow 10,000 times greater than air. Steel alloy is a much better conductor of
magnetic flux than air.
The material used for the transformer core is selected to afford its molecules the greatest ease
in reversing their position as the AC magnetic field reverses its direction. As they reverse
themselves, the friction developed between these magnetic molecular particles creates heat.
This action causes a core or iron loss known as hysteresis (see Figure 4). This hysteresis loss
is minimized by using a special grade of heat-treated grain-oriented silicon steel. These
reversals of molecular particles also contribute to the noise or hum of a transformer.

N A B
N S
N S N S N
S N
N S S N
N S N
S
S N S N
S S N
Random molecular structure of core + Polarized molecular structure of core during

before energized first positive part of sine wave
C D
N
N N S N S
S
S S
S N N S N S
S N
N N S N S
N S
Residual magnetizism of core during zero - Polarized molecular structure of core during
crossing of sine wave first negative part of sine wave
Figure 4. Hysteresis Effects on Magnetic Domains within the Core

The two important parameters that affect the core are the core design and the core material.
Both the design and material are chosen to reduce the reluctance of the flux path. This
reduces the amount of excitation current required to induce flux into the core and the amount
of power lost due to circulating currents, eddy currents and hysteresis.
The manufacturing process of the core material is closely controlled to yield an alloy of
approximately 3% silicon and 97% steel. The silicon reduces the viscous resistance to
magnetism or hysteresis and prevents increased loss with age and environment. The material
is cold rolled and annealed to orient the grains (iron crystals) to obtain a high permeability
and low hysteresis in the direction of rolling. The laminations are then treated to develop a
chemical coating of phosphate and/or given an organic resin treatment (which provides a
more heat-resistant coating than varnish) to insulate them from each other and prevent rust
during storage. The insulation prevents the laminations from shorting to each other and thus
reduces the circulating currents (eddy currents) that contribute to losses (Figures 5 and 6).
Transformer designers have determined that the most economical thickness for laminations is
between 0.010 in. and 0.020 in.
Core Assembly
The core assembly is constructed by stacking individual laminations in accordance with the
pattern and configuration selected by the designer. Some of the basic types of core
construction and lamination configurations are shown in Figure 7. In all types the layers of
laminations are placed so that the air gaps between lamination ends of one layer are
overlapped by the laminations in the next layer. For any interleaved joint it is important to
minimize the gap (and thus reduce possible eddy currents) between abutting plates.
Example: If the gap in a joint were only 1/1000 of an inch, the magnetizing current to push
the flux across each gap would be equivalent to 10,000 times or 10 inches of steel for each
gap. The gap would materially increase the exciting current. This is why the test for the no-
load excitation current is valuable. If a unit is moved from one location to another, shipped
over land by rail or truck, or is rewound, the amount of no-load excitation current will verify a
good transformer or one that has been damaged in shipment.
For small distribution transformers the cores are built from strip wound loops (Figure 12).
The wound core is spirally constructed from a continuous strip of cold rolled steel and is cut
at every other turn to permit assembly. This type core is primarily used for smaller dry-type
and liquid-filled core construction.

Figure 5. Eddy Currents in a Solid Core
Figure 6. Eddy Currents in Insulated Core

Figure 7. Typical Core Construction and Lamination Configuration

Types of Transformer Core Construction

The transformer core design has four different types:
• Core-type
• Shell-type
• Cruciform-type
• Wound-type
Core-Type - refers to the arrangement of the steel core with reference to the windings. For a
core-type core, the windings surround the laminated steel core. The coils may be circular or
rectangular in cross section. The low voltage coils are placed next to the core with the high
voltage coils placed over and concentric to them. Insulating cylinders are located between the
coils which have open passage provided for circulation of the cooling medium. This type of
construction and coil arrangement reduces the insulation requirements for both sets of coils
and provides an economical design that is relatively easy to manufacture. (See Figure 8.)
Core-type means (in the USA) coils are cylindrical and concentric (the outer winding over the
inner).
Shell-Type - refers to the arrangement of the steel core with reference to the windings. The
shell-form transformer (Figure 8), the steel core surrounds the windings. The coils are
generally rectangular in cross section and mounted in a "pancake" type of arrangement. Here
the high voltage and low voltage coils are alternately placed around the core, with the
required insulation inserted between them. Usually space is left between the coils for cooling
purposes. This type of coil arrangement reduces the reactance between coils and improves
the operation of the transformer. The shell-form configuration also makes arrangements for
cooling passages of cooling medium simpler and easier to provide. The shell type denotes
large pancake coils which are stacked or interleaved to make primary and secondary groups
(Figure 9). Primary-Secondary-Primary (PSP) grouping is common but Primary-Secondary-
Primary-Secondary-Primary (P-S-P-S-P) is also often used. In actual practice the cylindrical-
concentric coil structure is sometimes used with an enclosing (shell-form) core in single-phase
or with a five-legged core in three-phase to reduce overall height. Figure 10 shows the
conventional three-phase shell form core with the coils in section.

Insulating
Tube Laminated Cores
L. V. Winding
H. V. Winding
Core Type Shell Type
L. V. Winding
H. V. Winding
Figure 8. Core- and Shell-Type Construction

Insulation
Core
Primary Coil
Secondary Coil
Spacers
Figure 9. Ventilation Ducts

Primary Coil
Phase 1 Secondary Coil
Primary Coil
Core
Phase 2
Insulation
Phase 3
Figure 10. Conventional 3-Phase Core
Note: For the rectangular-pancake-interleaved- coil structure (shell type.) The groups of
pancake coils may be round or rectangular.

Although either type of construction, core-form or shell-form, can be applied when building a
transformer, the designer's choice is usually determined by the cost of construction versus the
requirements for the transformer. Generally, shell-form construction provides greater
mechanical strength, good voltage impulse distribution and better conductor cooling.
However, these features have to be factored against the actuality that shell-form construction
is more complex and costly than the core-form. On the other hand, core-form designs have an
inherently simpler insulation structure and are easier to build. As a result, the application of
shell form designs are usually reserved for large power transformers (³100 MVA) where high
mechanical strength for through faults and good distribution of voltage impulses are
especially important. Core form designs are typically used for most medium and some small
power transformers.
Cruciform-Type - transformer core is made like a cross (+) or large plus sign. This type of
core is often used for economy and is common on very small sizes of dry-type transformers.
This type transformer has coils that are made cylindrical in shape, which enables the
insulation to have a higher factor of safety since there are no sharp bends in the insulating
material and a better opportunity for the radiation of heat. Both of these factors permit the use
of less material for a given output. (See Figure 11).
Wound-Type - transformer core construction is used for small dry-type and liquid-filled
distribution transformers. These cores are built from strip wound loops. (See Figure 12).
The wound core is spirally constructed from a continuous strip of cold rolled steel and is cut
at every other turn to permit assembly. Nevertheless, its practical use has been generally
limited to smaller core construction. For smaller transformers where wound cores are used,
the manufacturer does stress annealing after cutting the core. Using stacked cores the steel
laminations are frequently given an additional thin organic polymer coating.
The three major types of transformer core construction for dry-type transformers are the core,
cruciform and wound types. These three will be the only forms discussed further in this
module.

Primary HV
Winding
Insulation
Cruciform Core
Secondary LV
Winding
Figure 11. Cruciform-Type Core

Rolling Direction and Flux Path
Core Area
Figure 12. Wound Core

Grounding of Core
Dry-type transformer cores are insulated from ground to prevent the flow of circulating
currents. By design, the core is grounded at one point (usually on bottom of core) for the
following reasons:
• Place core at ground potential.
• Remove static charges.
• Prevent core voltage from electrically floating up and down.
• Provide protection during a winding to core contact or short.
When more than one ground results in circulating current that adds heat to the transformer
and raise the ambient noise level. Lack of a ground causes the core to float at an elevated
potential due to reduced voltage.
Large Dry-Type - typically, have a flexible core ground lead with terminals that can be
unbolted.
Small Dry-Type - the core ground connection is usually a fixed lead permanently connected
in place with no provision for disconnecting.
Coil and Winding Assembly

Transformer coils are designed to get the required number of turns into a minimum of space.
Additionally, the cross-section of the conductor must be large enough to carry the current
without overheating and sufficient space must be provided for the insulation and for cooling
paths, if any. These coils may be made of copper or aluminum; the choice depends on the
cost to achieve the low resistance and small space requirements.
For small units, the coil wire may be round, insulated with cotton, enamel, shellac, varnish,
paper, or a combination of these. For larger units, the wire may be square or rectangular
ribbon, usually insulated with oil impregnated paper. Where transformer operation at high
temperatures is desired, special glass or asbestos insulation may be used. The insulation
should be provided not only for normal operating voltages, but also for surges of high voltage
resulting from lightning or switching.
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Coil Material
Transformers used in Saudi Aramco facilities used the following core material:
• Copper
– Good mechanical strength
– Good electrical conductor for smaller coils
– Efficient heat dissipation and mechanical strength for sheet-wound coils
• Aluminum
– Lower cost than copper
– Efficient heat dissipation for sheet-wound coils of smaller

capacity
– Lighter in weight than copper
Wire is normally found only in the high-voltage coils of distribution units where current
requirements are fairly low. The wire size increases as the current values of transformer
loading go up. Eddy currents can be reduced by the use of rectangular wire as it has less
surface area than a wound wire of the same cross-sectional area.
The cross-sectional area of the turns is adjusted as the current is increased, then the cross-
sectional area is increased. This helps to keep resistance loss to a minimum. This also helps
to reduce eddy current losses. There has to be uniform current distribution to obtain
maximum efficiency.
Sheets and foils are used mainly on distribution and small transformers where current levels
are low. Aluminum sheet windings have more uniform conduction, greater short-circuit
withstand voltage and better heat conduction and dissipation.
Coil Arrangement
In core-, cruciform-, and wound-type transformers, the low-voltage coils are usually placed
next to the core and the high-voltage coils external and concentric within them. This reduces
the insulation requirements of both coils; if the high-voltage winding was placed next to the
core, two layers of high-voltage insulation would be required, one next to the core and the
other between the two windings (Figure 10). Sometimes, where large and heavy connections
are involved, this arrangement may be reversed.

The high-voltage windings may be separated from the low-voltage windings by insulating
cylinders. The high voltage may be composed of several disc shaped coils, each disc
insulated from others by insulating strips. If the windings were placed on separate legs of the
core, a relatively large amount of the flux produced by the primary windings would fail to
link the secondary windings, resulting in a large loss of effectiveness of the flux.
Coil Stress
The coils in transformers that are energized and loaded have mechanical and electrical
stresses at all times. All coils which carry currents in the same direction attract one another
and coils which carry currents in opposite directions repel one another. Hence, all the coils of
the primary attract one another as do all the coils of the secondary. However, primary coils
repel the secondary coils and vice-versa. Under normal operating conditions, these forces are
relatively small. In case of short circuit or the carrying of very large currents, these forces
may become great enough to damage the transformer if the coils are not adequately
supported.
The short-circuit stresses that interact between windings result in both horizontal and vertical
electromagnetic forces.
The vertical or axial forces causes the low-voltage and high-voltage windings to shift with
respect to each other, a condition called telescoping (Figure 13). These forces make the
windings take positions that will increase the magnetic flux of the system. If two windings
are in series, the electromagnetic varies as the square of current. Example: A short-circuit
current, 20 times normal will produce (20)2, or 400 times, the normal stress.
The vertical force between primary and secondary windings results because it is impossible to
exactly balance the low- and high-voltage electrical center lines. This vertical force is the
hardest to design for.

Figure 13. Vertical (Axial) Forces

The horizontal force (radial or hoop) is the major force (Figure 14). The principal component
of leakage flux is axial and its interaction with the circumferential winding currents produces
radial forces acting in the outward direction on the outer winding and in the inward direction
on the inner winding.
Coils and core must be mechanically capable of withstanding these short circuit stresses.
Where the coils are concentrically placed, the forces produced are radial which may tend to
distort the shapes of the coils. If interleaved coils are not exactly balanced, axial forces
develop, also tending to distort the coils. These are usually so interleaved that forces between
coils are balanced, except at the ends. Hence, when assembled, coils must be carefully
centered on the cores and rigidly blocked to prevent any movement, bending or distortion
from normal positions under the stresses caused by heavy currents. The extra bracing and
blocking also tend to reduce the noise emanating from the vibration of several elements,
brought about by the effects of the alternating magnetic fields.
Precaution is always taken so that a failure of the high voltage insulation to the low voltage
side will not impose the high voltage on the winding of the low voltage coil. Additional
insulation and barriers are often placed between the primary and secondary coils to lessen the
chances of such occurrences.
Core and Coil Assembly Clamping Construction

The clamping structure is part of the core assembly. Its purpose is to hold the core together
and the coils in places with the proper pressure applied to each coil assembly. The final step
of core and coil assembly construction is the proper clamping. If laminations are not properly
secured vibration will be the result, contributing to increased hum of the transformer, and unit
failure may result.
The older transformers had core legs and yokes clamped together by means of insulated steel
bolts passing through holes punched in the laminations. This provided good clamping but
had disadvantages. Newer transformers have the leg laminations held tightly together by
strong tape applied on smaller cores, or by suitably spaced high strength resin-glass beads
applied to the periphery of larger cores. The yoke laminations are secured by fabricated steel
clamps. These clamps are lined with resilient packing to obtain uniform pressures and
minimize the transmission of sound and vibrations. When the clamping is complete, vertical
tie bolts hold together the steel frames clamping the top and bottom yokes. Consequently,
electrical and mechanical stresses are minimized and core bolt failures are eliminated.
Reference Figure 15 for complete construction of a core-type transformer.

Figure 14. Horizontal Repulsion (Radial) Forces

Insulated
Yoke Bolt
Tie Plate
Laminated
Lifting Loop Core
Adjustable
Pressure Plate
with Insulation
Cooling Ducts
Insulation Barrier
Between Coils
Insulating
Pressure Collar
Static Plate
H.V. Winding
L.V. Winding
Insulating Tubes
Adjustable Pressure
Plate with Insulation
Centering Channel
Insulated Core Bolt
Centering Pin
End Frame
Figure 15. Typical Old Type Construction of Core-Type Transformer

Insulation
Coil Assembly Insulation vs. Temperature

The dry-type or air insulated transformer has a long history that goes back to the first
transformer of 1884.
For dry-type transformers the life of the transformer is dependent on the temperature at which
it is made to operate. Because of this, the insulation materials are classified worldwide
according to their maximum safe working temperature. The basic difference between dry-
type and liquid-filled transformers is that dry-types have a higher operating temperature
(Table 1). Furthermore, the temperature of the different parts of the dry-type transformer
varies much more widely than that of a liquid filled where all of the insulation is at least as
hot as the liquids.
Insulation System
An insulation system is an assembly of fabricated, processed and in-place combinations of
component insulating materials with related structural parts as used in dry-type transformers
(per ANSI C57.12.01). Most dry-type transformers use a 220°C rated insulation system. The
220°C represents the ultimate temperature of the winding and is the summation of maximum
permissible temperature rise by coil resistance (150°), the hot-spot differential allowance
(30°C) and the ambient allowance (40°C).
The materials commonly associated with class 220°C are shown in Table 2. While the coils
are wound with class 220°C insulation, the same insulation is designed to operate at 80°C
temperature rise (115°C US, or 125°C IEC).
The conductor size is increased to accomplish temperature rating increase. The conductor
size increase also reduces losses.
Dry-type transformers are designed to operate more efficiently when approaching full load.
The dry-type transformer can only attain these higher temperature ratings by having larger
cooling gaps which also improve the dielectric level of insulation.

Table 1
Limits of Temperature Rise for Continuously Rated
Dry-Type Transformer Windings
(Reference IEEE C57.12.01-1989)
Average Winding Temp. Insulation-System

Rise by Resistance (°C) Temperature (°C)
60 130
80 150
115 185
130 200
150 220
*Based on a maximum ambient temperature of 40°C
Table 2
Examples of Some Materials Used in Insulation Systems for
Solid Insulating Materials Binding Insulating Materials
Mica Polyester Resins

Porcelain Epoxy Resins
Glass Silicone Elastomers
Glass Fibers Silicone Resins
Aramid Sheets/Fibers Polyimide Resins
Cast Epoxy Polyester-imides
Cast Silicone
Polyimide Sheet
Polyester Film
NOTE: The lists of materials above do not purport to be complete. They are only
intended to identify generically some typical insulating materials for illustrative
purposes.
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Coordination of Insulation
Solid insulation is required in a transformer whenever a difference in potential exists between
two points. The selection of insulation is generally made in proportion to the anticipated
overvoltages and with a safety margin to compensate for decreases due to normal service
aging. Various components are designed to work best together and achieve what is called
"coordination of insulation" within the insulation system.
A conclusion that should have been reached by now is that insulation is one of the most
important, if not the most important, component in a transformer. The internal insulation of
the transformer are a number of critical areas that must be adequately insulated to assure that
the transformer will operate properly and provide a long service life (Figure 16). These areas
are:
• Turn-to-turn insulation
• High-voltage to low-voltage insulation
• Low voltage to core insulation
• Phase-to-phase insulation
• Core-to-ground insulation
These insulation areas must have proper types and combinations of insulation selected and in
place to have a transformer that will operate during normal and abnormal conditions and
provide a long service life.
Dry-type insulations are much more dependent on the integrity of their loading resins for
dielectric strength. Because the dry-type transformer is open to the air, humidity becomes a
problem. As long as the unit is energized, heat will keep the moisture out. If the unit cools,
the varnish coating will absorb moisture and both will deteriorate the insulation and lower
dielectric strength. This can be a reason for some dry-type transformer failures when
deenergized for a period of time and then failure occurs when energized. The insulation
absorbs enough moisture to reduce its dielectric level. The dictating factors for dry-type
transformers are ventilation and exposure to the atmosphere, while their size is limited
because of the large spacings necessary.

Figure 16. Insulation Structure for a Core-Form Type Transformer

Causes of Insulation Failure

The insulation system isolates the transformer windings from each other and from the ground.
It also insulates the current-carrying parts of the transformer from the magnetic iron and
structural steel parts. The insulation is thus more than a mechanical means for keeping the
wires separated. A good insulation system must contain the proper material that can contend
with these six major stresses and degradation:
• High voltages such as impulse and transient surges.
• Mechanical and thermal stress derived from short circuit conditions.
• Continual vibration from 60 Hz sine wave input power.
• Excessive heat accumulation and also have good heat transfer

characteristics.
• Repeated expansions and contractions
• Exposure to moisture, contaminating environments and radiation
Insulation weakness will result in transformer failure. Insulation is deteriorated when it has
lost a significant portion of its original dielectric level due to impulse surges and reduced
mechanical strength. When deterioration process continues the insulation will mechanically
or electrically fail.
Enclosures
Enclosures are necessary to contain and protect the critical components of the transformer, as
well as provide protection for personnel from electrical hazards. Specifically, the dry-type
transformer enclosure serves to:
• Protect personnel from energized parts.
• Protect the windings from deteriorating effects from direct exposure to

dirt, chemicals or other environmental contaminants.
• Prevent mechanical damage to the internal parts of the transformer.
There are a variety of designs (types) of enclosures based on the methods used for cooling
and protecting the transformer's internal components.

Types of enclosures for dry-type transformers include:
• Ventilated case (Figure 17a)
• Non-ventilated case (Figure 17b)
• Gas-Filled sealed cases (Figure 17c)
In accordance with ANSI/IEEE C57.12.55-1987, these are grouped into categories and
identified as categories A, B, C, and sealed enclosures. The sealed type will not be covered in
the text because Saudi Aramco does not used sealed type enclosures. These A, B, C category
enclosures are typically constructed using a heavy gauge sheet metal in accordance with
thickness dimensions given in ANSI/IEEE standards.
For the ventilated and non-ventilated cases, removable panels provide access to the core and
coils and tap connections (on primary) to allow inspection, cleaning and testing. Often, these
cases are designed to allow for the complete removal and breakdown of the case structure to
reduce size and weight for rigging into tight locations. Rigging of the transformer is
supported by features that are normally included in the enclosure design as provisions for
jacking, rolling and lifting.
Basic Requirements for All Dry-Type Enclosures

Metal enclosures must be supported, constructed and assembled to withstand normal
operating abuse without total or partial collapse that could result in an increased fire hazard
due to reduction of spacing or loosening or displacement of parts.
Nonmetallic materials may be used for part or all of an enclosure provided they meet the
requirements of metal enclosure and have acceptable properties for (1) physical strength, (2)
resistance to impact, (3) moisture-absorptive properties, (4) noncombustibility, (5) ground
plane between high voltage and enclosure, and (6) resistance to distortion at temperatures for
both normal and abnormal conditions.
The physical and dimensional requirements given in ANSI/IEEE C57.12.55-1987 for covers,
doors, supporting frames, tapped holes, knockouts, ventilating opening, barriers, viewing
panes, secondary devices and security must be observed.
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Figure 17. Dry-Type Transformers

ANSI/IEEE Enclosure Categories

The ANSI/IEEE standards address the construction of dry-type transformer enclosures in
considerable detail. Following is a summary outline of the requirements given in ANSI/IEEE
C57.12.55-1987 and ANSI/IEEE C57.12.52-1981.
Category "A" Indoor or Outdoor Enclosures - This type enclosure is intended:
(1) for ground level use in installations subject to deliberate, unauthorized

acts by members of the unsupervised general public.
(2) primarily to provide a degree of protection against contact with the

enclosed equipment.
Category "B" Indoor or Outdoor Enclosures - This type enclosure is intended:
(1) for use in installations not subject to deliberate, unauthorized acts by

members of the unsupervised general public.
(2) primarily to provide a degree of protection to unauthorized and

untrained personnel against incidental contact with the enclosed
equipment.
Category "C" Indoor or Outdoor Enclosures - This type enclosure is intended:
(1) for use in installations in secured areas generally inaccessible to

unauthorized and untrained persons.
(2) primarily to provide a degree of protection against contact with the

enclosed equipment.
Cooling Systems
Energy losses in a transformer appear as heat in the core and coils. The heat must be
dissipated without allowing the windings to reach a temperature that will cause deterioration
of the insulation or damage to the conductors. The cooling of a transformer is required to
conserve the life of the insulation which is the life of the transformer.
The methods used by manufacturers to cool dry-type transformers are very limited. The
important principle is that the cooling medium (air) efficiently removes the heat from the
core and coils to the outside air.

For dry-type transformers that are nonventilated designs (Figure 17b), natural conduction,
convection and radiation is used to transfer heat to the enclosure and then to the outside air.
For some non-ventilated designs, heat transfer efficiency is improved by adding cooling fins
attached only to the outside surface of the enclosure.
Ventilated dry-type transformers (Figure 17a) add panels with grills to provide an additional
degree of cooling through the natural circulation of air. Beyond this, forced air cooling can
be added to ventilated designs with the addition of one or more banks of fans. The fans move
the air past the windings, thus moving out the heat faster and accelerating the rate of heat
transfer. For some designs, the fans are controlled by thermal sensors located in the hottest
spot of the core and coil assembly.
Cooling Classes
In selecting the type of cooling to be used for a dry-type transformer, the designer applies the
principle that the minimum amount of cooling required by a transformer is the amount needed
to allow its operation at rated conditions and rated temperature rise. In accordance with
ANSI/IEEE C57.12.01-1989, dry-type transformers have rated temperature rise of 60°C to
150°C with hottest insulation system temperatures of 130°C through 220°C correspondingly.
The use of additional cooling methods provides the transformer with an increase in kVA
capacity. The transformer nameplate gives the kVA rating temperature rise and cooling class.
The cooling classes and class codes are identified by ANSI/IEEE standards.
For dry-type transformers, size is the only variable that is considered when the cooling system
is specified as follows:
• Transformers that are 2000 kVA or smaller should be self-cooled (AA, ANV)
per Saudi Aramco standard.
• Transformers that are larger than 2000 kVA should be forced-air-cooled (AA,
FA) per Saudi Aramco standard.
There are three basic methods of cooling a dry-type transformer.
1. Self-cooled (AA) is where air or an insulating gas covers the core and coils
inside a nonventilated dry-type enclosure. Cooling occurs due to the natural
circulation of hot air to cold air.
a. Non-ventilated self-cooled (ANV) - The transformer uses the enclosure

to convect and radiate heat away.
b. Sealed self-cooled (GA) - The transformer uses the gas medium inside
the transformer to transfer heat to the enclosure where it can be
convected and radiated to the ambient air from the enclosure.

2. Air-cooled (AA/AF) is where air covers the core and coils inside the dry-type
enclosure. Cooling occurs due to the natural circulation of air around the core
and coils.
3. Forced-air-cooled (FA) is where air covers the core and coils inside the dry-
type enclosure. Cooling occurs in one of these ways:
– Natural air circulating through the enclosure (AA)
– Forced air circulating through the enclosure (FA)
No-Load Manual Tap Jumpers or Jumper Board

Often it is desirable to change the primary:secondary voltage ratio of the transformer by a
small amount. This may be done to compensate for the voltage drop in the supply source or
to raise or lower the voltage for the connected load. Most transformers have a device or
method to change the voltage output of the primary winding of the transformer. To change
this relationship, the ratio of turns between the primary and secondary winding is changed.
This is exactly what a jumper board or terminal connections on a dry-type transformer does.
It adds or subtracts turns in the primary winding. These taps do not improve voltage
regulation but are only for changing general voltage level of the transformer output.
Construction
On dry-type transformers you move metal or wire jumpers between terminals to select a
different tap. We call this type a no-load tap jumper board (JB) on larger dry type and a tap
jumper on small dry type. This type of tap jumper must be changed only when the
transformer is completely de-energized. The tap jumpers consist of two taps positions up and
two taps positions down, each rated at 2.5% from the center tap (jumper position #3). The
center tap (jumper position #3) is the normal voltage rating of the primary winding. (See
Figure 18).
11/01/95

Operation and Application
There are two tap positions above and two taps below the normal voltage rating. When the
jumper strap is at the center position (#3), it is said to be at the neutral position or center tap.
Each tap position will change the primary voltage output by ±2.5% of the rated normal
voltage. This means there is a voltage range of +5% up or -5% down from the normal voltage
on tap position #3.
WARNING: Do not modify a tap jumper on a no-load tap changer when the transformer is
energized. The transformer must be completely isolated from all voltage sources.
Modifying a no-load tap jumper when the transformer is energized, can cause damage to
the transformer, and more seriously, a possible injury or death.
11/01/95

Nameplate Information
Figure 18 shows part of a transformer nameplate listing the no-load tap changing primary
voltage ratings. This nameplate identifies the nominal voltage rating on Tap 3 of the primary
winding is 13,800 volts. Taps 1 and 2 are each 2.5% higher than tap 3 (13,800 x 0.025 = 345
volts). Taps 4 and 5 are each 2.5% lower than Tap 3.
Figure 18. Typical Transformer Nameplate with No-load Tap Changer

The last column identifies what part of the winding is in or out of the circuit. These numbers
are shown on the winding drawing. For example, if the no-load tap jumper is in position 3,
the chart tells us that the no-load tap jumper connects numbers 3 to 6. This is done on all
three primary windings. By placing a jumper between points 3 and 6, all turns between those
points (4 and 5) are shorted out. Therefore, these turns are effectively removed from the
winding and the turns ratio is changed.
What happens when the no-tap jumper is in position 1? The table identifies points 4 and 5 are
connected. The winding diagram shows us that all turns are in the circuit. Remember the
winding turns ratio and voltage ratio are the same. The turns ratio is equal to:
Ratio = Number of Primary Turns (Np)/Number of Secondary Turns (Ns)
Vp
Ratio = =N
Vs N tp = Tap Position
V ptv
N tp = V tpv = Pr imary Tap Voltage
Vs
If the number of primary turns increase, then the turns ratio increases. This also changes the
voltage ratio.
The opposite happens when the jumper is moved to tap position 5. Points 2 and 7 are
connected. This means that all turns between points 2 and 7 are jumpered. Using the above
formula, this lowers the turns ratio and voltage ratio.
The winding is always tapped in the center. This prevents the no-load tap jumper leads and
connections from being exposed to voltage surges and high terminal voltages.
All dry-type transformers should have a no-load tap changing means. This will allow you to
adjust or match the primary winding to the actual primary voltage. All larger dry-type
transformers should be specified with a no-load tap changing means with the standard ±2.5%
taps - 2 up and 2 down.
11/01/95

Example 1:
Given a 1000 kVA transformer with a primary voltage of 4160 volts, calculate the tap values
for the standard five taps.
Answer:
Nominal voltage is 4160 volts. This is Tap 3.
2.5% of 4160 = 0.025 x 4160 = 104 volts.
Tap 2 = 4160 + 104 = 4264 volts
Tap 1 = 4264 + 104 = 4368 volts
Tap 4 = 4160 - 104 = 4056 volts
Tap 5 = 4056 - 104 = 3952 volts

K-FACTOR TRANSFORMERS
The K-factor transformer was developed for the purpose of supplying nonsinusoidal load
currents of known characteristics without loss of normal life expectancy to the transformer.
A nonlinear load is when the instantaneous load current is discontinuous or is not proportional
to the instantaneous AC voltage. It is termed nonlinear. The effect is equivalent to the
presence of harmonic (higher frequency) components of current superimposed upon the
nominal (60 Hz) sinusoidal current. These harmonic currents also interact with the power
source impedance and typically create voltage distortion, excite power system resonances and
stress power system components on the AC distribution system.
Types of Nonlinear Loads

The various types of office equipment, particularly personal computers, have peculiar current
demand switching mode power supplies. These devices change their impedance drastically
during the voltage cycle or demand current only during part of the cycle. See Figure 19.

Figure 19. Typical Waveform of a Switching Power Supply

(shows that current is demanded only at the peaks of the voltage wave)

Types of Harmonics Produced by Nonlinear Loads

Linear loads, such as purely resistive loads, carry current waveforms which are the same
shape as the applied sinusoidal voltage waveform. Nonlinear loads such as switching mode
power supplies, demand little or no current during much of the voltage supply cycle. The
resultant current waveform is highly distorted as seen in Figures 19 and 20.
As multiple nonlinear devices are added to a common circuit, combining their non-sinusoidal
load requirements, the distortion can become even more pronounced. Through mathematical
analysis, even the most distorted waveform can be broken down into multiple higher-
frequency sinusoidal components which, when added together, will produce the original
waveform. These frequencies are called harmonics. A harmonic is a multiple of the
fundamental frequency.
The nonlinear current waveforms contain harmonic distortion. Distorted current waveforms
can be described as a combination of various proportions of harmonics. [For example, the
third harmonic of a 60 Hz supply would have a frequency of 180 Hz (3 x 60 = 180). See
Figure 21.]

Figure 20. Fundamental Plus 3rd and 5th Harmonics

(create typical nonlinear current wave)
Fundamental 60 Hz
3rd Harmonic 180 Hz
5th Harmonic 300 Hz
7th Harmonic 420 Hz
9th Harmonic 540 Hz
11th Harmonic 660 Hz
Only odd numbered harmonics are important in

practical electrical systems.
Figure 21. Typical Harmonics for a 60 Hz Power System

Harmonic Effects on Transformers

Transformer coil conductors operate in strong magnetic fields and are close to large masses of
metal, such as the transformer core and structural supports and enclosure parts. Such
conditions cause extra heating in coil conductors called "stray loss." Transformers are
designed to operate at safe temperatures with stray losses taken into account. When a
transformer is supplying nonlinear loads the stray losses increase dramatically when
supplying current containing higher frequencies than 60 Hz. The increased stray losses can
cause the coils to reach elevated temperatures far beyond their design rating. Thus,
transformers expected to supply nonlinear loads must be oversized by a factor depending on
the severity of the harmonics and the amount of stray losses in the transformer (Figure 22).
This process of purchasing larger transformers can become very expensive.
Figure 22. Deration Factors per ANSI/IEEE C57.110-1986
Stray losses vary greatly with the transformer size and from one manufacturer to another in
any given size. This is particularly true in the 15 kVA to 500 kVA range. The large majority
of distribution and lighting transformers.

This "rule of thumb" for derating (oversizing) transformers for nonlinear loads might be
adequate for one size or manufacturer but not for another manufacturer.
What is K-Factor?
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and transformer manufacturers established a rating method
called K-factor for dry-type power and distribution transformers to indicate their suitability
for nonsinusoidal load currents.
K-factor is a simple numerical rating that can be used to specify transformers for nonlinear
load use. Harmonic analysis instruments can determine the per-unit value of true RMS
current for each harmonic present, called Ih (PU). The products of the square of their value
and the square of the harmonic numbers (h) can be summed for the fundamental and all
harmonics to obtain the K-factor number representing the magnitude of harmonics present in
the load current (Tables 4 and 5).
Standard K-factor ratings are 4, 9, 13, 20, 30, 40 and 50. The K-factor for a linear load is
always 1. When the harmonic currents of the load are known the K-factor for the load can be
calculated and compared to the transformer's nameplate K-factor rating. As long as the load
K-factor ² the transformer K-factor, the transformer does not need to be derated. (Refer to
IEEE standard 1100-1992 for more information.)
Table 4
Transformers require no derating for nonlinear loads with a total
Ih(pu)2h2 (K-factor) of 4.0. The following load analysis is an
example of a K-4 load:
Harmonic (h) Current (Ih) Ih (pu) Ih (pu)2h2

1 91% .91 0.83
3 34% .34 1.04
5 22% .22 1.21
7 10% .10 0.49
9 4% .04 0.13
11 3% .03 0.11
13 2% .02 0.07
15 2% .02 0.09
17 1% .01 0.03
Total (K-Factor) = 4.00
These harmonic values are typical office loads comprised of 50%
electronic equipment and 50% standard magnetic ballast fluorescent
lighting.

Example: Determination of Ih(pu)2h2 for 5th harmonic (ref. Table 4)
h = The 5th harmonic, therefore, h = 5
Ih = Percentage of 5th harmonic in this load = 22%
Ih(pu) = Per unit conversion of 22% = 0.22
Ih(pu)2h2 = K factor number for 5th harmonics using above quantities:
Ih(pu)2h2 = (0.22)2(5)2 = 1.21
This answer is shown in Table 4 in the Ih(pu)2h2 column the 5th harmonic K factor number
for this load with a 22% 5th harmonics content is 1.21. When all harmonic levels are
converted the sum of all K factor quantities will equal the total K factor number for the load.
Table 5
Transformers are designed for more severe applications and can
operate at full rating with a total Ih(pu)2h2 (K-factor) load value of
13.0. The following load harmonics are an example of a K-13
requirement:
Harmonic (h) Current (Ih) Ih (pu) Ih (pu)2h2

1 49% .49 0.24
3 72% .72 4.66
5 43% .43 4.62
7 21% .21 2.16
9 9% .09 0.66
11 4% .04 0.19
13 3% .03 0.15
15 3% .03 0.20
17 2% .02 0.12
Total (K-Factor) = 13.00
These harmonic values represent the maximum, unusual duty of
100% electronic loads comprising the sole load on the transformer.
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K-Factor Transformer Construction

There are seven major considerations when a K-factor transformer is designed to be used on
nonlinear loads.
• Winding conductors must be either oversized to compensate for

increased stray losses or stray losses must be reduced in the coil design.
• The core must be designed at a reduced induction level to allow a safety

margin for increased core loss caused by distorted input voltage (bigger
core).
• The transformer neutral terminal must be increased in both ampacity

and lug pad size to accommodate more neutral conductors (Å 200%).
• Additional secondary capacity to compensate for higher stray loss.
• Oversize primary conductors to compensate for circulating harmonic

currents.
• Heavy gauge ventilated indoor enclosures (to increase cooling

capability).
• Transformer supplied with full width electrostatic shield resulting in a

maximum effective coupling capacitance between primary and
secondary of 33 picofarads.

INSPECTION AND TESTING
When a new or rebuilt dry-type transformer (1,000 kVA or larger) is received, these are the
testing and inspection steps that should be accomplished to complete commissioning of the
transformer:
• Acceptance of transformer (from the manufacturer) to include:
– Transformer purchase specification versus arrival transformer

and nameplate data verification
– Transformer Acceptance (or Receipt) Inspection at shipment arrival
• Transformer Installation and Inspection (permanent location)
• Transformer System Pre-operational Checkout (subsystems)
• Transformer Operational Testing (energizing transformer)
• Transformer Operational Observation Periodic Checks and Inspections
Transformer Acceptance and Installation Overview

The commissioning process (test and start-up) for all types of equipment is one of the most
important operations that is performed to a piece of equipment. All maintenance inspection,
testing and operation programs should start with the installation of new equipment and
continue through the life of the equipment. The installation, pre-operational and operational
tests are probably the most critical.
The need for acceptance testing of electrical power systems and components (transformers) is
very clear to those with extensive commissioning and/or operating experience. Shipping and
installation damage, field and factory wiring errors, manufacturing defects, systems and
components not in accordance with drawings and specifications, etc., are just some of the
many problems that can be detected by proper inspection and testing. By finding these
defects before start-up of equipment they can be corrected under warranty and without the
safety hazards and possible equipment and consequential damages of loss of use/production
that can occur if discovered too late. In addition, test results obtained during acceptance
testing are invaluable as base reference data for the periodic testing that is an essential
element of an effective maintenance program.
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These are the purposes for transformer acceptance and installation inspection, testing and
checks:
• Provides baseline data for future maintenance programs.
• Helps begin the development of trends for predictable future failures.
• Provides important baseline data which can help extend the life of the
equipment.
• Provides complete history and record of the equipment failures and repairs.
Transformer Acceptance from Manufacturer/Vendor
Manufacturer Test Results

The manufacturer test reports are only relevant to dry-type transformers sizes greater than 500
kVA. The smaller transformers have minimum tests performed at the factory and therefore
some tests performed on larger transformers are not available for smaller units. Dry-type
transformers 1,000 kVA and larger usually have the same types of tests performed at the
factory.
The test reports for large dry-type transformers are provided by the manufacturer to the
purchasing facility engineer were the final data requiring approval before shipment of the
transformer. The facility engineer should review these test results and evaluate if the tests and
results were acceptable, and if all the special factory tests requested were performed and
acceptable according to standards. Some of these various factory tests are not performed in
the field and are important indicators if the transformer meets design specifications and of its
overall electrical condition. These same type tests are usually performed at a manufacturing
facility for new transformers or a repair shop for reworked transformers. The data from some
of the other tests are important to the field testing personnel as a base guideline for future
reference when performing field installation testing and later for maintenance testing.
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Transformer Specifications and Nameplate Data Verification

The responsible receiving engineer should verify that this is the transformer purchased for this
job and the one the manufacturer shipped. Usually this can be accomplished by verifying the
nameplate on the transformer to the drawing nameplate sent by the manufacturer. If there is
no drawing nameplate available, then use the specification and check that the electrical
parameters agree with what the purchasing facility engineer ordered. Ensure that the
transformer installation manuals, drawings, also operation and maintenance manuals are
provided. These items, which are often shipped in separate containers, must be inspected for
possible shipping damage.
Verify that all equipment completely meets the mechanical specifications and project drawing
requirements. A major example of this is that the transformer meets all the physical
dimensions specified on project layout drawings. The engineer should check the bill of
materials and verify that all accessory parts are included within this shipment. This can
include fans, mounting hardware, high- and low-voltage terminations and gauges. The types
and amount of equipment usually are determined by the size and make of dry-type
transformer.
Transformer Acceptance or Receipt Inspection

Transformer acceptance inspection is a visual inspection. When this type of inspection is
performed on a new transformer, the following areas are considered:
• General precautions.
• Dry-type transformer winding inspection.
• Accessories inspection.
General Precautions - While physical inspections are performed on transformers, some

general precautions should be followed. The first precaution is to use common sense. This
precaution applies to any task. The second is to be familiar with the dry-type transformer that
is being inspected. If the person performing an inspection is not familiar with this equipment,
many inherent dangers may go unnoticed. The final general precaution is to refer to the
manufacturer’s technical manual on dry-type transformers before the inspections are
performed. This document will contain any specific precautions to be followed for this
particular dry-type transformer.
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Dry-Type Transformer Winding Inspection - The purpose of the dry-type transformer

winding inspection is to determine the physical integrity of the winding insulation system.
The winding inspections should be performed before the transformer is removed from the
transportation vehicle. The transformer panels should be inspected for evidence of impact
damage. The necessary panels should be removed and the winding inspected for dust, dirt,
corrosion, water damage, physical damage and any other problem with the winding
insulation. On sealed, dry-type transformers, the internal tank pressure of the transformers
should be checked to ensure the integrity of the tank seal.
Accessories Inspection - The purpose of the accessories inspection is to ensure that all the
accessories that have been ordered have been delivered and are not physically damaged. This
inspection should be performed as part of the initial overall visual inspection. The accessories
to be inspected include, but are not limited to, the following:
• Cooling fans, mounting hardware, and controls
• Any alarm controls
• Any grounding
• Transformer skid frame and shock absorbers for noise
• Miscellaneous hardware for raceway
Transformer Receipt or Acceptance Testing

The receipt testing is performed to determine any major electrical problems that could exist
from shipping and handling of the transformer. These are quick tests preferably performed
while the transformer (1,000 kVA and larger) is still loaded on the shipping vehicle. These
tests determine the integrity of the winding insulation system. For a dry-type transformer the
tests are as follows:
• Winding ratio - Turns ratio test (on center tap only)

• Winding resistance test (on center tap only)
• Insulation resistance
– 60 sec test
– Step voltage test
• Core ground test (permanent connection for smaller transformers)
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These are the minimum tests to perform for the receipt testing that can identify any major
transformer problems that may exist. These test values should be recorded and compared
against factory test values and will also be used later for comparison during the installation
testing phase.
When the transformer receipt inspection and testing is completed and results are acceptable,
the transformer can be unloaded. At this point several things could happen to the transformer,
such as:
• Unloaded to long-term storage

• Unloaded to short-term storage
• Unloaded to permanent location
• Unloaded to temporary installation
These are but a few of the possible situations that could occur when the transformer arrives on
site and is unloaded from the initial shipper. When a transformer is set into storage, special
conditions should be attended to, to protect and maintain good exterior and interior conditions
of the transformer.
Transformer Storage
All storage situations require the same level of testing when the transformer is finally set into
a permanent location after being stored for a period of time. The transformer has to have a
complete installation inspection and testing performed before it is energized. Remember that
receipt inspection and testing were only preliminary and very general in scope to determine
any major problems that may result in the transformer not being acceptable prior to receiving.
Transformer Installation Inspection

This section deals with the types of inspection and testing performed on dry-type transformers
1,000 kVA and larger after the transformer has been installed at its permanent location from
which it will be energized as part of the power system. The transformer should be completely
inspected and tested at this point in time with more detail and accuracy, because this
inspection and testing is being done just prior to energizing the transformer with electrical
power. Everything should be complete and acceptable before this energization step is taken.
This is to prevent damage to the transformer or accessory equipment, and ensure personal
safety.
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Transformer Location Verification

The following is a list of inspection items that should be completed prior to installing the
transformer in place:
• Verify that nameplate ratings are per Saudi Aramco transformer

specifications, and that it is the proper transformer.
• Verify that the transformer is located in the proper location per project
drawings.
• Verify that any possible system electrical revisions are compatible and
functional with both system and transformer per project drawings.
• Verify that the transformer will physically fit into its planned location
per project drawings.
• Verify all construction around transformer location is completed before

installing to prevent possible damage after installation.
• Coordinate the time to set transformer with the project schedule so as

not to interfere with any other construction or installation.
• Verify that all power cable or raceway runs and terminations to

equipment are according to project drawings.
• Ensure that unattached accessory equipment to be installed after

installation is available with all mounting hardware necessary to install
per manufacture drawings.
• Verify that all accessory attached equipment necessary for installation

on the transformer are aligned and installed properly per manufacture
drawings.
• Verify that the complete installation has complied with all Saudi
Aramco, industry, and safety standards.
When all the above location verification items have been completed and the transformer has
been installed in its permanent place, the installation inspection should begin. All the
construction should be complete before the transformer installation inspection is performed,
otherwise the inspection should be delayed. This ensures that construction damage cannot
occur after the inspection, in which case, no one would know until it was too late.

Transformer Installation Inspection (Form P-024)

According to Form P-024, the engineer should check these items upon installation and before
energizing the unit:
• Inspect complete exterior of transformer to ensure no damage occurred

while moving the transformer from truck or storage area and setting it in
place. Also check general workmanship of enclosure construction,
finish, and the painting. Ensure that there are no damaged or missing
parts.
• Ensure that the nameplate data matches the information illustrated in the
Single-Line Diagram or project drawings.
• Be sure that the transformer has the right type of enclosure for Area
Classification where it is installed.
• Check that the raceway fittings are installed correctly and meet the
specifications on the drawings.
• Ensure that the primary and secondary leads are prepared properly and
connected for the correct voltage. Check against the drawings.
• Ensure that the unit is properly grounded per project drawings and that
the neutral conductor is correctly installed.
• Verify that all the required accessories are available and correctly
installed per manufacturer data.
• Inspect transformer to ensure all packing, shipping braces, blocking,

shipping tags, or any equipment impeding proper mechanical or
electrical operation is removed.
• Ensure any spare conductors (pigtails) not used are properly insulated.
• Verify mechanical operation of all auxiliary devices (fans and no-load

tap jumpers).
• Use torque wrench to check tightness of accessible bolted connections

in accordance with manufacturer specifications or Form P-000
guidelines (see page 3 of P-000).

Extra items not listed on Form P-024:
• Ensure transformer tap jumper is set for correct voltage and record
setting after testing is completed.
• Inspect transformer for water damage or corrosion that could have

occurred during possible storage.
• Inspect equipment for dust and dirt that could have occurred during
possible storage.
• Inspect all gauges and indicators for any damage.
• Be sure the unit is clean and ready for testing.
• When all accessory equipment is installed on the transformer, inspect all

mechanical moving parts are operable and installed properly per
manufacturer requirements.
• Inspect all wired connections for accuracy, tightness and electrical

clearances necessary per Saudi Aramco and industry standards.
• Verify that all electrical equipment will manually operate per

manufacturer's requirements.
• Determine if the primary bushings and/or connections have the proper

length for creepage distance as required by Saudi Aramco standards.
Transformer Installation Testing

When the installation of the transformer and its accessory equipment has been completed, the
installation inspection has been performed, all major mechanical and electrical problems have
been found and repaired, and all construction around transformer is completed, then
installation testing can begin. All the mechanical or electrical work on transformer should be
completed to prevent a change in the transformer that could affect test results. It is essential
that all the testing be done at this point. The only time the base guideline test data can be
obtained is while it is new and has no operating hours. All tests should be performed (without
any being omitted) because some of the tests overlap each other, providing backup data
confirming the results for the same possible problems. The duplication can confirm, deny, or
raise a question as to test results accuracy.
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The installation testing should be performed just prior to energizing the transformer. There
should never be a long delay of more than one month between testing and energizing the
transformer (less if possible). This prevents possible damage or change in the condition of the
transformer.
The installation electrical tests are necessary to determine that the electrical condition of the
transformer is correct, and to ensure the proper setup of the equipment and controls prior to
energizing the unit. These tests also provide a benchmark for referral by subsequent
operational tests that may be performed in the future. There are nine installation tests and
inspections that should be performed on the dry-type transformer 500 kVA and larger (see
Form P-000 and Form P-024):
• Turns Ratio Tests

• Polarity Test
• Winding Resistance Test
• Winding Insulation Resistance Test
– Polarization Index and 60 sec Tests
• Core Ground Inspection and Test
• Enclosure Ground Inspection and Test
• Tap Setting Inspection
Turns Ratio Test (TTR)

The TTR (transformer turn ratio) test measures the ratio of the voltage between transformer
windings to insure that it agrees with its nameplate. The test is performed before putting a
transformer into service to assure that any work done to the windings, tap changer jumpers or
transformer connections did not change the ratio. The turn ratio test is also used in
maintenance testing, to investigate the possibility of problems following a transformer's
exposure to severe duty or faults.
When performing this test due to a maintenance function (transformer has been energized), be
sure to follow proper safety guidelines prior to making the turn ratio measurement. A check
is made to verify that the transformer is de-energized, that power supply devices are properly
"locked-out." Safety ground connections are removed from the winding circuits only as
needed to perform the test and is replaced when finished.
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The basic method of performing this test is accomplished by using a TTR test set. A typical
test set is one manufactured by the James G. Biddle Company (catalog No. 55003, Figures 23
and 24) or a transformer ratiometer Model XRB-2 manufactured by Electrical Testing
Instruments. The TTR test set contains a small AC power source of about 8 volts which is
applied to the low voltage winding of the transformer to be tested and also to the low voltage
winding of the parallel reference transformer, also located in the TTR set (Figure 25). The
ratio of the reference transformer is adjusted until a detector comparing the high voltage
winding of each transformer (the transformer under test and the reference transformer) is
nulled. The turn ratio of the transformer under test can then be read directly from the dials on
the TTR test set.
When testing a transformer, the turn ratio is measured for all combinations of winding pairs.
For a two winding transformer there are three combinations (LV to HV; LV = low voltage
winding, HV = high voltage winding). See Figure 26 for polyphase transformer connections.
For transformers with a de-energized tap jumper, the turn ratio is measured between the high
voltage winding on each tap jumper position and the rated low voltage winding.
In accordance with ANSI standards, the measure turn ratios must be within 0.5% of
nameplate values. Ratios exceeding this acceptance value should be investigated to identify
potential problems.

Figure 23. Transformer Turn Ratio (TTR) Test Set

Figure 24. TTR Controls and Indicators
Figure 25. Schematic Diagram for Transformer Turn Ratio (TTR) Test Set

Figure 26. Polyphase Transformer Connections

TTR Testing Indications - The indicator windows, above the four decade switches, give the
actual turns ratio of the transformer. This is only true when the TTR test set is in a balanced
condition. Because of this, you must first balance the TTR test set before reading the dials.
The test set is balanced when the following conditions occur:
• The test set crank is being turned (or power source models engage
switch).
• The voltmeter reads 8 volts.
• Ammeter reading decreases toward zero.
• Null detector has no deflection.
Figure 27 shows the TTR test set indications that are present when the test set is balanced.
These readings show a turns ratio of 115.415:1. Note that for the accuracy of this instrument,
the instrument manufacturer suggests that the instrument should be read to the nearest tenth,
resulting in a reading of 115.415:1.
Figure 27. TTR Set Indications When Balanced
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Expected Test Results - The voltage ratings, or ratios, which are indicated on transformer
nameplates are based on the number of turns of wire on the transformer primary and
secondary windings. So, the turns ratio between the transformer primary and secondary is
equal to the voltage ratio between the same primary and secondary. This ratio is only true for
phase voltages. The following equation shows this relationship. This equation should be
compared to each position of the transformer no-load voltage tap jumper position:
Vp
= Calculated Turns Ratio = N
Vs
where: Vp is Primary Phase Voltage
Vs is Secondary Phase Voltage
The expected turns ratio value is equal to the calculated value ± 0.5%. If the value that is
measured is not in this range, there is a problem with the transformer or the test set.
Interpretation of Data - There are two different starting points to consider in interpretation
of TTR test data. These are balanced and unbalanced readings.
Balanced Readings - A balanced reading that is ± 0.5% of the calculated turns ratio is the
normal indication. In this case, the transformer is fine. A balanced reading that is more than
+ 0.5% of the calculated turns ratio shows a problem. The problem is either a wrong
connection or a short circuit.
If the reading is out of specification, check to make sure the TTR tester has the right
connections. If the connections are right, the problem may be shorted turns, which will
require an internal inspection or a detanking of the transformer to find the problem.
Unbalanced Readings - If a balanced reading cannot be obtained, several problems are

possible. These are:
• Wrong connection or test method
• Open circuit in windings
• Short circuit in windings
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First verify that the proper test method is being used for the transformer under test (turns ratio
or inverse turns ratio). Next, make sure the connections are right. If these are all right, a short
or open circuit exists in the windings. The type of problem can be determined by the other
indications on the TTR test set.
Open-circuit indications are as follows:
• Normal exciting current
• Normal generator voltage
• No deflections of the null detector
Short-circuit indications are as follows:
• High exciting current
• Low generator voltage
Again, an internal inspection or a detanking of the transformer might be required to find the
problem.
Review of Sample Data - Figure 28 shows the TTR test set readings from a transformer with
the following nameplate voltage ratings.
• Winding Configuration : Delta-Wye
• Primary Voltage : 13,800 Volts
• Secondary Voltage : 480y/277 Volts

Figure 28. Sample TTR Readings (Set One)

To find out if these readings are good or bad, you must first calculate the turns ratio, using
nameplate data as follows:
V P 13 ,800 Volts
Turns Ratio = = = 49.819:1
VS 277 Volts
Next, find out what the allowable range of measured readings is as follows:
(49.819) (0.5%) = 0.2491
Allowable Range = 49.819 + 0.2491 = 50.0681
= 49.819 – 0.2491 = 49.5699
Now, compare the measured value to the calculated value. The measured value is 49.705.
These readings do not show a problem.
Figure 29 shows the TTR readings from the same transformer taken 1 year later. Look
closely at the indications given in the figure. Notice that there is normal excitation current,
normal generator voltage, and the null detector is in the center position. At a first glance,
these readings may appear normal, until the values in the windows are read closely.
Since these are all at zero, there should be some deflection of the null detector. Since there is
no deflection, this transformer most likely has an open winding.

Figure 29. Sample TTR Readings (Set Two)

Winding-to-Winding Polarity Test

Polarity - Standard American practice is to mark winding terminals as X1, X2, etc., in the
low voltage winding; H1, H2, etc., in the high-voltage winding starting from the ends of the
winding which go around the core in the same direction, as shown in Figure 30. By definition
terminals H1 and X1 have the same polarity.
Polarity is of no importance in a singly connected distribution transformer, but it is of

importance if transformers are to be paralleled or banked. Polarity can be determined by the
connection of Figure 30, but it can be most conveniently checked at the same time as the ratio
by the connection of Figure 31. Wrong polarity is immediately apparent.
Three-Phase Polarity and Phase Sequence - Polarity, taken phase by phase, is no different
in a three-phase transformer from what it is in a single-phase transformer. However, because
of the various ways in which the windings can be connected, polarity alone does not describe
the relation between the primary and secondary systems of a three-phase voltage. Figure 32
shows a number of the possible connections of three-phase windings, together with rules for
determining phase sequence. The markings of leads H1, H2, and H3, shown in Figure 32,
indicate that the induced voltages of these leads to neutral pass through their positive peak
values in this order in time. An angular displacement of 30 electrical degrees exists in Group
2 of Figure 32.
If the terminals of all phase windings are available, checking polarity phase by phase is
simple and straightforward. If one winding is connected in Y with the neutral not available,
three-phase voltage must be applied and measurements of voltage made according to Figure
32.
Voltmeter Flicks Method Polarity Test - The polarity of a transformer is a designation of

the relative instantaneous directions of currents in its leads. Primary and secondary leads are
said to have the same polarity when at a given instant the current enters the primary lead in
question and leaves the secondary lead in question in the same direction as though the two
leads formed a continuous circuit.
The H1 lead usually is brought out of the right-hand side of the case, viewed from the high
voltage side. A single phase transformer is subtractive polarity if the H1 and X1 leads are
directly across from each other and additive polarity if the X1 lead is located diagonally
across from the H1 lead.
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The complete polarity designation of a three-phase transformer requires a vector diagram

showing the angular displacement of the windings and a sketch showing the location and
marking of the leads.
Polarity can be determined by using a dc voltmeter and a battery. Connect the battery and
voltmeter to the high-voltage terminals using a voltmeter range to give a small positive (up-
scale) deflection of the pointer on the scale. Then transfer the voltmeter leads directly across
the transformer; that is, the voltmeter lead on the right-hand high-voltage terminal is
transferred to the right-hand low-voltage terminal, and the lead on the left-hand high-voltage
terminal is transferred to the left-hand low-voltage terminal. The battery circuit is then
broken, inducing a voltage in the low-voltage winding and causing a deflection of the
voltmeter pointer. If the pointer swings in a positive (up-scale) direction, the polarity is
additive. If the pointer swings in a negative (down off-scale) direction, the polarity is
subtractive. See Figure 32B.
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Terminals which lead out from the transformer in the same direction around the
core, H1 and X1, have the same polarity, and the instantaneous induced voltage
at these terminals has the same sign. If a voltage is applied to H1 - H2, and
connections made as shown by the dotted lines, the polarity is correct
(subtractive) if voltmeter V < H1H2 applied voltage.
Figure 30. LV/HV Winding Markings/Polarity
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By varying the potentiometer in (a) or the standard transformer tap switch in (b), a balance
can be obtained at which the detector voltage is zero, and the ratio of voltage of the test
transformer determined from the setting of the tap switch.
Figure 31. Ratio Measuring Schemes

Angular displacement diagrams for three-phase transformers and check

measurements for determining the polarity of three-phase transformers.
Figure 32A. Angular Displacements

Figure 32B. Voltmeter Flick Method Polarity Test
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Three-Phase Transformer Polarity - Polarity on three-phase transformers is not as simple

because of phase rotation, lead marking and the types of internal connections. In addition to
lead markings, voltage-vector diagrams are required to show the angular phase displacement
between the high-voltage and low-voltage windings and the time order of phase sequence. To
determine if a three-phase transformer has a subtractive or an additive polarity, you must
interpret the vector diagram associated with the particular transformer. Large power
transformers have a subtractive polarity by standard. The vector diagram is stamped on the
nameplate of the transformer or can be found on drawings supplied with the transformer.
With a delta-delta or a wye-wye connection the corresponding line voltages may have either a
0 or 180 degree displacement. If the phase shift is zero degrees, the transformer is subtractive
polarity. If the phase shift is 180 degrees, the transformer has additive polarity. The vector
diagrams are shown in Figures 33a and 33b.
In Figure 33a, the X1-X3 vector is in parallel and in phase with the H1-H3 vector. The same
holds true for the X1-X2 and the H1-H2 vectors as well as the X2-X3 and the H2-H3 vector.
There is no phase shift or angular displacement, therefore this connection is subtractive
polarity.
In Figure 33b, the X3-X1 vector is parallel but there is a 180 degree displacement with the
H1-H3 vector. X3-X2 is parallel with the H2-H3, but displaced by 180 degrees. The same
holds true for the third vector. In this case the connection is additive polarity.
Figures 33c and 33d shows the same relationships for a wye-wye connected transformer.
With a wye-wye connection, you compare the phase-to-neutral vectors. In Figure 33c, the
X1-X0 vector is in phase and parallel with the H1-H0 vector. Therefore it is subtractive
polarity. Figure 33d shows the vectors displaced by 180 degrees. This is additive polarity.
Figure 33e shows a delta-wye transformer connection with subtractive polarity. Remember,
a delta-wye transformer causes a 30-degree phase shift between the primary and secondary
windings in both cases. The X1-X0 vector is parallel, and there is no displacement when
compared to the H1-H3 vector. The same holds true for the other vectors. In Figure 33f, the
X0-X1 vector is displaced by 180 degrees when compared to the H1-H3 vector. This is
additive polarity.
Note: The X0 vector is sometimes labeled N.

Figure 33. Phasor Diagrams

Winding Resistance Test

Winding resistance measurements are made to determine if any changes have occurred in the
current carrying path of the transformer. In particular, the terminal-to-terminal resistance
measurement helps to identify the presence of high resistance joints and poor connections.
When performing this test due to a maintenance function (transformer has been energized), be
sure to follow proper safety guidelines before making the measurement. Verify that the
transformer is de-energized, that power supply devices are properly "locked-out." Removed
winding circuit grounds only as needed to make the measurements and replace when
finished.
The terminal-to-terminal resistance measurement is made with a Kelvin bridge, Wheatstone

bridge (Figure 34 and 35), Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeter (DLRO) or similar low
resistance reading instrument (see Figure 36). Because resistance varies as a function of
temperature, the resistance readings are corrected or normalized to one reference temperature.
The normalized reference temperature used for dry-type transformers is equal to the rated
average winding temperature rise (80°C or 150°C) plus 20°C. For dry-type transformers, this
will be as follows:
Temp. Rise Correction Normalized Temp.
80°C 20°C = 100°C
150°C 20°C = 170°C
Table 6 shows the formulas used to convert winding resistance readings to their normalized
reference.
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Figure 34. Bridge Network Connections
Figure 34 shows the connections to the bridge network to the component being tested. The
test leads to the component should be as short as possible and as close to the same length as
possible to minimize errors.

Figure 35. Wheatstone Bridge

Figure 36. Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeter

Table 6
Formulas to Convert Winding Resistance
to Reference Temperature for Dry-Type Transformers
Copper Winding Aluminum Winding
100°C R a (234.5 + 100 ) R a (225 + 100 )

R 100 = R 100 =
(234.5 + T a ) (225 + T a )
170°C R a (234.5 + 170 ) R a (225 + 170 )
R 170 = R 170 =
(234.5 + T a ) (225 + T a )
R100 or R170 = Corrected resistance

Ra = Measured resistance at ambient temperature
Ta = Ambient temperature in °C
The winding resistance measurements for three phase transformers are very often reported by
manufacturers as a single value. For this case, the resistance for individual windings are first
measured and grouped together as a single value in accordance with the following formulas.
Three-Phase Transformer (Wye with a neutral bushing) - For transformers with wye
connected windings and a neutral bushing, the resistance is measured between each
phase bushing and the neutral bushing. The three readings are then added together to
give one total resistance value.
Three-Phase Transformer (Wye without a neutral bushing) For wye connected

transformers without a neutral bushing, the resistance is measured between each pair
of line bushings. The three readings are added together and then multiplied by 1/2 to
give a one total resistance value.
Three-Phase Transformer (Delta Connected) _ For delta connected transformers, the

resistance is measured between each pair of line bushings. The three readings are
added together and then multiplied by 3/2 to give one total resistance value.
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The most effective way to use terminal-to-terminal resistance measurements are to compare
them to the manufacturer test values and previous inspection values. If all connections in the
current carrying path remain close to factory values, there should be no reason to corrected
resistance readings. Variations of more than one percent from previous readings should be
investigated for the possibility of developing problems.
Precision in field measurements of winding resistance using digital instruments is affected by

the presence of stray fields of relatively low concentration. Additionally, all DC
measurements are affected by the winding capacitance. It can take an hour or more on an
EHV transformer to get a single valid resistance reading. Therefore, comparison of readings
with other phases or with a duplicate transformer has much more significance.
Winding Insulation Resistance (Megger) Test

The winding insulation resistance test (also called a Megger Test) is a measure of the relative
and condition quality of the winding insulation of the transformer and indicates presence of
moisture. The test is normally performed using a megohmmeter that may be either hand
operated or motor driven (motor driven preferable). The megohmmeter will typically provide
a constant potential of 500, 1000, 2500, or 5000 VDC to be applied across the insulation with
the insulation resistance read directly from a scale calibrated in megohms.
The insulation resistance of dry-type transformers varies over a wider range due to exposure
of the insulation to the atmosphere (dust, moisture, fumes) and use of different type of
transformer construction materials (epoxy cast coils). The insulation resistance of a dry-type
transformer can vary due to the moisture content, cleanliness and the temperature of the
insulation parts. Since the value of the resistance varies with temperature, all measurements
are corrected to 40°C per GI-P-024 for comparison purposes. Per Aramco GI-P-024, Table
7A provides a list of temperature correction factors used for dry-type transformers. To correct
measurements to their 40°C reference, multiply the measured value by the corresponding
correction factor shown in the table. (Also, a Table 7B for correction to 20°C, if needed.)
Table 7A
Resistance Measured 0.0 10. 20. 30. 40. 50. 60. 70. 80. 90. 100. 110.
t = Winding Temp °C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C.F. = Correction Factor 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 8.0 16. 32. 64.0 128.
6 2 5 0 0 0 0
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Correct measured resistance to 40°C

C.F. = Correction Factor
Rc = Insulation resistance corrected to 40°C
Rmt = Measure resistance at some temperature t
Rc = Rmt x (C.F.)
Example: (For correction to 40°C)
The megohmmeter reading for a winding insulation resistance test is found to be 256
megohms with the winding temperature at 45°C.
To correct the resistance measurement to the 40°C reference, determine the correction factor
for the measurement temperature and use to multiply resistance reading.
Correction Factor (45°C) = 1.5

Rc = Rmt x (C.F.)
R40°C = (R45°C)(Correction Factor (45°C))
R40°C = (256 megohms)(1.5) = 384 megohms
Table 7B
Temperature Correction Factors for Dry-Type Transformer
Winding Insulation Resistance
Temp. (°C) Temp. (°F) Correction Temp. (°C) Temp. (°F) Correction
80 176 16.00 35 95 2.05
75 167 13.00 30 86 1.60
70 158 10.00 25 77 1.30
65 149 8.70 20 68 1.00
60 140 6.40 15 59 0.75
55 131 5.20 10 50 0.50
50 122 4.00 5 41 0.45
45 113 3.25 0 32 0.40
40 104 2.50
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Before making insulation resistance tests on a particular transformer, the level of voltage to be
used is determined. The choice is subjective and incorporates a tradeoff. The benefit of using
a voltage as high as possible is to enhance the sensitivity of the test, meaning a larger
megohm value can be measured. The risk of high test voltage is that the insulation might
actually begin to "break down" which would yield a meaningless resistance reading and
possibly cause damage. But in actual practice voltage selections of 1000 VDC or 2500 VDC
will yield measurements of acceptable sensitivity for all but the largest transformers.
Like liquid filled transformers, no exact values of insulation resistance can be specified for
dry-type transformers. But Table 8 can be used as a guide for minimum acceptable insulation
resistance values for dry-type transformers as per coil ratings and minimum DC test voltage
used.
Insulation resistance measurements are made by applying megohmmeter voltage to

transformer windings individually and in combination. All windings not under test are
connected to ground. Connections are made so that no winding "floats" at an unknown
electric potential with respect to ground potential.
To measure insulation resistance, first verify that the transformer is de-energized and that all
devices disconnecting sources of power are "locked-out." Verify that the transformer is
properly grounded. Connect together all of the bushing terminals of each winding circuit.
Make connections to the megohmmeter terminals. Read the scale (or numerical display) of
the megohmmeter after voltage has been applied for one minute and record the reading. Read
and record the temperature of the winding (by hot-spot temperature gauge or ambient
temperature). Record the voltage level used.
Warning: Take care to discharge the capacitance of each winding before

and after each test.
Warning: Never perform an insulation resistance test on a transformer that

is under vacuum.
Typical schematic connection diagrams for measuring the insulation resistance of single-
phase and three-phase transformers are shown in Figures 37 and 38.
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Table 8
Dry-Type Transformer Insulation Resistance
(Rule of Thumb) for Older Transformers
System Voltage Extreme Minimum Values
600 V and down (1 meg ohm/1 kV) + 1 kV
1,000 V to 34.5 kV (1 meg ohm/1 kV) + 1 kV
69 kV and up (3 meg ohms/1 kV) + 1 kV
Given in Table 9 are the recommended connections to be used to measure the insulation
resistance of two- and three-winding transformers.
Table 9
Megohmmeter Connections for Testing Two Winding
and Three Winding Transformers
Two Winding Transformer Three Winding Transformer
HV winding to LV and ground HV winding to LV, TV and ground
LV winding to HV and ground LV winding to HV, TV and ground
HV and LV windings to ground TV winding to HV, LV and ground
HV and LV windings to TV and ground
HV and TV windings to LV and ground
LV and TV windings to HV and ground
HV, LV and TV windings to ground

Figure 37. Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Insulation Resistance of a Typical
Single-Phase (Two-Winding) Transformer

Figure 38. Schematic Diagram for Measuring the Insulation Resistance of a Typical
Three-Phase Delta-Wye Transformer

Measuring the insulation resistance of a transformer is an easy test to perform in the field and
one that serves two important uses. One is the detection of ground failures within the
transformer. And the other is a check on the relative condition of the insulation. Maintaining
a history of the insulation resistance readings and plotting them against time, provides for the
detection of relative deterioration to the insulation.
Insulation resistance measurements should be compared to their factory and historical

baseline values for acceptable level. More important than the absolute value of resistance, is
whether the most recently measured value shows a major change from the baseline.
The most effective way to use and interpret insulation resistance readings are to trend and
compare them to their factory and previous inspection values. Significant changes should be
investigated for possible problem sources. For dry-type transformers, low insulation
resistance readings are usually an indication of accumulated dirt or the presence of moisture.
Dirt and other foreign materials should be cleaned from the windings using dry nitrogen at
low pressure levels.
Typically, a dry-type transformer that is continuously energized will dissipate enough heat as
a result of its losses to keep the winding insulation reasonably dry. Moisture usually becomes
a problem only when a transformer has been de-energized for a period of time without the
benefit of internal space heaters. For these cases, the moisture can effectively be removed
using various drying methods such as blowing heated air through the bottom air inlets,
enclosing the transformer in a portable tent and blowing heated air through the tent, or
energizing the transformer primary at a low power level for extended period of time.
Winding Insulation Polarization Index Test

The purpose of the polarization index test is to determine if equipment is suitable for
operation or even for an over voltage test. The polarization index is a ratio of the megohm
resistance at the end of a ten minute test to that at the end of a one minute test at a constant
voltage. As with the measurement of insulation resistance, a voltage near line voltage is most
desirable.
The total current that is developed when applying a steady state DC voltage is composed of
three components.
(1) Charging current due to the capacitance of the insulation being

measured. This current falls off from maximum to zero very rapidly.
(2) Absorption current due to molecular charge shifting in the insulation.

This transient current decays to zero more slowly.

(3) Leakage current which is the true conduction current of the insulation.
The leakage current varies with the test voltage. It may also have
accomponent due to the surface leakage due especially to surface
contamination.
Since leakage current increases at a faster rate with moisture present than does absorption
current, the megohm readings will not increase with time as fast with insulation in poor
condition when compared to insulation in good condition. This results in a lower polarization
index. An advantage of the index ratio is that all of the variables which can affect a single
megohm reading such as temperature and humidity are essentially the same for both the one
minute and ten minute readings. The polarization index test is generally performed by taking
megohm readings at the following intervals at a constant DC voltage: 1 minute and then every
minute up to 10 minutes. The polarization index again is the ratio of the 10 minute to the 1
minute megohm readings. The following are guidelines for evaluating transformer insulation
using polarization index values:
Polarization Index Insulation Condition

Less than 1 Dangerous
1.0 - 1.1 Poor
1.1 - 1.25 Questionable
1.25 - 2.0 Fair
Above 2.0 Good
Example:
Megohm readings at 1 minute = 5,000 m ohms
Megohm readings at 10 minutes = 10,000 m ohms
10 minute reading 10,000

Polarization Index = = = 2 PI
1 minute reading 5, 000

Step Voltage Test - If two different voltage test are taken at widely varying ranges (500 volts
and 2,500 volts for instance) and the difference between the two readings is more than 25%,
this indicates the possibility of moisture in the insulation system. This possibility should be
confirmed by additional tests, such as polarization index test, insulation power factor test, oil
dielectric test for moisture.
Core Ground Inspection and Test

Dry-type transformer cores are insulated from ground to prevent the flow of circulating
currents. By design, the core is grounded at one point for the following reasons:
• To place it at ground potential
• Remove static charges
• Prevent the core from electrically floating
• Provides protection in the event that transformer windings short circuit

to the core
More than one ground results in circulating current that adds heat to the transformer and
raises the ambient noise level. Lack of a ground causes the core to "float" at an elevated
potential due to induced voltage.
For small dry-type transformers, the core ground connection is usually a fixed lead
permanently connected in place with no provision for disconnecting to allow measuring of the
insulation resistance to ground. For this type of connection, only a visual inspection is made
to determine that the lead is not burned, frayed or broken.
Larger transformers typically have a flexible core ground lead with terminals that can be
unbolted. This type is first given a visual inspection to assure good mechanical condition, and
then disconnected to allow measuring the core-to-ground insulation resistance.
Core-to-ground insulation resistance measurements should be corrected to 20°C (as described

earlier in Table 7B) and then compared to previous measurements for acceptable level. A
typical value for core-to-ground insulation resistance when corrected to 20°C is 200
megohms.
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A reading of only several ohms indicates a solid unwanted ground, while a reading of 300 to
400 ohms suggests that some foreign material has come between the core and ground. For
both cases, corrective steps must be taken to clear the ground and restore the insulation
resistance.
The insulation resistance from core-to-ground should read 1,000 megohms for a new unit,
however, readings as low as 50 megohms may be acceptable if there is no other evidence of
core movement or mechanical damage.
Enclosure Ground Inspection and Test

In the same manner that is used for checking the tank ground connection for liquid filled
transformers, inspect the case ground connection of the dry-type transformer. Visually
inspect for signs of corrosion, oxidation, discoloration or broken connections. Check
connecting hardware for satisfactory tightness.
When corrosion or oxidation is present, the contact resistance of the connection can be
measured using a low resistance ohmmeter. High resistance joints should be separated and
cleaned. However, before separating the connection, check with a clamp-on ammeter to
verify that no ground current is flowing. After cleaning, rejoining and torquing the
connecting bolts, the contact resistance can again be measured to assure satisfactory cleaning
of the connection.
Although often difficult to accomplish in a substation or factory, when and where practical,
the actual resistance to ground of the ground electrode should be measured using a Ground
Resistance Tester. The ground electrode resistance measurement tracks variations caused by
changes in soil temperature, soil moisture and soil conductive salts. Recording and trending
these measurements allows monitoring of the integrity of the ground resistance.
Tap Setting Verification

The purpose of the tap setting verification is to ensure the transformer no-load tap jumper is in
the proper position to provide system load voltage as per power system requirements. This
usually is the center tap position but should be verified by the power system operating
personnel. The reason this should be the last item to be performed before energizing the
transformer is due to the number of tests being performed. All the testing should be
completed, results acceptable and the transformer ready to be energized. This ensures that the
tap position is not likely to be changed for other reasons.

Applied Voltage (Hi-Pot) Test

Applied voltage (Hi-Pot) testing of dry-type transformers is performed on new transformers
before they are shipped from the factory. Beyond this, it is recognized that hi-pot testing
places a severe stress on the insulation and, if applied frequently, will hasten breakdown or
may cause breakdown. For this reason, applied voltage testing performed in the field, is an
optional test that is performed only when warranted by special circumstances. Periodic
testing is not recommended because of the stress imposed on the insulation.
Saudi Aramco policy is for applied voltage test not be performed in the field. The exception
is, if performed by qualified Power Distribution Department (PDD) personnel with approval
from PDD management or CSD approval.
Dry-type transformers are more prone to insulation damage during performance of applied
voltage test because of moisture absorption into insulation when not in operation.

TRANSFORMER SUBSYSTEM PRE-OPERATIONAL CHECKOUT
The transformer subsystem operational checkout requires manually simulating the operation
of all subsystems to confirm the proper electrical scheme will function properly without
power applied. Therefore the following tests and checks are performed:
• Continuity test and point to point wiring checks to all control and
protective device circuits.
• Manual operational continuity makeup test on all protective circuits and
interlock circuits to ensure proper operation.
• Sequencing of controls, protective devices and interlock devices.
This section was developed for the installation of 500 kVA and larger dry-type transformers.
Smaller size transformers would not require as much detail to subsystem checkout and
operation.
Performance Testing
During the performance testing phase, the power is applied to each subsystem to ensure it will
function according to the electrical designed. This is accomplished before energizing the
complete system and tying it to the plant power system. This protects the main and plant
power systems from a possible subsystem malfunction that may drag down the main or plant
power system. In this way, each subsystem is tested and made operational before tying the
subsystem to the main and plant systems. This should be accomplished in two phases:
Phase I - Apply full operational control voltage to each subsystem through proper
protective devices and perform sub-circuitry operational test full rated power to ensure
the sub-circuitry will handle full rated voltage and operate as designed without being
connected to the main or plant system. The sub-circuitry could be, for example, the
cooling system or protective scheme. Power could be applied to the control circuitry
of the fans to ensure that all control switches and relays operate, and that all fans
operate properly with no vibration of problems. Also they will run in manual and
automatic modes. The alarm circuits are functioning properly and providing proper
indications. This could also apply to the transformer protective device control
schemes to ensure they will function with various levels of voltage and current applied
to the current transformer (CT) and voltage transformer (VT) secondary circuits. This
could also check the proper tripping of the transformer primary and secondary
breakers. These subsystem tests ensure that when the subsystems are connected into
the complete system they will function as designed.
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Phase II - After all the subsystems have been tested properly and are acceptable,
configure all the detached sub-circuitry into the main system but still isolated and
independent of the main plant power system and normal loading. The last check or
test before the full power system energization is to perform a complete operational test
of the parts of the power system that pertain to the transformer or transformers that
were installed. These pertain to the controls, protective devices, interlocks, and
components. Short-term operation will ensure all system components function as a
proper system as designed per project drawings and specifications.
Installation Checklist
New transformers normally are installed through use of a work procedure that was developed
before the transformer arrived. These procedures are based on a combination of Codes and
Standards, previous experience, and the manufacturer’s instructions. Part of this procedure
should include an installation checklist (Work Aid 1: Table A). The checklist gives a way to
make sure that all the right steps in the installation process have been performed.
Electrical External Connections

All steps in the installation of a transformer are important. However, incorrect performance
(e.g., wrong electrical connections) of some steps can result in immediate damage.
Most connections to a transformer are external. These connections include all the wiring to
alarm and control devices, tap changers, and instrument transformers. These connections are
verified through comparison of the actual connections to those on applicable project
drawings. The items that must be verified are (1) that the wires are in the right place by a
point to point wiring check and are compared for accuracy to the elementary diagram
drawings and wiring diagram drawings. The drawing and transformer existing control
connections and wiring should all be the same with no exceptions. If any exception exist they
should be corrected. (2) The connections should be checked for tightness and (3) that the
correct hardware was installed.
The external connections are also the input and output power or load current carrying
connections and the ground connections. These connections should also be verified through
use of drawings to make sure the connections are correct. The verification should include
checking that the tightness (torque) is correct, that the required hardware was installed, and
that the proper support was provided.

Transformer Accessory Component Checkout

The component checkout of all accessory equipment both electrically and mechanically
ensures proper operation. The components that make up a subsystem should also be checked
electrically and mechanically as a complete subsystem ensuring that the coordination of the
components function as a complete system. At this time also ensure all component
adjustments are made according to manufacture specifications or system requirements.
Temperature Indicating Device - The pre-operational check of the winding hot-spot

temperature for dry-type transformers is basically the same as for liquid filled transformers.
The reason for having this temperature indicator is to confirm that the thermal rating of the
transformer is not exceeded and to control the cooling fans, if employed. The dry-type
transformer usually has a higher temperature rated insulation and often operate at higher
temperatures (refer to Table 10) than liquid filled transformers.
Unlike liquid filled transformers, the winding temperature indicator for dry-type transformers
is connected directly to the low voltage winding. Typically two types of indicators are used in
dry-type transformers. One is the bourdon tube type and the other is the thermocouple type.
The bourdon tube is a mechanical device that works on pressure change in the tube as a result
of temperature change. The bourdon tube is inserted in a metal tube which is welded to the
low voltage lead a few inches from the edge of the low voltage coil. The tube measures the
actual temperature of the low voltage lead and the dial is calibrated to read the hottest-spot
temperature of the transformer coils. The temperature of the low voltage lead is proportional
to the load current in the lead. A porcelain insulating tube is inserted between the bourdon
tube and the indicating dial to provide electrical isolation.
The thermocouple device uses a thermal sensor wrapped in insulation and embedded directly
in the low voltage winding. Additional isolation is typically accomplish by connecting the
sensor circuit through LED's (light emitting diodes) and a Plexiglas barrier. The indicating
dial, like the bourdon tube type, is calibrated to read the hottest-spot temperature.
Both types of winding temperature indicators are designed to switch on cooling fans as
needed. The switch in the temperature device is set at the factory to turn fans on at the
temperatures listed in Table 10, the purpose being to protect the transformer insulation and
not allow a overheating condition during the self-cooled operation. The control switch in the
temperature device can be reset to the desired setting to turn on fans per the requirements of
the system operation.

Table 10
Limits of Temperature and Temperature Rise for Continuously
Rated Dry-Type Transformer Windings
(Reference IEEE C57.12.01-1989)
Average Winding Temp. Insulation-System

Rise by Resistance (°C) Temperature (°C)
60 130
80 150
115 185
130 200
150 220
*Based on a maximum ambient temperature of 40°C.
The primary pre-operational check of temperature indicating device is to apply the required
operational power (120 VAC) to temperature device, if required. Also supply the required
power to operate the cooling fans through the temperature indicating device. Use
manufacturer information to determine a proper operational test that will cause the
temperature indicating device to cause the fans to turn on. Sometimes this is only possible by
manually actuating the temperature indicating microswitch to turn the fans on. The newer
digital devices a test signal can be simulated at the temperature device sensor input. This will
operate the fans and also provide a temperature indication for calibration purposes. After the
test is performed and operationally checks OK, be sure to reconnect the system back to its
proper operational mode.
Cooling Fans - This checkout should be performed with the temperature indicating device
checkout. The subsystem checkout requiring 120V control power be applied (as used in the
temperature indicating device checkout) should be the same. Ensure power is applied for
manual operation of fans. Cooling fans, when supplied with dry-type transformers, are
normally a single bank of fans controlled through an intermediate relay by a microswitch on
the winding temperature indicator.
When performing the pre-operational checkout energized inspection, first read the winding
temperature indicator to determine ambient temperature of winding to require that the fans
automatically turn on. Verify that the fans operate the microswitch according to manufacturer
information.

Next, set the fan control switch to the "manual" position. Verify that the fans operate
electrically in the "manual" position with no abnormal noise or excessive vibration. Listen for
unusual sounds that might indicate a bad bearing, rubbing blade or other problems. If
possible, view the operation of the fans through the ventilation screens.
At the conclusion of the operational check, record the findings of the inspection in the
commissioning forms and verify that the fan control switch is returned to the "automatic"
mode.
Caution: Before operating the cooling fans, verify that it is practical to

operate them during the in-service inspection without causing disruption of
service or alarm and concern to other personnel.
Ventilation - Adequate ventilation is essential for the proper cooling of dry-type

transformers. Clean, dry air is desirable. Filtered air may reduce maintenance if the
atmosphere in the location presents particular problems.
When dry-type transformers are installed in vaults or other restricted spaces, sufficient
ventilation should be provided to hold the air temperature within established limits when
measured near the transformer inlets. This normally requires 100 cubic feet of air per minute
per kilowatt of transformer loss. The area of ventilating openings required depends on the
height of the room, the location of the openings, and the maximum load to be carried by the
transformer. For self-cooled transformers, the required effective area should be at least one
square foot each of both inlet and outlet per 100 kVA of rated transformer capacity, net after
deduction of the area occupied by screens, gratings, or louvers.
Transformers should be located at least 24 inches away from walls or other obstructions to
accommodate free circulation of air through and around each unit. The free space around
each transformer should not be less than 24 inches.
Power Cable Checkout - The purpose of this checkout is to ensure the power cables
connections on primary and secondary are:
• Terminated properly
• Phased properly
• Connections torqued properly

Termination - The primary stress cones (if required) should be inspected to ensure the stress
cores are built properly for the voltage applied. Ensure the proper grounding of cable shields.
The primary cable is sized properly for transformer size and raceway support us proper. The
secondary cable or bus bar is terminated and supported so as not to place any weight from
cable or bus bar on connections. The proper size cable and/or bus duct is used for voltage and
transformer size. Ensure bus duct is not connected directly to transformer bus. There should
be a flexible type connection between transformer bus and bus duct.
Cable Phasing Check - The primary and secondary cable phasing should be checked to
ensure ABC relationships of cables for primary and secondary are per power system supply
and load requirements.
Connections Torqued - Both primary and secondary power connections should be torqued to
the requirements of Form P-000 page 3 in the transformer installation and inspection section.
The purpose of checking the torque of the bolts on each connection is to ensure that each
connection has enough contact pressure to ensure a low resistance in each cable or bus bar
termination.
When a connection is not tight enough the resistance in the connection will start to overheat
and the overheating will affect the resistance of the metal in the connection. This condition
will continue to get worse until enough resistance and heat melts metal in the connection and
causes a failure.
This is the reason why it is an important check prior to energizing transformer.

TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL TESTING
This part of the cycle is where all the inspection and testing is finally proved by applying full-
rated system voltage to the transformer from the primary source of the plant power system.
The secondary of the transformer is left open. The transformer energization tests (performed
as a final check to make sure the transformer can safely be energized without being loaded)
are described below.
Complete System Functional Test

Before the transformer assumes a loaded condition, the operational test of the control systems,
protective devices, interlocks or safety system should be performed and verified to project
drawings, standards, specifications and applicable industry standards.
The transformer should be energized for two hours minimum to check the voltage, current
and temperature. These parameters should be checked several times during this period.
Operational Tests
The transformer has full rated system voltage applied to the primary winding and the primary
energizing current monitored and recorded. The secondary windings are left open circuited to
prevent current flow or the transformer from assuming load. The transformer should be
energized with system voltage and no loading on the secondary for four to six hours
depending on ambient conditions and humidity. This allows any moisture picked up during
storage or shipment to be driven out of the windings from the heating effect of the energized
primary. After four to six hours, if no problems are evident, the transformer can be slowly
loaded and the voltage, current, temperature and noise level monitored.
Perform any operational test of control systems, protective devices, interlocks or safety
system operational test. Ensure all systems function according to project drawings, Saudi
Aramco standards and specifications, and applicable industry standards. After all the testing
is completed, and system and transformer are in complete operational status, allow the
transformer to slowly assume loads. Maintain the load long enough to check transformer
voltage, current, temperature, and power factor relationships. All the alarms, annunciators,
and indicating devices should be checked and ensure that they are operational and functional
per project drawings.

The operational tests to perform on dry-type transformers and record values are:
• Exciting current check

• No-load voltage output check
• Voltage phasing (or rotation) check
• Synchronizing for parallel operation
• Transformer noise level check
Exciting Current Check

The primary winding of the transformer should have an ammeter placed in a position to
measure the exciting current when the transformer is energized with the secondary coil open.
This can tell if excessive current is being supplied when the transformer is energized.
Excessive current could be an indication of internal insulation or core problems and would
need to be investigated in more detail.
No-Load Voltage Output (Secondary) Check

After the transformer is energized, the primary voltage should be measured with a voltmeter.
When medium voltage is applied this can be done by reading the system bus voltage
voltmeter on the switchgear feeding the transformer. The next step is to measure the
transformer secondary voltage while the secondary has no-load and is open circuited. The
secondary voltage should be some higher than the system voltage or load voltage required due
to regulation of the transformer. If the secondary voltage reads low, the primary winding tap
position could be wrong. De-energize the primary and isolate primary power to the
transformer. Check the tap position to ensure it is set to the required position.
Warning: Do not attempt to change tap position while transformer is

energized.
If the tap position is located in the center position and the secondary voltage is low further
investigation of this situation is necessary.
Voltage Phasing (or Rotation)

The phasing of conductors should be checked at the secondary of the transformer. A rotation
meter can be used to verify the correct phase rotation required at the load. When phasing is
wrong at the secondary and it is not possible to change at the secondary conductors the
phasing can be changed at the primary conductors. Ensure that no stress is forced on the
conductors that are changed. Be sure to retorque the connections after the reconnection of
conductors. Then recheck the phase rotation of the secondary after energizing the primary.

Synchronizing for Parallel Operation

This check will not be necessary if there is no way to parallel transformers, two or more
transformers. This is usually required on larger transformers with bus tie capability.
The method for testing is to verify the voltage between two secondary outputs. What is being
accomplished is verifying that ABC is to ABC on both buses - phases A to A, B to B, and C
to C. This is accomplished by using a voltmeter to read from say bus X A phase to bus Y A
phase. The reading should be zero. If voltage is read on the voltmeter, this means that phases
are not matched A to A and the buses X and Y are not synchronized. All three phases have to
be checked with a voltmeter in this matter. All three phases should read zero volts to be in
phase with each other.
Transformer Noise Level

Dry-type transformers, when placed in service and operating, are typically more noisy than
liquid filled designs. A rule of thumb estimate is that the sound level for a dry-type
transformer operating at rated voltage and frequency and no-load is approximately 20 db
higher than for a liquid filled transformer of the same rating. As an illustration of expected
sound levels, Table 11 gives the average sound level for a selection of dry-type transformers.
When the transformer is energized, the sound (noise) level of the transformer should be
observed and compared to the level observed for other transformers of the same size.
Although there is no practical and simple way of measuring the actual sound level, an
inspector can very often detect an increase or change in sound level based on his experience
from previous inspections of the same, or a similar transformer. Any increase in sound level,
or change in the type of sound, should be investigated to determine the reason for the change.
When a dry-type transformer is installed, steps can be taken to minimize its operating sound
level. This is normally accomplished by applying the standard techniques of using flexible
connectors for primary and secondary terminals, flexible conduit for connections to the case,
placing the transformer on rubber isolation pads or sound absorbing material, and tightening
all enclosure hardware and panels to prevent their vibration.
During the energizing of the transformer, any change in sound level can be an indication of a
developing problem. As an example, the level of audible sound generated by the core iron in
a dry-type transformer is directly related to the condition of the core and its level of
excitation. A change in sound level might indicate that the core steel has shifted due to short
circuit duty placed on the

Table 11
Average Sound Level for Selected Dry-Type Transformers
at Rated Voltage and Frequency and No-Load
(Reference: Westinghouse Power Apparatus Maintenance, Volume 3)
Average Sound Level (Decibels)*
Equivalent Self-Cooled Self-Cooled Ventilated

Two-Winding kVA Ventilated Sealed Forced-Air Cooled
50 50 50 ---
300 58 57 ---
700 62 61 ---
1500 65 64 ---
2000 66 65 69
3000 68 66 71
5000 71 69 73
7500 73 71 75
Note: As a means of practical comparison, a 64 db sound level is equivalent to

the level of sound that a passenger would hear while sitting in his seat on a jet
airplane during take-off.
transformer or that the core has become grounded at more than one point allowing circulating
current to flow. An increase in sound level could also be an indication that the core is
overexcited, in which case the transformer's primary voltage tap should be checked for
appropriate setting.
Sometimes, vibrations from driven machinery and other sound sources can be transmitted
through the structure of a building to the transformer where they are radiated and function to
amplify the sound level of the transformer. When structure-borne vibrations are identified,
they can often be isolated by using various damping devices on the transformer. For these
cases, the manufacturer should be consulted for specification of the appropriate damping
devices.
Large increases, or changes in sound level are an indication that enclosure panels or hardware
have worked loose from vibration. These observations should be noted on the observation
report to allow for their correction during the next de-energized "shutdown" inspection.

TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL INSPECTION
The transformer operational inspection is performed after the transformer is energized and
loaded. During the beginning startup and loading, monitor and record the system and
transformer electrical parameters such as voltage, current, time interval and temperature for a
minimum of eight hours. During this hourly monitoring period, notice any abnormal sounds
or smells emanating from the transformer or associated equipment, such as:
• Cooking
• Frying
• Arcing
• Popping
• Vapors
• Smoke
Any of these sounds or smells should be investigated immediately with the power system and
transformer completely deenergized and the transformer isolated.
During the hourly monitoring period, notice any unusual sounds such as mechanical problems
like:
• Vibrations
• Rubbing of moving parts
• Rumbling
• Chattering
Be aware of any other abnormal-sounding mechanical operating sounds. The observation

period can be reduced after the transformer's and its associated components' operating
conditions are found to be normal and no problems exist. Periodic attention should be paid to
the electrical parameters for a couple of months after all the final testing and acceptance of the
transformer is complete.

TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL OBSERVATION PERIOD CHECKS AND

INSPECTIONS
Transformer and System Temperature Checks

The transformer temperature checks are best performed while the transformer is 80-90%
loaded. This is the ideal condition for performing temperature checks. The transformer and
associated connected equipment should have an infrared thermoscan performed while under a
loaded condition to determine if overheating or loose connections exist. If heating problems
are found, use an infrared thermometer to verify temperatures of the problem areas. During
the beginning startup and loading of the transformer, monitor and record hourly the
temperature levels of the transformer winding temperature. There should be special attention
paid to any elevated or continually rising temperatures. If any abnormal conditions are found,
they should be investigated immediately before damage can occur.
Load Voltage, Current, and Temperature Relationship Checks

After the transformer has been energized with no-load for approximately 6 to 8 hours to dry
out the insulation, the transformer can have load applied. This should be accomplished in
stages to observe the effects on the transformer. The secondary current, winding temperature
of transformer, ambient temperature and the voltage with respect to time readings taken.
There should be special attention paid to the amount of load and the temperature increase of
the transformer. This should be related also to the ambient temperature the transformer is in.
Any drastic increase in temperature could be a potential problem. The secondary voltage
should be read when load is about 60% to 70% and compare to the no-load reading. This
should give some indication of transformer voltage regulation. If the secondary voltage has
dropped below acceptable limits the transformer may have to be shutdown, de-energized and
the no-load tap changed to provide a higher secondary output voltage level.

MAINTENANCE
Maintenance on dry-type transformers is typically performed only when a problem is

encountered. There is basically no preventive maintenance because it is not cost effective for
most smaller size transformers. There are really only two ways to detect transformer
problems:
• Routine inspection and testing
• Failure analysis
Problems detected due to failures normally are more severe, more expensive, and more likely
to cause permanent damage. Routine inspection and testing normally finds problems at an
early stage, where they can still be corrected before permanent damage occurs.
Routine Inspection and Testing

This is only performed on dry-type transformers of ³ 1000 kVA. The purpose of doing routine
inspections and testing is to identify problems early, before an actual breakdown happens.
Breakdown maintenance is always more costly in terms of equipment damage and lost
production, than are scheduled repairs. Just doing the inspections and tests is not enough.
Keeping a running record of the results for each transformer is just as important. A good
maintenance history record for a transformer would include the following:
• Daily Operating Logs
• In-Service Inspection Reports
• Out-of-Service Inspection Reports
• Record of any special testing done
• Record of any repairs done
These records play three key roles in detecting transformer problems:
• Indicate problems that need immediate attention
• Indicate potential problems - trend analysis
• Indicate probable cause of failures - failure analysis

Failures
The major modes of failure for a dry-type transformer are:
• Environment caused failures
- High ambient temperatures
- Dust dirt, high humidity and chemicals
- Location of transformer
• Length of service life (age)
• Insulation overheating
- Overloading
- Harmonic loading
- Phase imbalance
Environment Caused Failures

Contaminants - Ventilated dry-type transformers should not be located in environment
containing contaminants such as:
• Dust
• Fertilizer
• Excessive moisture
• Chemicals
• Corrosive gases
• Oils
• Chemical vapors
Dust, fertilizer, oils or any substance that can coat the insulation will prevent the insulation
from giving off or radiating the heat away from the core and coils this causes overheating of
insulation and insulation breakdown. Particle material can also stop-up the cooling passages
in the windings which will cause the same effect of overheating and same end result.

When fertilizers, chemicals, corrosive gases, or chemical vapors are present these can cause
changes in insulation coatings, deterioration of the insulation coating and materials. If
concentrated chemicals come in direct contact with the insulation it can eat holes in the
insulation causing electrical voids which provide failure points.
Both ventilated and nonventilated dry-type transformer will operate successfully where high
humidity is present. But under this condition it would be necessary to take precautions to
keep the transformer dry if de-energized long enough to reach ambient temperature.
As long as the transformer is energized, humidity is not important because the heat generated
by the core and coils keeps the insulation dry. But when the transformer is de-energized and
allowed to cool to ambient temperature, the insulation can be affected.
If a shutdown occurs for more than 24 hours in a condition of high humidity, strip heaters
should be placed in the bottom of the unit or around the unit immediately after shutdown.
This will maintain temperature a few degrees above ambient temperature and prevent
condensation. When precautions are not taken special attention should be paid to the
insulation resistance test reading which will be lower. When the insulation resistance test
readings are low and not acceptable then the transformer should be dried out before
reenergizing it.
High Ambient Temperature - The transformer cooling effectively depends on a difference

in temperature between winding temperature and ambient temperature. The greater the
difference in temperature (ambient being lower) the more cooling is provided for the
transformer. The winding heat is radiated to the surrounding ambient faster. When the
ambient temperature is closer to winding temperature there is far less cooling or transfer of
the winding temperature. This is why the ambient temperature around a dry-type transformer
is so critical to its loading capability and in some cases its failure.
Location of Transformer - Most dry-type transformers are located indoors due to its type of
construction. When located indoor they should comply with ANSI/NFPA 70-1981 Section
450.
The dry-type transformers that are located indoors, the room should be sized to permit
locating transformers with sufficient clearances to the walls or any other obstructions to
permit the free circulation of air around each unit. Sufficient space should also be provided to
permit routine inspection and maintenance. Adequate ventilation is essential for the proper
cooling of transformers. When located in restricted spaces, sufficient ventilation should be
provided to hold air temperature within established limits when measured near the transformer
inlets. This usually requires approximately 100 ft.3/min. of air per kilowatt of transformer
losses. The area of ventilating opening required depends upon the height of the room, the
location of the openings, and the maximum loads the transformer will be carrying. Room
ventilation should not impede normal circulation of air through the transformer.

For self-cooled transformers, the required effective area should be at least 3 in.2 of inlet and
outlet are per kVA of transformer capacity in service except the required effective area should
be at least 1 ft.2 for any capacity under 50 kVA, after deduction of the area occupied by
screens, gratings, or louvers.
When the above requirements are not followed, overheating of the transformer will occur.
This means the insulation is overheated and cooked to a point where the dielectric level is
reduced and failure is likely. Poor ventilation for proper transformer cooling is the same as
creating a high ambient condition.
Length of Service Life (Aging) - The usefulness of a dry-type transformer is dependent upon
the integrity of its insulation system. In an ideal system all components should give the same
insulation life and performance at expected operating temperatures. However, in practice one
insulation material, use by one manufacturer, will frequently out perform another insulation
material used by another manufacturer. An example of this is a dry-type transformer system
has asbestos paper and wire film insulation. These materials are compatible at normal
temperatures, but at elevated temperatures and subsequent cooling a binder material in the
asbestos paper might react with the wire insulation and cause its separation from the wire,
with ultimate severe transformer damage. This shows at elevated temperatures the insulation
materials may not maintain a coordinated insulation system but will begin to breakdown.
For dry-type transformers the life of the transformer is dependent on the insulation electrical
and mechanical stress it endures. This stress level of the insulation is dependent on the
temperature at which it is made to operate. Therefore, the life of the insulation and the
transformer is closely related to the temperature at which it is operated.
The other factor affecting the insulation of a dry-type transformer is its exposure to the
atmosphere or the environment which the transformer has to operate in. A poor environment
as previously stated will affect the insulation which can effect the insulation life(aging) and
transformer life.
Aging as a function of both time and temperature eventually renders the insulation unit not to
provide sufficient mechanical and electrical strength. The transformer insulation aging
process goes on at all temperatures even room temperature but the rate of increase is a
function of operating temperature increase. Therefore, the end of insulation life (transformer
life) is based on the mechanical failure of the insulation. The most meaningful quantity of
measure is the tensile strength (measured in pounds per square inch) of the insulation.
Because the insulation becomes stiff and brittle with age and cannot withstand the electrical
and mechanical stresses that can be imposed during normal operation and temperature
accelerates this aging process. A rule of thumb that can be used is the "8°C Rule." the
thermal life of Class 155 insulation is halved for each increase of 8°C or doubled for each
decrease of 8°C.

Overloading and Excessive Heat - The cause of approximately 90% of all dry-type
transformer insulation deterioration is operating transformers at elevated temperatures.
Elevated temperature can be caused by one, or a combination of the following:
• Excessive load
• Excessive ambient temperature
• Cooling system problems
• Dirty environment
• Location of transformer
Load and ambient temperature are closely related in their effect on transformer operating
temperature. For a constant transformer load, and higher ambient temperature will lead to
higher operating temperatures.
A number of cooling system problems can cause high operating temperatures:
• Excessive ambient temperature
• Dirty or clogged cooling passages
• Broken or improperly set cooling fans
• Cooling control circuit failure
Hot or overloaded transformer problems can be detected by different ways depending on the
size of the transformer. If the transformer is ² 500 kVA, then using an infrared temperature
indicator or a touch probe temperature sensor is the only means to obtain an accurate
temperature reading of the transformer. This is because this size transformer has no
temperature indicator.
If the dry-type transformer is > 500 kVA there may be a temperature indicating device built
into the transformer. Either method provides the means to determine if a transformer is
overheating per its nameplate temperature rise rating. Excessive temperature is the main
cause of transformer insulation failure. The extreme temperatures over a consistent time
period will change the composition of the insulation material which lowers the electrical and
mechanical stress level and will cause electrical failure at the first abnormal occurrence.

Harmonic Loading - The overheating of transformers can also be caused by nonlinear

loading (harmonics). This type of loading causes harmonic currents in the 3, 5, 7, 9 mainly.
These harmonic currents cause heating in the core and coils of the transformer due to
circulating currents. This condition can be deal with by the following:
• Providing filters at the load
• Derating normal transformers
• Using K-factor transformers
Phasing Imbalance - This is a condition referred to when a three-phase system loading per
phase is not close to the same for all three phases. This condition only occurs on distribution
panels breaking out single phase loads requiring a neutral. An example is the loading of A
phase has 350 amps, B phase has 100 amps and C phase has 480 amps. The neutral would
have a large part of the ampere difference between phases flowing on it. This is a very
inefficient way to operate. The transformer could be overheating and not be above 1/2 and
2/3 of its capacity. This is due to one phase (C) being overloaded and b phase very much
underloaded. The overloaded phase would generate large amounts of heat and could fail
because the temperature gauge would be averaging the temperature of all three phases. The C
phase would be a lot hotter than the temperature gauge would show. This could also effect
the regulation of the transformer because of C phase generating large amounts of flux in the
core. The neutral conductor would have larger than normal current flowing on it and cause
more heating within the transformer windings. This could also cause protection problems for
ground fault protection. This condition would cause some ground fault protection to trip a
breaker off-line. This is a condition that should be addressed and the loads balanced on all
three phases.

WORK AID 1: HOW TO DETERMINE REQUIREMENTS FOR DRY TYPE

TRANSFORMERS
Work Aid 1A: How to Match Transformer Standards

This Work Aid is designed to help the Participants in performing Exercise 1.
To determine requirements follow these steps:
1. From this work aid, select the standard(s) that apply to the dry-type
transformer.
2. Look for key words. Once the key word(s) has been determined, look
in the front of the standard contents for this key word. If found, go to
the paragraph/page indicated. If not found, go to the index, if available.
3. If no key words are found in the contents or the index, a quick scan of
the document is required, looking for major headings.
4. Note, copy or print from the Standards on Computer (SOC) the required
information.
LIST OF STANDARDS PERTAINING TO DRY-TYPE TRANSFORMERS
Saudi Aramco Standards
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards
• SAES-P-121: Transformers, Reactors Voltage Regulators

Saudi Aramco Materials System Specification
• 14-SAMSS-533 : Three-Phase Dry-Type Power Transformers

Saudi Aramco Design Practices
• SADP-P-121 : Transformers
• SADP-P-433 : Three-Phase Dry-Type Power Transformers
Others
• Form P-024: Saudi Aramco Pre-commissioning Form, Dry-type Transformers

Industry Standards

ANSI/IEEE Standards
C57.12.01 General Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
C57.13 Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers
C57.12.91 Standard Test Code for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
C57.94 Recommended Practice for Installation, Application, Operation, and

Maintenance of Dry-Type General Purpose Distribution and Power
Transformers
NEMA
NEMA ST-20 Dry-type Transformers for General Use

Work Aid 1B: Saudi Aramco Standards for Selection, Specification, and
Troubleshooting of Dry-Type Transformers
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards
• SAES-P-121: Transformers, Reactors Voltage Regulators
Saudi Aramco Materials System Specification
• 14-SAMSS-531: Power Transformers
• 14-SAMSS-533: Three-Phase Dry-Type Power Transformers
• 14-SAMSS-534: Overhead-Type Distribution Transformers
Saudi Aramco Design Practices
• SADP-P-121: Transformers
• SADP-P-431: Power Transformers
• SADP-P-433: Three-Phase Dry-Type Power Transformers
Work Aid 1C: Industry Standards for Selection, Specification, and Troubleshooting
of Dry-Type Transformers
C57.12.01 : General Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
C57.12.91 : Standard Test Code for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers
C57.13 : Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers
C57.94 : Recommended Practice for Installation, Application, Operation, and

Maintenance of Dry-Type General Purpose Distribution and Power
Transformers
11/01/95

WORK AID 2: GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMING RECEIPT

INSPECTIONS OF NEW TRANSFORMERS
Work Aid 2A: Receipt Testing

This Work Aid is designed to help the Participants in performing Exercise 4
1. Obtain a copy of the applicable parts of the Manufacturer’s Technical

Manual for the transformer to be inspected.
1.1 Refer to the section on installation in the Manufacturers

Technical Manual while you perform the steps of this procedure.
Most manufacturers give specific guidance on how to initially
inspect their transformers.
2. Externally inspect the transformer for evidence of physical damage or

rough handling. Check for the following:
2.1 Whether the transformer has shifted from its first position, end-
wise or sideways.
2.2 Whether anchoring rods or spring loaded tie rods have been
bent, loosened, or broken.
2.3 Whether there is any evidence of external damage to:
• Enclosure
• Winding insulation physical integrity
2.4 Whether any of the detail equipment that was separately loaded
and shipped (unmounted accessories) shows evidence of rough
handling or damage.
3. Inspect the impact register tape to determine the types of impacts that
were sustained in transit (if provided).
NOTE: The results of the inspections performed this far are used to
find out if a detailed winding inspection is required. If the
inspections show evidence of rough handling or physical
damage, an inspection of transformer core and winding
assembly should be performed.
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4. Conduct an overall core and winding assembly inspection of the

transformer to determine whether damage to these components has
occurred.
4.1 Check the steel wedges between the top core clamps and
winding around the top to determine whether they are loose or
whether there is evidence of movement.
4.2 Check for broken or dislodged insulation.
4.3 Check for loose nuts and bolts.
4.4 Inspect the top of the core, coils, and the underside of the cover
for signs of moisture (such as rust, condensation).
4.5 Inspect all cable insulation for cracks, breaks, frayed, or worn
places that could have been caused by impacts or continuous
vibration.
5. Review the accompanying documentation.
5.1 Check the shipping Bill of Material against the material received
to ensure that everything was received.
5.2 Check the nameplate data against the specifications to ensure

that they match.
NOTE: Documentation review can be performed at any time. It is

often easier to perform this review with the other inspections,
through use of the Bill of Material as a checklist. This
procedure helps make sure that all components are inspected.
6. Follow the procedures in the Manufacturer’s Technical Manual

for reporting any damaged or missing materials found during this
inspection.

Work Aid 2B: Receipt Tests For Transformers

This Work Aid is designed to help the Participants in performing Exercise 3A.
Electrical Tests
• Turns Ratio Test (on standard voltage tap only)
• Winding Resistance (on standard voltage tap only)
• Winding Insulation Resistance
• Core Ground Test
• Enclosure Ground Test
Winding Insulation Resistance (Use 500V to 1500V Megger)
• 60-Second Test
• Step Voltage Test (1 minute each step)

WORK AID 3: HOW TO PERFORM PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE AND

ANALYZE FAILURE MODES
To perform failure analysis and perform preventive maintenance on a transformer, follow

these steps. Refer to the attached package of documents.
1. Determine the reason for investigation. There are basically two reasons, as specified in
the flow chart.
A. If the transformer tripped or malfunctioned, go to step 2.
B. Routine test have shown a deviation from past data
2. Gather as much data as you can, using the attached checklist in tables 2 and 3. Analyze
the data obtained and select the test deemed necessary to solve the problems found in
the checklists.
3. Analyze the data obtained from the selected tests. Determine if there is a problem. If
there is no problem found, return the transformer to service with a specific monitoring
plan.
4. If there is a problem, determine if the damage is obvious. If damage is obvious, got to

step 5. If damage is not obvious, go to step 6.
5. Determine if it is a candidate for repair. If it is determined that it cannot be repaired,

scrap it. If it is determined that it may possible be repaired, subject it to focused tests
selected from Table 4 and 5.
6. If damage is not obvious, perform testing as specified in Table 4 and 5.
7. Analyze the test results in step 5 and 6, using Table 7 and Section 6 of Appendix A,
attached.
8. Determine if the problem has been found. If the problem is found, skip step 9 and go to
step 10.
9. If the problem is not found, determine if further testing may be required. If further
testing is required, return to testing specified in Step 6. Continue this loop until the
problem is found. When the problem is found, go to step 9.
11/01/95

10. When the problem in step 8 or step 9 is found, perform internal inspections as specified
in Table and analyze as specified in Section 8 of Appendix A.
11. Determine if the transformer can be field repaired or factory repaired. The answer is no
to both options, scrap the transformer. If the answer is the field repair option go to step
12. If the option selected is factory repair, go to step 13.
12. For field repair, perform the proper corrective action to repair the unit. Once repaired
perform selected tests to verify the repairs. If the unit repair is verified, return it to
service. If test do not verify repair, continue corrective action until repairs pass the tests.
13. If factory repair is the selected option in step 11, send the unit into the factory for
teardown in accordance with Table 10 and for analysis according to section 6. When
factory repairs completed and returned, perform installation tests as required and return
to service.

WORK AID 5: CHECKLIST FOR VERIFYING PROPER TRANSFORMER

INSTALLATION
Work Aid 5A: Transformer Installation Inspection

This Work Aid is designed to help the Participants in performing Exercise 5 (use inspection
check list on Form P-024).
1. Make sure all parts shipped separately have been assembled.
2. Verify the correct internal electrical connections.
2.1 Terminal boards are connected according to the nameplate or

other applicable wiring diagram (NOTE: make sure CT’s are
correctly connected or shorted)
2.2 All terminal nuts and connecting links are tight, including the
load tap changer terminal boards.
3. Make sure that all temporary shipping parts have been removed.
4. Make sure that the tap jumpers are correctly on each tap position.
5. Inspect cooling fans.
5.1 Check that number, type, and location agree with the transformer
outline drawing.
5.2 Make sure the cooling fans are connected for the right direction
of rotation.
6. Inspect complete exterior of transformer enclosure for workmanship

construction and damage.
7. Nameplate and single line diagram agree.
8. Ensure unit is properly grounded and neutral correctly installed.
9. Verify torque on all connection per P-0000.
10. Insure unit is clean and ready for testing.
11/01/95

11. Insure primary bushings and/or connections have the proper length for
creepage distance, also, no damage to bushings (if used).
12. Check external electrical connections for the following.
12.1 That high voltage connections have been made in accordance

with applicable drawings.
12.2 That low voltage connections have been made in accordance

with applicable drawings.
12.3 That ground connections have been made in accordance with

applicable drawings.






Work Aid 5B: Installation Test for New Dry-Type Transformers

This Work Aid is designed to help Participants in performing Exercise 5B.
1. Insulation Resistance
• 60-Second Test
• Polarization Index Test (10 minute)
• Connections
– HV to LV and ground
– LV to HV and ground
– HV and LV windings to ground
• Test Results
– The transformer winding insulation resistance test results should

be provided by the manufacturer for the 60-second test.
– The Field Test Rule of Thumb for a transformer minimum

winding insulation resistance values corrected to 40°C are:
System Voltage Megohms/1000V

69 kV and up 3 megohms/1kV + 1kV
34 kV – 1 kV 1 megohm/1kV + 1kV
600 V down 1 megohm/1kV + 1kV
2. Winding (or Turns) Ratio Test
• Perform same test all winding or all taps
• Insure winding phase relationships are correct from primary to

secondary
• Test Results
– Insure all ratios are maximum of only ±5% difference between

nameplate calculated ratios and TTR measured ratios.
11/01/95

3. Winding Resistance
• Use Wheatstone bridge or digital low resistance ohmmeter
• Read all tap positions and phases HV and LV windings
• Test results
– All measured readings should be corrected to 75°C or 85°C

temperature rise of transformer (55°C rise is corrected to 75°C,
and 65°C rise is corrected to 85°C).
– If all connections in current carrying path remain close to factory

values, there should be no reason to correct resistance.
– Variations of more than 1% from previous readings should be

investigated.
– Variations of 2% of factory test values should be check.
4. Polarity Test
• Perform flick test
• Voltage reading method test
• Test results
– Voltmeter flick method
- Meter deflects same (both readings) transformer additive
- Meter deflects opposite (both readings) transformer additive
– Voltmeter reading method
- Voltmeter reading higher than first reading - transformer

additive
- Voltmeter reading lower than first reading - transformer

subtractive

5. Core Ground Test
• Small dry-type transformers cannot be tested because core ground

connection is permanently connected. (Use only visual inspection.)
• Core-to-ground insulation resistance should be corrected to 20°C and

then compared to prior readings.
• Typical corrected value (20°C) is 200 megohms.
• New transformer insulation resistance to core to ground should read

(corrected to 20°C) = 1000 megohms.
• A maximum value of 50 megohms can be accepted on used transformer

if inspection is good.

Work Aid 5C: Pre-Operational Field Installation Checklist

TABLE A
Pre-Operational Field Installation Checklist
Transformers (Dry-Type)
1. Check complete assembly for damage and missing parts. Temporary shipping blocks
and protective crating removed.
2. Visually inspect for cleanliness and completeness of primary bushing (or connections).
3. Check lubrication and freedom of rotation of cooling fans and tightness of fan blades.
4. Check position and connections of tap jumper and other operating accessories.
5. Record transformer tap setting and set for correct voltage.
6. Check coil jackscrew assembly for proper torque (if transformer is large enough).
7. Check winding insulation for any damage.
8. Check all accessible mounting and fastening hardware for satisfactory tightness.
9. Alarm and control circuits connected and complete.
10. Check temperature gauge operation (drag hand and contacts).
11. High voltage cable properly supported, connected and insulated.
12. Check transformer nameplate against purchase specification.
13. Inspect fuses and cutouts.
14. Check conduit and/or raceway connections.
15. Check conductor size and type on primary and secondary.
16. Check conductor phasing and identification on primary and secondary.
17. Check secondary conductors, connections, supports and insulation.
18. Case grounding and grounding resistor correctly installed and connected to main ground
system. (Only have grounding resistor on medium voltage primary type transformers.)

WORK AID 10: TRANSFORMER TEST METHOD DATA

These are the various transformer test methods with pertinent data to assist with evaluations of
test results:
Work Aid 10A: Turns Ratio Test (TTR)

1. Acceptable Values
• Values should be ±0.5% of nameplate calculate ratios to TTR
measured ratios
2. Correction factors - none needed
3. Information needed
• Transformer nameplate no-load tap change (or jumper) values
• Nameplate phasor diagram
• Insure winding primary to secondary phase relationships are
correct
• Perform same test to all no-load tap changer taps on all phases
• Load tap changers should have only the neutral tap and end tap
both up and down tested
• The red leads connections on tester should match phases when
hooked primary to secondary (H1 - X1)
• Obtaining a balanced reading is objective of using TTR
accomplished
• Unbalanced reading indicates problem with hook-up or
transformer problem
4. Types of problems tests can determine
• Shorted winding turns

• Incorrect NLTC or LTC (if used) tap settings
• Bad contacts on tap changer
• Incorrect transformer polarity
• Performs polarity test (because of hook-up)
• Errors in turn count
• Mislabeled terminals
• Broken tap changer

5. Other Tests that confirm TTR test
• Winding resistance will confirm the following problems related

to TTR:
– Shorted winding turns
– Incorrect NLTC or LTC (if used) tap setting
– Bad contacts on tap changer

Work Aid 10B: Polarity Test (3 Methods)

1. Voltmeter Flick Method
a. Acceptable values
– Meter deflection is the same for Hi side winding & Lo winding =
subtractive
– Meter deflection is the opposite for Hi & Lo = additive
b. Correction factors - none
c. Information needed
– Transformer nameplate phasor diagram
– Battery, voltmeter and test leads
– Insure polarity of test leads (+, –) are matched to transformer
polarity
– A switch is needed to switch battery on and off to get deflections
on meter
d. Types of problems tests can determine
– Polarity only
e. Other tests that confirm polarity test
– Listed below (Parts 2 and 3)
– TTR
2. Voltage Reading Method

– Larger voltage reading between H2 - X2 with H1 and X1
connected together, transformer is additive
– Reduced voltage reading between H2 - X2 with H1 and X1
connected together, transformer is subtractive.
– An analog DC voltmeter is usually used
– Insure polarity of test leads are matched to transformer phase
relationships
– Battery for test connection to H1 and H2


– Polarity only
e. Other tests that confirm polarity test
– TTR test
– Parts 1 and 3 this section
3. Vector Group Test

– H3 - X2 = H3 - X3
H3 - X2 < H1 - H3
H2 - X2 < H2 - H3
H2 - X2 < H1 - H3
– If voltage readings below meet values above transformer is
subtractive
– These are values to be verified from voltage reading with H1 and X1
tied together. Voltage reading are
H3 - X2 Also H2 -X2
H3 - X3 H2 - X3
H1 - H3
– Need transformer nameplate diagram phasor relationship
– H1 and X1 must be tied together
– Reading as stated must be taken and verified against connections
as stated reference GI P-024 or P-025, page 6 information
– Vector group to determine transformer type
e. Other types of tests that confirm any polarity test
– none

Work Aid 10C: Winding Resistance

1. Acceptable values
• 2% of factory test values new transformers
• 1% older transformers prior reading and comparing trends
2. Correction factors
• 55 °C temperature rise transformers corrected to 75 °C; see table
6 (Module 1), or 8 (Module 2), or 3 (Module 3)
• 65 °C temperature rise transformer corrected to 85 °C; see table
6 (Module 1), or 8 (Module 2), or 3 (Module 3)
• When reported as single value for three-phase delta transformers
then: add three reading together and then 3/2 times the sum gives
total resistance value
• Must make different connection for copper or aluminum
windings; see table 6 (Module 1), or 8 (Module 2), or 3 (Module
3)
• Factory test values must be provided
• Prior transformer test values used to develop trends to compare
reading to
• Can perform test with two different type instruments: wheatstone
bridge or digital low-resistance ohmmeter (DLRO)
• A third method not mentioned here is calculation method
(reference info in text)
• Shorted turn
• Poor joints or connections (high resistance)
• Bad contacts on NLTC or LTC
• Dirty contacts on NLTC or LTC
• Open circuit
5. Other tests that confirm winding resistance test
• Turns ratio (TTR)

Work Aid 10D: Winding Insulation Resistance (Four Types of Tests)

This Work Aid is designed to help the Participant in performing Exercise 7.
1. 60-sec. Test
– System voltage 0–600 V use (1 meg-ohm/ 1 kV) + 1kV
– System voltage 1000V-34.5 kV use (1 meg-ohm/ 1 kV) + 1kV
– System voltage 69 kV and up use (3 meg-ohms/ 1 kV) + 1kV
b. Correction factors
– Readings must be corrected to 20°C
– Humidity and dirty surfaces affect readings
– Must correct all readings to 20 °C (need correction factors)
– Clean surfaces of the devices provides better readings
– Do not use test voltages above the rated system voltage
– Ensure that correct connections are made for 3 readings as
below:
Test HV winding to LV winding and ground, LV to HV and
ground, HV and LV to ground

– Ground faults
– Dielectric level of insulation
– Moisture
– Contaminates
– Winding to winding shorts
– Heavy carbon tracking (readings zero or very low)
11/01/95

e. Other tests that confirm Winding Insulation Resistance Test
– Insulation power factor test
– Oil test - (dielectric, moisture content)
– Any of the insulation resistance test
2. Polarization Index Test
a. Acceptable PI values
– <1 bad
– 1.0 – 1.1 poor
– 1.1 – 1.25 questionable
– 1.25 – 2.0 fair
– > 2.0 good
b. Correction factor - none
– Insulation resistance measure can vary with applied voltage
– Do not use test voltage above system rated voltage
– Clean surfaces of devices to provide better readings
– Prior test values or factory test values needed
– Ground fault
– Moisture in insulation
– Heavy carbon tracking (reading 0 or very low)

e. Other tests that confirm winding insulation resistance test
– Oil dielectric test
– Oil power factor test
– Oil moisture content test
– Step voltage (insulation test)
– Dielectric absorption (insulation test)
3. Dielectric Absorption Test
a. Accepted values
– The curve developed as stated in information section should

have a regular rise with time to have a good insulating system
– Data can be plotted without correction to 20 °C
– Either corrected or not the results will be the same in this case
– The data obtained for Polarization Index Testing is used to plot

the graph on log-log paper of insulation resistance in meg-ohms
x 100 vs. time in minutes.
– Same information as Polarization Index
– Ground fault
– Moisture in insulation
– Contaminates

e. Other tests that confirm dielectric absorption test
– Any other three insulation resistance tests
4. Step-Voltage Test
a. Accepted values
– Not > 25% between difference in test results of one voltage level
test to another higher voltage level test to have acceptable
insulation level
– Meter readings should be close to the same at both test voltages

if results are very good
– Applied voltage of two test should be a ratio of 1 to 5 or >
– Applied test voltage for one minute
– No correction needed
– Both test performed on same test instrument
– Same information as other insulation resistance tests
– Need tester (megger) with large range of test voltage capability

(500V to 5000V)
– "+" lead to metal winding connections and "-" lead to ground

– Ground fault
– Moisture
– Contaminates
e. Other tests that confirm step-voltage test
– Oil power factor test
– Any other three insulation resistance tests

Work Aid 10E: Core Ground Test

1. Accepted values
• > 200 meg-ohms corrected to 20°C with 1000 V megger
• Ohmmeter reading, 300 ohms to 400 ohms corrected to 20°C,

means there is foreign material between the tank and the core
• ANSI requires 1000 meg-ohms for new unit
• 50 meg-ohm can be acceptable on old unit
• Ohm-meter reading of 1 to 2 ohms indicates a solid second

ground (not wanted)
• Readings corrected to 20 °C
• Disconnect the core ground strap and make a reading between

ground strap and ground tank
• Some shell form transformers can have more than one ground
(no problem)
• Some transformers can have 250 to 1000 ohm resistors in core

ground circuit (heavy-duty resistor) This helps limit circulating
currents.
4. Other tests that confirm core ground test
• None

Work Aid 10F: Transformer Tank Ground Test

• Determine no current is flowing in ground cables before

disconnecting
• Micro-ohm resistance values for connections to tank
• Typical resistance of ² 2 ohms for ground cable to earth

resistance electrode
• None
• Test tank ground connection resistance prior to cleaning

connection (record) and after cleaning and reconnection then
compare values. Cleaned value should be much less
• Before disconnecting tank ground connection use a clamp-on or

ammeter probe to check if current is flowing in ground cable. If
current is flowing, determine problem and correct before
disconnecting
• Imbalanced load
• High-resistance ground fault
• Inductive voltage and currents
• High-resistance ground connection for tank ground
5. Other tests that confirm transformer tank ground test
• Earth-resistance test to electrode system part of this test

Work Aid 10G: Insulation Power-Factor Test

– Over-all test has 0.5% (corrected to 20 °C as the maximum per

Saudi Aramco GI P-025
• Bushings test
– < 0.10 watts at 10 kV test voltage
– < 0.006 watts at 2.5 kV test voltage
• Field oil power-factor test
– < 0.5% corrected to 20 °C
• Core excitation current
– 3Ø H1 and H3 phase high and H2 phase low-current
– 1Ø both H1 and H2 = same current
– Usually problem excitation current > 10% over normal

value
• All reading corrected to 20 °C
• Over-all test (winding insulation Power factor)
– Three measurements made for CH, CL, and CHL
– CHL may be measured directly by UST method
– Transformers 15 kV or less that have been in service a

long time can have P.F. ² 2% and still be in good shape,
should isolate what is causing high power-factor, the
insulation, oil, or the bushing
– All tests should be performed on a dry day with no

contamination around or on the connection surfaces
– Humidity and high temperature effect test values

• Bushing Test
– Has two different types of tests - UST and Hot Collar
– Cannot exceed bushing tap voltage level on test
– The bushings have to be clean prior to test or reading will

not be accurate
– Hot collar test used when bushing has no tap for UST test
– Hot collar test should be evaluated by comparison of

prior readings
• Field Oil Power Factor Test
– Test does not provide any info about the remaining life
expectancy of the oil
– This test should be compared to the oil test for moisture

content
• Core Excitation Test
– Need the manufacturers' test data for excitation current

test
– Routine test should be confined to the high-voltage

windings
– Defects in low-voltage windings will still be detected

even though not connected
– Load tap changers should be set to neutral Test one step

above neutral and one step below
– Test voltage should not exceed rated L to L. Voltage for

delta and L to L to neutral for wye
– Test voltages should be the same for each phase and set
accurately

• Overall test
– Condition of ground
– Condition of interwinding insulation which is an index

for dryness
– Operating conditions and failure hazards from moisture,

carbonization of insulation
– Defective bushing
– Contamination of oil
– Improperly or ungrounded cores
• Bushing test
– Contamination and moisture
– Voids in bushings
– Contaminates (particle content)
– Moisture
• Core excitation test
– Heavy core damage
– Shorted laminations
– Core-bolt insulation failure

5. Other tests that confirm insulation power factor test
• Overall test
– Winding insulation test
– Field oil dielectric test
– Oil moisture content
• Bushing test
– Insulation resistance test (megger)
– Field oil dielectric test
– Oil moisture content
– Insulation resistance test (megger)
• Core excitation test
– Core ground test

Work Aid 10H: Oil Test Results Comparison
Sludge or Polar Contaminants

Carbon Askarel or Particles
or Conductive
Acidity Silicon, Paraffinic
DirtRust
Water or Moisture
TYPES OIL TEST TEST LIMITS
**Dielectric D-877 Y Y Y 30 kV min.
D-974 Good=Green & Yellow max 0.03 mg

*Acidity = Y Y KOH/gm
Neutralization New = 0.01-0.03 mg KOH/gm
Bad = Orange, brown, high acidity
Interfacial Tension Y Good - 40 dynes/cm min.

D-971 (IFT) Bad - ² 18 dynes/cm
*Color D-1500 IFT IFT Max. 0.5 Light color - Good 1.0 Å
Fair
AcidityAcidity
D-1533 Y Max - 35 ppm
Moisture Content
Specific Gravity Y Paraffinic Oil - < 0.84 New oil = 0.91

D-1298 Askarel - > 1.552
Visual Examination Y Y Y Bright & clear color-Good ;

Cloudiness-Bad
Sediment Organic matter in oil - Slight T-G

D-1698 Y Y Moderate - Investigate
Heavy - Bad (Investigate)

D-924 Power Factor Y Y Y

25°C % max. 0.05 max.
100°C max. 0.30 max.
Gas-in-Oil Analysis Not analyzed in same
manner
Moisture content = Water content
Oil Viscosity - has big effect on heat transfer/transformer cooling.
*Acidity Test = Neutralization Number Test
*Color had to be compared with IFT and acidity
**Dielectric indicates rust if conductive












GLOSSARY
alloy A metal mixed with a more valuable metal to give durability or

some other desired quality.
eddy current Current that circulates in a metallic material as a result of

electromotive forces induced by a variation of magnetic flux.
ferromagnetic material A material that, in general, exhibits hysteresis phenomena and

whose permeability is dependent on the magnetizing force.
hysteresis The heat losses generated by the friction developed when

molecules reverse their polarity in an AC magnetic field.
magnetic flux The force lines that radiate from a magnetic field and oriented in
a north to south poles.
permeability (1)Materials in which flux lines can readily be set up are said to
be magnetic; (2)A measure of how easily magnetic flux lines
can be established in a material.
reluctance The ratio of the magnetomotive force to the magnetic flux

through any cross-section of the magnetic circuit.

Dry Type Transformers

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards, Specifications, and

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

K-FACTOR TRANSFORMERS .............................................................................. 45

Types of Nonlinear Loads ............................................................................. 45

Transformer Acceptance and Installation Overview ..................................... 53

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL TESTING ..................................................... 102

Complete System Functional Test............................................................... 102

TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL INSPECTION............................................... 106

TRANSFORMER OPERATIONAL OBSERVATION PERIOD CHECKS

Transformer and System Temperature Checks............................................ 107

MAINTENANCE ................................................................................................... 108

Routine Inspection and Testing ................................................................... 108

WORK AID 1: HOW TO DETERMINE REQUIREMENTS FOR DRY

Work Aid 1A: How to Match Transformer Standards ............................. 114

WORK AID 2: GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMING RECEIPT

Work Aid 2A: Receipt Testing................................................................. 117

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

WORK AID 3: HOW TO PERFORM PREVENTIVE MAINTE-NANCE

WORK AID 5: CHECKLIST FOR VERIFYING PROPER TRANS-

Work Aid 5A: Transformer Installation Inspection ................................. 122

WORK AID 10: TRANSFORMER TEST METHOD DATA.............................. 133

Work Aid 10A: Turns Ratio Test (TTR) ................................................. 133

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 1. SAES-P-121 Table of Contents.......................................................................... 5

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 33. Phasor Diagrams............................................................................................... 81

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

• Saudi Aramco Standards, Specifications, Practices, and Forms

– Saudi Aramco Engineering standards (SAES)

– Saudi Aramco Material System Specifications (SAMSS)

– Saudi Aramco Design Practices (SADP)

– Electrical Pre-Commissioning Forms

– National Electrical Code (NEC)

– National Electrical Safety Code (NESC)

– American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standards

– Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)

– National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards, Specifications, and Practices

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

The SAES's applicable to dry-type transformers are:

Chapter 7 Table of Contents

7.2 Transformer Protection Schemes

7.3 Protection Device Application Requirements

7.4 Fuse Protection Transformers

Also provides information on:

• Pressure-rise relay (Device 63T, 63GT)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

SAES-P-121 - “Transformers, Reactors, Voltage Regulators,” contains the minimum

The major topics discussed in this standard are as follows:

• KVA Rating of Power and Voltage Regulating Transformers

• Substation Requirements Relating to Transformers

CHAPTER SUBJECT PAGE

2 CONFLICTS AND DEVIATIONS 2

3 APPLICABLE CODES AND STANDARDS 2

5 KVA RATINGS OF POWER AND VOLTAGE 5

Figure 1. SAES-P-121 Table of Contents

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Figure 2 shows a sample of the type of information contained in SAES-P-121.

5 KVA RATING OF POWER AND VOLTAGE REGULATING