aplifier der test 4355 is capable of iying its value on waveform at Ais waveform at Ais he high frequency jas filter, leaving ponents. This is ye ratio is taken’ of 4 2 before being ation distortion is also called CCIF 2 237 shows the uency analyser. A plifier under test SO e low (difference) TION DISTORTION distortion occurs respond rapidly to y applying a square high frequency sine er, as in Fig. 23.8(a) an oscilloscope. If tion is present then portion of the high Fig. 23.8(b), and the th (6) Output signal 2 transient ‘ion. 23.7 SPECTRUM ANALYSERS Spectrum. analysis is defined as the Gtudy of ras the frequency spectrum of a The study 8! effects of different bution ac cal_signal. about bandwidth, energy distri given electri im formation pote Seca types of modulation and spurious signal generation. cuantities and pheno- e knowledge of the above q' seful in the design an d pulse circuitry- 5 divided into two major trumentation limitations mena are u! d testing of radio frequency (RF) an The spectrum analysis is categories on account of ins' and capabilities. They are : (i) Audio frequency (AF) analysis, and pectrum analysis. (ii) Radio frequency (RF) 51 Dh (RE) spectrum analysis covers 4 frequency range of GHz, and hence is more 0 MHz to 40 important, because it includes the vast majority of communication, navigation, radar, and _industrial _communication, instrumentation frequency bands. The spectrum analysers are sophisticated instru- ments which are capable of portraying graphically the amplitude as a function of frequency in a portion of RF spectrum. These instruments find wide applications for measurement of attenuation, FM deviation, and frequency in pulse studies. i 23.7.1 Basic Spectrum Analyser The basic spectrum anal i s lyser is designed t represent graphical itude : fequeny of a sceced portion of the, tequency 01 am under study. as ae ; parti sce eo of a narrow b id erodyne receiv: wee dace er and a CRO. Thi i i oy tuned By varying the rea receiver is or. A simplifed block F milipen of a swept frequ Fig. 239, 1°" SPectrum analyser is shown in ives valuable ~719 signal Anolvsers RF i ut 1 = Voltage alae tuned loc al 4s tooth oscillatot Be eat —_—— Fig. 23.9 The circuit incorporates a sawtooth generator which sup) ies _a_ramp_voltage to_the frequency control element of the voltage tuned jocal oscillator. The local oscillator then sweeps through its frequency band at a recurring linear rate. The same sawtooth voltage is simultaneously applied to the horizontal plates of the CRO. The RF signal to be tested is applied to the input of the mixer stage. The sawtooth generator makes the local oscillator sweep through its frequency band to beat with the input signal to produce the desired intermediate frequency (iF). An IF component is produced only when the corresponding, component is present in the RF input signal. The resulting IF signals are amplified, and then detected. After that they ar€ applied to the vertical deflection plates of the CRO, thereby producing @ display of amplitude versus frequency 0 the screen. ir amplifier vo Basic swept receiver spectrum analyser. 23.7.2 Spectral Displays d for display of Normally a CRO is use with the X-ax! signals with respect to time, a. ates the rise time, electrical waa es mens Fig. 23.10 A thre tude, frequency, 2 mental and its set Time-Amplitude § composite f, = 2f Frequency-Amel composite signa 23.7.3 Spect Let us ¢ signals in or displayed on spectrum A 4. Cont continuous through by response / amplifier P ano702 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and tng, " "mH, 22.11 FUNCTION GENERATOR A Runetion generator is a versatile instrument that Gelivers a choice of different waveforms whose frequencies are adjustable over a wide range. The most common output waveforms are the sine, triangular, square, and sawtooth waves. The frequencies of these waveforms may be adjusted from a traction of a hertz to several hundred kilohertz. The various outputs of the generator may be available at the same time, For instance, by providing square wave for linearity measurements in an audio system, a simultaneous sawtooth output may be used to drive the horizontal deflection amplifier of an oscilloscope providing a visual display of the measurement results. The capability of the function generator to phase lock to an external signal source is another useful feature. One function generator may be used to phase lock a second function generator, and the two output signals can be displaced in phase by an adjustable amount. In addition, one generator may be hase locked to a harmonic of the sine wave of another, generator. By adjusting the phase and the amplitude of the harmonics, almost any waveform may be generated by the summation of the fundamental frequency generated by the one function generator and the harmonic generated by the other function generator. The function generator can also be phase locked to a frequency standard, and all its output waveforms are then generated with the frequency accuracy and stability of the standard source. ‘The function generator can supply output waveforms at very low frequencies. Since the low frequency of a simple RC oscillator is limited, a different approach is used in the function generator of, Fig. 22.29. This instrument delivers sine, triangular, and square waves with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz.to 100 kHz, The frequency control network by the frequency dial on the front 6, Bow instrument or by an externally apne! ore voltage. The frequency control voltage ut’. cont current sources Bulate ‘The upper current source supplies i" current to the triangle integrator whose out increases linearly with time. The output at Vltag ren by the well-known relationship, Voltage i, 1 four =~ fiat say ‘An increase of a decrease in the current by the upper current source increases or dene Pie slope of the output voltage. The voltage coment multivibrator changes state at a predeterminay fo” on the positive slope of the integrator’s oy voltage. This change of state cuts off the upper Put supply to the integrator and switches on the i current supply. fed ‘The lower current source supplies a reve current to the integrator so that its output = linearly with time. When the output voltage reaches predetermined level on the negative slope of the output waveform. 22.12 SIGNAL GENERATING INSTRUMENTS The previous sections of this chapter have considered the circuits which go to produce the sine, pulse and square waveforms used in signal generating equipment. In the remainder of this chapter the instruments are introduced. These are categorised as, signal generators, swept frequency generators, synthesizers, pulse generators; and function generators, although the dividing lines between these groups are often blurred. alate control ‘Upper constant Rat SNe| Femeney ae Voltage cee Lau a pL sea, Integrator — bee ee i ouput |S Resistance diode shaping circuitTeadings w 9x 1x 19-3 ; 3.499 t display it ca Cases, Its (better Tesolution) e re., 100 ms. 3420 Hz instead of T Will be ; 42 N show served if the gating PPose the frequency is kept as 1 s. The 3 digits, the meter > Case for the gating th eight digit readout ercent of reading, + 1 id us. Assuming that ons, what are the is : (a) 05 00 0000 us maximum nominal ng (b) could be made 000 000 ps or «10° us 0.005 5 10° 100 250 us 1 us - 251 us Reading =500 s x 500 =+ 0.025 s eofls + 1,025 5 Petia ~~" 185 8 digit di, ri OF 500 s cannot betaken fe display. Hence a US try the ms re, US range. adonut 500 § = 500% 10" ire. 500.000 ms The my: 00800 009" CAtout will display the teed ng as 0 9.008 percent of treading = + 9.008 « 500 « 10% 100 “225 me The LSD has a v Maximum OF 500 s can be alue of 1 ms Possible accuracy with which a reading read by this Meter is +25 +1 = +26 ms. 28.31 DIGITAL VOLTMETERs (DMvs) wc cist volmeter (VN) pty tea Rarer i. Be being measured directly as discrete s e decimal number system. Numerical readout of DVMs is advantageous since it eliminates observational errors committed by operators. The errors on account of parallax and approximations are entirely eliminated. The use of digital voltmeters increases the speed with which readings can be taken. Also the output of digital voltmeters can be fed to memory devices for storage and future computations. A digital voltmeter is a versatile and accurate voltmeter which has many laboratory applications. On account of developments in the integrated circuit (IC) technology, it has been possible to reduce the size, power requirements and cost of digital voltmeters. In fact, for the same accuracy, a digital voltmeter now is less costly than its analog counterpart. The decrease in size of DVMs on account of use of ICs, the portability of the instruments has increased. 28.31.1 Tynes of DVMs ‘The increasing popularity of DVMs has brought forth a wide number of types employing nein circuits, The various types of DVMs in general use are : (i) Ramp type DVM, (ii) Integrating type DVM, Potentiometric type DVM, proximation type Jance type DVM DVM, and (iv) Successive aP| (v) Continuous bal1030 Electrical and Electronic Measuremeny, : In The circuits described here do not represent those of any specific make of a digital voltmeter. ‘These Circuits are being described merely to explain the Voltage measuring principles on which these instru- ments operate, Inevery case, the basic function that is performed, isan analog to digital (A/D) conversion. For ‘example, 2 voltage value may be changed to a proportional time interval, which starts and stops a clock oscillator. In tum the oscillator output is applied to an electronic counter which is provided with a readout in tems of voltage values, The A/D conversion techniques have already been explained in Art. 26.28. 28.32 RAMP TYPE DIGITAL VOLTMETER The operating principle of a ramp type digital voltmeter is to measure the time that a linear ramp voltage takes to change from level of input voltage to zero voltage (or vice versa). This time interval is measured with an electronic time interval counter and the count is displayed as a number of digits on electronic indicating tubes of the output readout of the voltmeter. The conversion of a voltage value of a time interval is shown in the timing diagram of Fig, 28.41. At the start of measurement a ramp voltage is initiated. A negative going ramp shown in Fig. 28.41 but a positive going ramp may also be used, The ramp Voltage value is continuously compared with the voltage being measured (unknown voltage). At the instant the value of ramp voltage is equal to that of unknown voltage a coincidence circuit, called an input Comparator, generates a pulse which opens a gate (See Fig. 28.42), The ramp voltage continues to decrease till it reaches ground level (zero voltage). At this instant Input voltage Input comp. Ranging and attenuator generator | ‘Ground ‘comp, +42 Block diagram of a ramp DvM. na another comparator calleq 4 generates a pulse and closes hg %ng The time elapsed between 9 °° “™ the gates as indicated in Fig. ans an interval pulses from a ; clock puis, through the gate and are coun pew gen’ high Sunted ang Gey i Start of Ply meastirement any Coincidence Unictown| voltage Ee -12V| Gating time interval Clock pulses Fig. 28.41 Timing diagram showing voltage to time conversion, The decimal number as indicated by the radu is a measure of the value of input voltage eae rate multivibrator determines thers at_which the measurement Te Sample rate circuit provides a Lamp generator to start its next raiip VOIR Ae ‘Sinemet sendy a pulse tothe counters which xs all of them to 0. This momentarily Femoves the digi display of the readout, , Start Readout e000 pulse Counter