CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF RELIABILITY

1.1 DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

1.1.1 Power Systems and elements

Refering to [], Power Systems is a collection of interacting particles in a

certain structure to implement a specific task, uniform control in activities as well as
to the development process.

For power system, elements are generators, transformers, transmission

lines... The mission of power system is to produce electricity, transmission and
distribution of electricity to consumers. Power must ensure the quality standards of
the legal power and reasonable reliability. Electrical system must be developed and
optimized to operate with the highest economic efficiency.

In terms of reliability, power system is a complex system shown in:

- The complex structure:

+ Very large number of elements belonging to different types.
+ Complex grid map.
- Complexactivity.
- Vast space.
- Continuous development over time.

The complexity led to the decentralization of power system to be able to

manage, control, operate and develop effectively.

Power system is recovery system and the elements of the power system
after being taken down will be restored back to work, so the status of breakdowns
also been recovered after a certain time.

Most elements of the power system are also periodic maintenance to restore
the ability to work after working time.

Element is a part of a system where certain processes considered as a

single master can not be separated, characterized by the general reliability
parameters, depending only external factors such as external environment and not

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depend on the internal structure of the element.Because the element can have a
complex structure, it is a system. For example, the generator is a complex system
given separately, but in the problem of the reliability of the electric system it is only
one element with parameters such as the intensity of breakdowns, constant recovery
time.

Most of the power system elements are recovery elements.

1.1.2 The reliability of the power system

General definition about the reliability of power system as follows:

Reliability is the probability of the system (or element) complete required

tasks in a certain period of time and in certain operating condition.

Such reliability is always associated with the completion of a specific task, in

certain period of time and in certain circumstances.

Level of reliability is the probability of completing tasks within specified

time. This probability is called the reliability of the system (or element).

Probability is a statistical quantity, so reliability is a statistical concept of

working experience in the past of the system (or element).This is not for
therecovery system (or elements).

For the recovery system (or recovery element) such as electric system, its
elements…, the concept of interval does not mean mandatory, because the system
worked continuously. Therefore, reliability is measured by an appropriate quantity,
such as availability.

Availability is the probability of the system (or element) completed or was

willing to complete tasks in any time.

Availability is the probability of the system being in a good state and

calculated as the ratio of the time in a good state with a total operating time.In
contrast to the availability, this is not availability, which is the probability of the
system (or elements) in the corrupted state.

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 For power systems, availability (also referred to as reliability) or not
availability is not enough to assess the reliability of the specific problem, so we use
other indicators also probability.

1.1.3 The evaluative criteria of reliability

- Probability ofenergy shortage of load, which is the probability of load

capacity being larger than generating capacity.
- Probability of power shortages during peak load.
- Power shortage (or power loss) for the load, which is expected to cut
electricity due to system failures in a year.
- Economic losses expressed in monetary terms due to outages.
- System average interruption frequency index: SAIDI =total outage time of
load on the total load:
T = SAIDI = ΣriNi/NT (hour/load.year) (1.1)
Therein: ri is the duration of each outage;
Ni is number of outages time;
NTis number of served customers.
- The frequency or system average interruption duration index is number of
outage time of all loads on load total NT. This index shows how many times
the average power loss per load in an area on year.
NT

∑ ni
i =1
SAIFI =
NT (times/load. year) (1.2)
- Customer average interruption duration index – CAIDI provides average
duration needed to recover electrical supplied ability in one time black out.

CAIDI=
∑ ri N i
∑ Ni (hour/outage times) (1.3)
Therein : ri is time of each outage ;Niis number of
customers in maintenance outage.
- Customer average interruption frequency index – CAIFI provides average
number of power outages of one customer (in one area) in one year.

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 CAIFI = Σni/CN (outage times/customer.year) (1.4)
With: CN is the number of outage customers
- Average service availability index – ASAI provides average duration of one
customer supplied electricity in a year (%). It is defined as ratio of total hour
supplied and total hour requirring by one customer ( usually, total hour
requirring is 24*365=8760 hours)
N T . 8760−∑ r i N i
ASAI = (%)
N i . 8760 (NTis total of customer) (1.5)
- Customer total average interruption duration index – CTAIDI provides total
average duration of electrical outage. This criterion is calculated as CAIDI,
except, customer experiencing multiple interruptions is only counted one
time.

CTAIDI =
∑ ri N i
CN (1.6)
With: CN is the number of outage customers
- Customers experiencung multiple interruptions – CEMIs provides the
number of customers’s power outage. This index has purpose of showing
troublesoem to customer that average value does not refer to.
CN ( k >n )
CEMIn=
NT (1.7)
- Average system interruption duration idex: ASIDI about load side is defined
as ratio between total unsupplied power (by interrupting incidents) and total
supplied power (kVA).

ASIDI =
∑ r i Li
LT (1.8)
Therein : Li : isthe load capacity of outage ; LT : is the load capacity
total.
- Average system interruption frequency index – ASIFI is defined as ratio of total
interrupting power (kVA) and total supplied power (kVA).

ASIFI =
∑ Li
LT (1.9)

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 - Customers experience multiple sustained interruptions and momentary
interruptions events – CEMSMIn lists number of momentary and permanent
interrupting events of one customer.
CNT (k >n )
CEMSMIn=
NT (1.10)
Therein : CNT(k>n) :Customers have outage times larger than
n.
- Momentary average interruption frequency index – MAIFI provides the
number of electrical momentary interrupting of one customer in an area per
year.

MAIFI=
∑ IM i N mi
NT (1.11)
Therein : Imi is transient outage times ; Nmi is transient outage
customer.
- The average power consumption is not provided: AENS =power total is not
provided on customers total.
AENs = ΣLa(i)/Ni (kWh/customer) (1.12)
Therein : La(i)is the power loss of load i
- The annual average blackouts indicator: ACCI
ACCI = = ΣLa(i)/ΣNi (1.13)
- Momentary average interruption event frquency index – MAIFIE provides
average number of momentary interrupting event of one customer in an area
per year.
- Average service unavailability index – ASUI.
- Energy not supplied index – ENS.

1.2 ESTIMATE RELIABILITY IN OPERATION AND DESIGN

PLANNING OF GRID.

1.2.1 The causes of outage.

- Power system is a complex system, composed of many elements, elements

linked together in complex diagrams; power system usually located on a

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 large area of the country or territory. When the damaged elements of system
can lead to stop supplying electricity to customers for each region or the
whole system. There are many outage causes, people divided into four main
causes as follows:
- Due to the weather: flood, rain storms, tornadoes, lightning, tsunami ...
- Due to corrupting the electrical components of the system as:

+ Electrical and machine part:

Corrupt the fuel supply system.

Corrupt part of the motivation (launched).

Corrupt transformers

Corrupt swithgear

Corrupt conductive parts

Corrupt insulators of: transmission lines, transformers, lightning, power

cables.

Corrupt the voltage control equipment: voltage regulation device of the

generator, capacitor control equipment...

+ Protection and control such as: damaged relays, broken signal line,
damaged control circuit.

- Due to the operation of the system as:

+ Given the state of the system:

Stability of the system

Low/high voltage

Low/high frequency

Overloaded lines, transformers

Unbalanced load

+ Due to operational staff:

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 Because of dispatching staff of power system

Because of operational staff of power plants

Because of operational staff of grid

Error due to maintenance

- Other Causes:

+ Animals: birds, rats, snakes.

+ Vehicle: cars, cranes.

+ Excavation.

+ Fire or explosives.

+ Sabotage, terrorism.

According to statistics, 50% of incidents were restored in about 60 minutes.

90% of major incidents were restored in about 7 hours.

Experience shows that most incidents of distribution network derived from

natural elements such as lightning, storms, rain, floods, animal... Outage can be
attributed to other defects of equipment, material and human actions such as: Car
crashes into utility poles; vehicle touches wires, fallen trees, vandalism and
excavators dig underground cable.A number of dangerous and spread incidents
arein distribution system due to hurricanes, floods. In that case, restored power
supply was prevented by dangersand most of power companies are not enough
people, vehicles, machinery and equipment to quickly restore the grid on a large
geographical and complex area.

Overall, we can divide and rearrange to minimize the number of customers

affected by failure equipment or minimized outage time.Operational availability is
the only choice of electricity industry to improve reliability. Minimize outage time
by promptly repairing damaged equipment.

The coordination between preventive maintenance schedule and reliability

analysis can be very effective.The incident analysis helps to identify the weakest
point of the distribution system and quickly and accurately solve such points.The
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analysis is done only in the important segment of the system.The resulting
information is used in the decision to build the security system somehow or risk
losing power.

1.2.2 Effect of credibility to economic losses and grid structure.

Electricity is the main motivation of the entire national economy. Outages

will cause social consequences, huge economy.

As a result of outages, the load is divided into 2 types:

- Type of load that outages cause the political-social consequences.

- Type of load that outages cause economic consequences.

For above type, load should supply power with highest reliability. Under
type is economic-technical problem basing on considerations between capital
investment in power system and economic losses due to power outages:

Economic losses give specific manufacturing facility, business.It is the

economic losses that these facilities must bear to sudden or planned outage.

When sudden outage, the product is broken, stalled production caused

economic losses.This loss may dependent on outages time or power loss or both
simultaneously.When planned outages, losses is smaller due to manufacturing
facility prepared.

This loss is calculated for each type of enterprise or business establishments

to serve specifically for designing to provide power to this facility.

Economic losses are seen in view of the power system.This loss is calculated
from the real loss in load and in accordance with opinion of the power system.It is
to serve design, planning of electric systems that satisfy the reliability requirements
of the load, while ensuring economic efficiency of power system.

This loss is calculated for net distribution line, transmission line and power
source separately.It was also calculated for each type of loadfor outage times, for 1
kW or 1kWh and calculated for the duration of outages time.

For example, the price of 1 kWh of electricity:

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 - In Australia using price table of outages ($/kWh) as follows (in Australian
currency):
+ Civil load: 0.5 for planned outages - 1.5 for incident outage.
+ Normal business load: 2.5 for planned outages - 7.5 for incident
outage.
+Sensitivebusinesses load: 5 for planned outages- 15 for incident
outage.
- At EDF usingprice as follows:in 1988 cost at distribution network is: 14.5
F/kWh general, not by type of load; specialized loadnetwork has two price, if
the capacity is less than 8%, the price is 7.25 F/kWh, higher than 8%, the
price is 14.5 F/kWh.

Economic losses due to huge outages and political-society aspects also

requires increasing reliability, makes the electric system more to complete the
structure, operational improvements to continuously improve reliability.

Reliability factors affect the decision of power system structure:

- Source structure: The storage capacity, cold storage units ...

- Grid Structure: closed-loop circuit, multiple parallel route, many transformer
stations, station diagrams and complex power plant.
- Structure of the control system: protection equipment, breakdown protection
equipment, information systems, automatic control systems, operating
methods ...
- Structure of management systems: system ready to intervene when
breakdown, storage equipment, transportation, organizing repairs and
maintenance.

To enhance reliability requires huge capital investment, so reliability is

not enhanced at all costs.Investment in enhanced reliability is only effective
when the economic losses due to enhanced reliability greater than the cost to
improve reliability.

In the target function of the problem defined as source and grid structure;
there are also losses components due to reliability calculated by economic losses
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 mentioned above.However, such calculation also encountered many
difficulties.Thus we can calculate the reliability factor as the boundary
conditions of the problem, ie using indirect indicators of reliability such as:

- The probability of no occuring outage (reliability) must be equal to or

greater than a certain value.
- The probability of occuring outage (risk) must be smaller than a certain
value.

The criteria are defined on the basis of economic-technical analysis of power

system.

1.2.3 Ensure the reliability of economic problems.

Electricity industry is expected to provide continuous power, quality for

customers with reasonable prices by using available systems and equip by an
economical way. Providing continuous power is understood as certainty and safety
power supply for people and equipment to power quality being voltage and nominal
frequency in the permissible limits.

For surely maintenance services to customers, the electricity industry must

have sufficient workers to prevent incidents in electrical department lead to outage
of customers caused damaged goods, services and economic losses.To calculate the
value of reliability, the damage caused by breakdown must be clearly defined.

The price of reliability is used to review and assess its growth rate.Economic
analysis of reliability can be a very useful tool in planning decisions to spend
money to improve reliability by providing more capital for the system.

The reliability study showed that reliability is desired to avoid the breakdown
of equipment or combination of equipment which leads to power supply stop.The
degree of reliability is considered reasonably to damage due to outages increased to
avoid the consequences of exceeding outage of customer. According reasonable
degree of confidence from the consumer perspective can be defined as the
confidence level when investmenttotal and damage is minimized. Note that the
improvement of system reliability and investment is not linear relationship and

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reasonable reliability of the system for fitting optimaly... the smallest cost total. The
problem is the initial capital investment increasing how reliability is. Where does
subsequent capital investment put to achieve the highest reliability?

Figure 1.1 Reliability of economic problems

1.2.4 Measures to improve the reliability of power supply

To improve the reliability of the entire distribution network, we need to

improve the reliability of the grid elements.The first measure must be considered is
the use of equipment having high reliability.The element should have high
reliability in electrical systems such as lines, transformers, circuit breakers,
disconnector, protective devices, control and automation...Today, with the powerful
development of new materials industry, many materials and electrical equipments
have very high reliability.Materials can be listed as: insulation materials have high
strength insulation as the insulation paper, ceramic insulators with
silicon...Electrical equipment may include a number of categories such as: vacuum
circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker.The protective and automation equipment now
uses digital technology have significantly higher reliability than devices using
electromagnetic relays before.In addition, transformers used magnetic materials
having a small loss and good insulation, so ithas high reliability.However, the use of
equipment with high reliability means increased costs for grid investment.Therefore
it affects the economic indicators of the system, so we use it depending on specific

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conditions. For those loads are not allowed outage, the investment with the best
possibilities.For other loads should be based on a comparison between the losses
due to outages and investment costs.In fact, distribution network also uses a lot of
old equipment, outdated technology, low reliability gradually replaced by modern
equipment having high reliability, thus the reliability of the grid are becoming
markedly improved.

The second measure is the use of automated devices on the network and
remote control device.The automatic equipment is used: automatic close, automatic
backup power close, supervisory control systems and remote data acquisition
(SCADA). According to statistics for overhead transmission line, transient problems
can be accounted for 70-80 % of the total number of line faults.It is caused because
a lightning strike on the line, tree falls on line, strange objects fall into line...The
incident is usually eliminated after one or two electrical discharges.Therefore, if
using automatic close, the closed rate is very high since time of automaitic close is
very short(2-5s), so load should not suffer blackouts. There are twopower
supplieswhile having a redundant power supply, the automatically closed device of
redundant power is very efficiently. When there is a breakdown power supply, the
other source will immediately be put to work without causing outages for
load.Nowadays, with the development of information technology, monitor control
systems and remote data collection is widely used in the industry.This system
allows data collection, analysis and control of remote objects. Using SCADA
systems in the distribution network will quickly separated incident grid segments
and restored the power supply for the no-incident segment.For many distribution
network and complex wiring such as gird in the city, the use of SCADA system is
very efficient and reasonable, however for distribution network in rural areas... has
large cost affecting economic criteria of the facility.

The third measure is to increase the redundancy feature in reasonable wiring

diagram (using double-circuit lines, closed grid and openned operation, grid
segments).The distribution network is often branched-radial grid having low
reliability. However, it is widely used in our country because of economic
reasons.To increase the reliability of the distribution network, using the scheme is
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capable of converting flexibly to minimize the possibility of outage to the
load.Currently,we can use the following wiring diagrams: Diagram using double
circuit line.With this scheme, we use two power supply lines to the load.Two routes
can operate normally in parallel or independent operation.When a route has
incident; the remaining route supplies power for the entire load.So load capacity of
each route must undertake the entire load. Characteristic of this scheme is high
reliability but investment costs are quite large, only suitable for the important
loadnot to allow outage.

Diagram isclosed grid and openned operation. This diagram includes

multiple sources and multiple segments line forming closed grid but segments
circuit breaker cut it forming openned gird when operation. When a segment
undergoes outage, the load of this segment only undergoes outage. Other segments
only undergo temporary outage during operation time, then it suppliesback
power.This scheme has the advantages of low investment cosst;we can be applied to
the distribution system.However, it depends on the power supply in each region.

Diagram is segments grid. Radial-segments grids are the most used today
because it costs even low, simpler scheme can be applied widely. Disadvantages are
not highly reliable. Segments Equipment may be the circuit breaker, disconnector.
In this scheme, if incident is only a segment,backward segment will be outage;
preceded segments (toward the source) only are temporary outage during operation
time. In this type of diagram, the number and placement of segment equipment also
affect the outage time of load. So we choose specificlyfor each specific grid.
Experience shows that minimizing power loss due to routine maintenance and
breakdowns, we need more segment equipment on the line. Placement of segment
equipment divided same line length. However, installing much segment equipment
will increase investment, malfunction elements of grid for 10kV grid; people often
choose the length of the segment line from 2-3 km. Use this scheme effectively
need to combine with automatic closing devices, remote control ... can dramatically
improve the reliability of the distribution grid.The use of these devices can
eliminate the influence of transient malfunction and shorten the operation time on
the grid, thereby improving the reliability of power supply. Because of large capital
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investment, we need to compare between losses due to outages and investment
costs.

The fourth measureis finding and fixing fast problems. This is an important
solution to improve the reliability of power supply. Search and quickly isolate
incident, shorten outage time of load.This includes the contents: organized enough
people, tools, supplies, backup equipment and media being ready for every incident
situation. Collect information, analyze and isolate incident quickly. Repair quickly
incident in distribution network will reduce outage time of load, power loss due to
incident, and improve reliability of distribution grid.

The fifth measure isto strengthen routine maintenance of lines and

operation equipment on grid to prevent subjective incidents. Equip facilities serving
management operation as ladder trucks, hot inspection equipment... Training
enhances skills, knowledge, disciplinesfor operation staffs.Gradually increase the
rate of repair of the grid in form of hot-line (repair when the grid is operating). This
method is quite simple, inexpensive and effective to reduce the outage time.

1.2.5 Classification of reliable problems

Reliable problem is divided into smaller problems under reliablestructure:

Figure 1.2 Classification of reliable problems

The reliable problem of the power system is divided into four categories:

a) The reliable problem of the generating system only considers souces

b) The reliable problem of the power system considerssouce and system

loadsupplied by power system.

c) The reliable problem of the transmission and distribution networks.

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 d) The reliable problem of the load.

For the purpose, the reliable problem is divided into:

a) The problem of planning, planning servicedevelopes power system;

b) The problem of operation servesoperationof power system.

According to content, reliability is divided into:

a) Analytic problem aims to calculate the reliable criteria of electrical system

for given structure.

b) The synthetic problem determines directly the parameters of a particular

molecule on the basis of previous requests for reliability and parameters of the
remaining elements.Direct synthetic problem is complex so it can be applied only in
small and limited problems.

The synthetic problem for sourceand grid still uses indirect methods of
synthesis, which is based on different plans calculatingreliable criterion by
analytical methods to compare and select optimal solution.

Each type of reliable problem consists of planning and operation problems.

Each problem includes analytic and synthetic types.

The problem of reliable analysis is very important in planning, design and

operation of power systems.Contents of this problem is to calculate the reliable
criteria of a certain part of the electrical system from reliable parameters of its
elements, for example, calculate the reliability of a substation, a part of the grid
diagram ...The reliable target always associated with failure criteria (standards
complete the task) due reliable analysis.For example, the standard of failure grid
might be outage load; voltage is lower than the allowable value, overload
conductors...

Reliable analysis studies the effects of internal and external factors to the
reliability of the electric system.Factors affecting the reliability of the power system
are:

- Reliability of elements:

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 + The intensity of incident, recovery time.
+ Periodic repairs.
+ Outage to work.
- The structure of the system:
- The coupling among the elements in the station diagram, grid shape.
- Ability manipulates and changes the connection diagram (automatically or
manually).
- Organization System of management and operation:
- Organize and arrange the mobile units to intervene when having incidents.
+ Organize network to recover incident and periodic repairs.
+ Reserve equipment and repair.
+ Reserve capacity in the system.
+ The structure and operation of the control and operation system.
+ Strategy preserves periodic equipment.
- The impact of environment:
+ Electrical load.
+ Climatic factors, temperature and pollution.
- Human factors: the level of operational staff, technical factors, automated
operation.

In analysis, these factors are inputs while the output is the reliable target
of power systems.

However, calculating all factors are complex, so far there is no method of

considering all factors of influence.

Depending on the method by which a number of factors ignored or

simplified.

However, the overall result would still be used in the planning and
operation of power systems.

The assumptions also differ in terms of reliable problems serving

operational and planning of power system.

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 The reliable problem in planning servicein order to determines the
addition of new equipment, structural changes in the electrical system in next
year.The reliable problem in operational service in order to tests and
selectsoperational strategies for available electrical systems.

Two problems are same and this is general model of the power system.

1.3 OVERVIEW OF THE RELIABLE CALCULATION FOR

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK.

In power system, distribution network is the final stage of the power supply
to the load.Distribution gridaffects to economic and technical indicators of power
systems as:

- Investment costs for building distribution accounts for a large proportion

(medium-voltage distribution system by 1.5 times, low voltage distribution
grid by 2-2.5 times than high-voltage distribution network).
- Power loss in the distribution system is 2-3 times larger than the transmission
grid and accounts for 65-70 % system loss.
- Time due to incident and planning outage is larger than transmission grid.
- Distribution network significantly affects the quality of power supply to the
load (mainly voltage criteria).
- The reliability of the distribution network directly affects load.

For these reasons, research on the reliability of the distribution network is

essential and is one of the important contents of the electrical system.

Distribution grid includes medium-voltage and low voltage distribution

network. Voltage levels typically used in medium-voltage distribution is (6, 10, 15,
22, 35 kV).Medium voltage distribution gridtransfers from intermediate substations
to low voltage substations. Voltage level used for low voltage distribution grid is
0.4 kV. Low voltage distribution gridsupplies directly to household.

The task of the distribution grid is to supply to load with standard quality and
reliability in permissible limits.However, for reasons of economic and technical

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conditions, the high or low reliability of the current system depends on the load
requirements and the quality of the distribution network.

Distribution structure is usually:

- Radial distribution grid: it is characterized by simple, inexpensive but less

reliable, does not meet the needs of the critical load.
- Radial and segmented distribution grid: the radial distribution is divided into
several sections by segmented equipment.Segmented Equipment can be
disconnector, load breaker, segmented circuit breaker ... these devices can
close in place by hand or remote control systems.This grid has high or low
reliability depending on the segment and control equipment.
- Closed gird and openned operation: This grid structure is close loop or two
sources, has segmented devices in the loop. Normally openned-operational
grid, when it has incident or repair lines, we used switchgear to adjust the
power scheme. Then repaired segment lost power while remaining segments
supplied normal.

This scheme has higher reliability than the previous diagram.In principle,
network operates closedbut protective and control devices require good and
expensive equipment and is. Operating openingmesh issimple and much cheaper.

Today, the world is developing distributed systems.This system includes:

intermediate substation, segmented line, low voltage transformers connected to the
system.The segmented circuit breaker can control remotely through SCADA, DCS
systems.The circuit breaker can be equipped with automatic closing system to
improve reliability.

When the load curve changes by computer system, the wiring diagram is
redistributed to minimize power losses in the system.

Power supply system has high reliability and economic indicators, the stage
of measurement and automation can control highly. It helps power system always
operation optimally.

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 1.4 METHODS AND TOOLS FOR EVALUATING DISTRIBUTION
RELIABILITY

1.4.1 Reliability of radial-unfractionated distribution network

Diagram of radial distribution network is shown in the figure:

Figure 1.3 Radial distribution networks

Distribution network in Figure 2.1 a) is radial-unfractionated distribution

network. For this distribution, malfunctioning in any place caused outages the entire
distribution network.When outage is to work, the entire distribution is considered as
one element.

The malfunctioning intensity of entire distribution network is:

L
λSC =λ0
100 (1.14)

λ0- malfunctioning intensity for 100km; L - length of distribution grid.

λND = λSC + λCT (1.15)

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 λCT – Working outage intensity.

Outage time due to incident in a year is:

TNĐSC = λSC.TSC (1.16)

TSC-Time repairs incident.

Outage time to work is:

TNĐCT = λCT. TCT (1.17)

TCT- Once average outage time to work.

Outage time total is:

TNĐ= TNĐSC + TNĐCT (1.18)

Capacity and time using the largest capacity of the entire distribution
network is:

Pmax = ΣPmaxi (1.19)

T max =
∑ P max i . T max i
∑ Pmax i (1.20)

Electricity losses due to the incident:

T NDSC . P max . T max

A SC=
8760 (1.21)

Electricity losses due to outage to work:

T NDCT . P max . T max

A CT =
8760 (1.22)

1.4.2 Reliability of radial-segmented distribution network.

To improve reliability, the radial distribution is divided into several sections

by segmented equipment.Segmented Equipment can be disconnector, load breaker,
segmented circuit breaker ... these devices can close in place by hand or remote
control systems.

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 In the case of segments with disconnector, if the incident occurs in a certain
segment, circuit breaker will jump temporarily and cut the entire distribution grid.
Disconnector segmented and isolated malfunction element to the source. Then
sourceis closed to supply power for segment being in front of malfunction segment
toward the source.

When the incident occurs in a certain segment, that segment’s load and
segments(powered through breakdown segment) meets power outage during
repairing time. Load of the previous segment (before breakdown segment) only
meetspower outageduring operation time to isolate incident elements.

In the case of fractional circuit breaker, when an element is trouble,

fractional circuit breaker cut and isolate incident element. Elements (before
incidentelement)are completely unaffected.

Fractional solutions significantly increase the reliability of the distribution

network, reduce economic losses due to power outages but need capital
investment.Thus segment is an optimal problem, which needs to find the number,
placement and type of equipment used fractionallyto obtain most economical
efficient.

To calculate the reliability of thefractional distribution network, we first need

to equivalence network having only one load using the formula (1.19) and
(1.20).The reliable parameters of equivalent grid are calculated by the formula
(1.14) to (1.18). On figure 1.3b is the fractional distribution network consists two
segments and its equivalent diagram is drawn on figure 1.3c. Seen from source,
segment I is in font of segment II.

We calculate reliability of each piece of network:

Segment I: Segment I can be in power outage by itself malfunctioning or

affected by following incident network.

- Segment I: stopping power intensity is λ’1and stopping power intensity/yearis

T’1.

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 - The impact of the incident on the following grid, here's segment II, this effect
depends fractional device.

+ If using circuit breaker, segment II will not affect segment I:

λII>I = 0; TII>I = 0.

+ If using disconnector, segment II will stop power on segment I during

time to isolate incidentTtt:

λII>I = λ’II ; TII>I = Ttt.

Total number of power outages and outage time of grid segment I is:

λI = λ’I + λII>I; TI = T’I + TII>I.

Segment II: Segment I can be in power outage by itself malfunctioning or

affected by following and previous incident network.

- Segment II: Malfunctioning intensity is λ’I and outage time is T’II.

- Effect of stage I to stage II is whole, not dependent fractional device. Segmet
II bearsmalfunctioning intensity and outages duration segment I:
λI>II = λ’I; TI>II = T’I.

Total number of power outages and outage time of grid segment II is:

λII = λ’II + λ’I; TII = T’II + T’I.

After calculating T I và TII, energy loss is calculated according to (1.21),

(1.22).

Example:

Given:

Segment 1, 2: l = 15km; Pmax = 2500kW; Tmax = 4000h.

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Malfunctioning intensity cố λosc = 4 (l/100km.year); Tsc = 12h, Tttsc = 2h.

Operation outage timeλoct = 40 (l/100km.year); Tct = 2h, Tttct = 0,5h.

I have the opposite structure diagram after equivalence:

Segment 1:

λsc1 = λ'sc1 + λ'sc2 = 4.15/100 + 4.15/100 = 1,2 year-1

λct1 = λ'ct1 + λ'ct2 = 40.15/100 + 40.15/100 = 12 year-1

λNĐ1 = 1,2 + 12 = 13,2 l/year-1

TNĐSC1 = T'NĐSC1 + TNĐSC21 = λsc1.Tsc + λ'sc2.Tttsc

= 0,6.12 + 0,6.2 = 8,4h

TNĐCT1 = T'NĐCT1 + TNĐCT21 = λct1.Tct + λ'ct2.Tttct

= 6.2 + 6.0,5 = 15 h

TNĐ1 = 8,4 + 15 = 23,4 h

Asc1 = 8,4.2500.4000/8760 = 9589 kWh

Act1 = 15.2500.4000/8760 = 17123 kWh

Segment 2:

λsc2 = λ'sc2 + λ'sc1 = 4.15/100 + 4.15/100 = 1,2 năm-1

λct2 = λ'ct2 + λ'ct1 = 40.15/100 + 40.15/100 = 12 năm-1

λNĐ2 = 1,2 + 12 = 13,2 l/năm-1

TNĐSC2 = T'NĐSC2 + T'NĐSC1 = λsc2.Tsc + λsc1.Tsc

= 0,6.12 + 0,6.12 = 14,4h

TNĐCT2 = T'NĐCT2 + TNĐCT1 = λct2.Tct + λct1.Tct

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 = 6.2 + 6.2 = 24 h

TNĐ2 = 14,4 + 24 = 38,4 h

Asc2 = 14,4.2500.4000/8760 = 16438 kWh

Act2 = 24.2500.4000/8760 = 27397 kWh

Energy loss of entire grid:

Asc = Asc1 + Asc2 = 9689 + 16438 = 26027 kWh

Act = Act1 + Act2 = 17123 + 27397 = 44520 kWh

Atong = Asc + Act = 26027 + 44520 = 70547 kWh

SAIFI = (λNĐ1 + λNĐ2)/2 = (13,2 + 13,2)/2 = 13,2 l/year

SAIDI = (TNĐ1 + TNĐ2)/2 = (23,4 + 38,4)/2 = 30,9 h/year

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