Hydrology Introduction to Hydrometry

6. Stream flow Measurements (Stream Gauging)

6.1. Introduction
Runoff is that part of precipitation which reaches the stream. The Water that
constitutes the flow in the surface stream is called stream flow. If the stream flow is
unaffected by the artificial diversions, storage, or other works of man in or on the
stream channels, then it is called as runoff. In other words runoff means the virgin
stream flow.
Stream flow forms the most important data for engineers and hydrologists since they
are concerned mainly with estimating rates and volumes of the stream flow to be used
in the design of water resources projects.

It is rather difficult to measure the discharge of flow in the natural streams directly as
it is done in the case of flow in pipes or laboratory flumes using the flow meters such
as venturimeter, venturiflume etc. But it is very easy to make a direct and continuous
measurement of stage in the river above some arbitrary datum.
 Obviously the higher the stage in the river, the higher is the discharge.
The general practice in the stream flow measurement is therefore, to record the river
stage and to convert the data on the stage into the discharge data. This is
accomplished through the stage-discharge relationship which is first established by
actual measurements of discharge in the river at different stages.
 Once a stable stage-discharge relationship is established at a gauging site, the
discharge measurement is discontinued and only the stage is recorded continuously.

- Discharge is the quantity of liquid passing through the given area per unit time.

6.2. Selection of Stream site

While selecting stream gauging site, the following factors should be considered.
 The river reach at the site should be straight and uniform for the length of at
least 10 to 20 times the width of the stream.
 The site should be easily accessible

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 The cross-section of the river at the site should be well defined; the bed and
the bank should be firm and stable. There should no be large overflow over
the banks at the flood stage.
 There should be a good permanent control section
 The cross-section of the river should be at the site should be well defined, and
the banks and bed should be firm and stable. There should not be large
overflow over the banks at the flood stage.
 There should be a good permanent control section located at the down stream
of the site. The control section is said to be permanent if the stage discharge
relationship at that section does not change with time.. the control may be in
the form of steep rapids, large rocky boulders, outcrops any other restricted
passage.
 The stream-gauging should be so located that its installation is permanent and
is not likely to be disturbed.
 The gauging station should not be located just upstream of the confluence of
the river with another stream to avoid backwater effect. Moreover, it should
be not be located within the zone of influence of the backwater of reservoir.
 The banks and the beds should not have vegetal growth, loose boulders or
other obstructions at the site.
 The best site is where the river cross-section is regular and V-shaped and there
is sufficient depth for immersing the current meter.

6.2. Measurements of Stage

6.21. Staff gauge
The river stage has been defined as the height of the water surface in the river at a
given section above any arbitrary datum. In many cases the datum is taken as the
mean sea level. Sometimes the datum may be selected at or slightly below the lowest
point on the river bed.
The stage can be very easily measured by installing a vertical staff gauge which is a
graduated scale such that a portion of it is always in the water at all times. It can be
conveniently attached to a bridge pier or any other existing structure.
 It is read manually by noting the level of water surface in contact with it.

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Vertical staff gauge 13

10 10


5 5

River Bed

When the flow in the stream is subjected to large variations resulting in

correspondingly large fluctuations in the stage, it may be beyond the range of a single
vertical staff gauge to record the entire rise or fall in the water surface. In such
situations it may be convenient to use vertical staff gauge as shown in Fig. above
covering the entire range.
Proper care must be taken while installing the staff gauges to protect them from
damage by boats, ice, or flood transported debris and to ensure that flow disturbances
across the scale are at a minimum.

The river stage can also be measured manually by using another type of device called
the suspended weight gauge (Wire gauge). In this method a weight attached to a rope
is lowered from a fixed reference point on a bridge or other overhead structure till it
touches the water surface. By subtracting the length of the rope lowered from the
reduced level of the fixed reference point the stage is obtained.
Though the manual gauges described above are simple and inexpensive they must be
read frequently to get a continuous curve of the stream flow, especially when the
stage is changing rapidly. Hence, it is likely that the peak stage may be missed when
it occurs between the observations. Recording type gauges may be installed to
overcome these difficulties.

 Bubble Gauge

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A bubble gauge essentially consists of a small tube placed at the lowest water level in
a river through which compressed air (preferably Nitrogen gas) is slowly bubbled out
(Fig. below).
A pressure gauge (manometer) connected to a recording device like pen and graph
arrangement measures the gas pressure which in turn is equal to the water column
above the outlet.
Gas from a high-pressure cylindrical jar passes through a controlling unit to the small
tube orifice. As the head of water in the river changes, the controlling unit
automatically controls the gas pressure equal to the water head.
 The position of the pen connected to the free end of the manometer moves as the
manometer head fluctuates, which is recorded on a graph paper.
A small change in the water-surface elevation is felt as a change in pressure from the
present value at the pressure gauge and this in turn is adjusted by a servo-mechanism
to bring the gas to bleed at the original rate under the new head.

Instrument Room

Gas Circuit
P=H

Fig. Arrangement of a Bubble gauge Stage Recorder

6.2.2. Recording gauge

Recording type gauge used to measure the stage continuously with time is also known
as an automatic stage recorder. It usually consists of a float tied to one end of a cable
running over a pulley. To the other end of the cable a counterweight is attached.
- The float would be resting on the water surface and the counterweight always
keeps the cable in tension.
- Any change in water surface makes the float either to rise or to lower and this
in turn makes the pulley rotate.

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- The movement of the pulley would actuate a pen arm which rest on a clock-
driven drum wrapped with chart.
- The circumference of the drum represents the time axis while the height of the
drum represents the stage.
- So, either sufficient height of the drum or some scaling mechanism is
provided to cover the expected range of the stage.
- The clock and the drum may be so designed that the chart runs for a specified
period of time (like a day or a week or a month) unattended.

Roof
Window
Automatic
stage recorder

Counter weight

Float


Intake pipe

Fig.: Stilling well installation

A float type automatic stage recorder requires a shelter in the form of stilling well as
shown in Fig. above. This stilling well gives protection to the float and counterweight
from floating debris and with proper design of intake pipes it suppresses the
fluctuations resulting from surface waves in the river.
As the stilling well is likely to get filled with sediments, it is necessary to make
provision for the removal of silt from time to time. It is customary to install staff
gauges inside and outside the well. These staff gauge serve to check the performance
of the recorder and these are read each time the station is visited.

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6.2.3. Stage data

The stage data is often presented in the form of a plot of stage against chronological
time known as stage hydrograph. In addition to its use in the determination of stream
discharge, stage data itself is of importance in flood warning and flood protection
works. Reliable long-term stage data corresponding to peak floods can be analysed
statistically to estimate the design peak river stages for use in the design of hydraulic
structures, such as bridges, weirs, etc. Historic flood stages are invaluable in the
indirect estimation of corresponding flood discharges.
Stage

Time
Fig.: Stage hydrograph

6.3. Measurement of Discharge

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The following methods are commonly used for the measurements of discharge in a
river:
 Area-velocity method
 Slope area method
 Salt concentration (or tracer) method
 Moving boat method
 Electromagnetic and ultrasonic method
 Indirect method

6.3.1. Area-Velocity method

 In this method, the discharge is determined from the area of cross-section and
the mean velocity.
 The area of cross-section of the river is determined from the profile of the
river bed obtained by the sounding.
 The river cross-section is divided in to a suitable number of vertical segments
(or strips).
The total discharge in the river is computed as the sum of the discharges in various
segments. The discharge in each segment is equal to the area of the segment
multiplied by the mean velocity of flow.
There are two methods of determining the discharge:
 Mid-section method
 Mean-section method

Mid-section method
In this method, the area of cross-section is divided into several segments, and the
mean velocity (Vm) is measured on a vertical line in the middle of the segment. The
mean depth of the segment is also taken at the middle of the segment. If b is the width
of the segment and dm the mean depth, the discharge in the segment is given by
Q   b  d m  V m

Total discharge Q  Q
Velocity & depth section

3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27

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The discharge in the end two triangular strips is usually neglected. However, for
greater accuracy, the discharge in these triangular strips should also be calculated by
measuring the depth and velocity at the centroids of these strips.

Mean section methods

In this method, the segment is taken between two vertical lines on which the velocity
and depth are measured. The velocity in the segment is taken as the average of the
mean velocities V1 and V2 determined at the two adjacent verticals. Similarly, the
depth is also taken as the average of two depths d1 and d2. Thus the discharge in the
segment is given by
 d  d 2   V1  V2 
 Q  b 1  
 2  2 

Strip
b

Verticals

Velocity & depth section

Total discharge Q  Q
This method is slightly more accurate than the mid-section method.
Determination of Velocity
For the measurement of discharge, the mean velocity is required at various vertical
lines as discussed above. The following methods are commonly used:

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 Float method
 Current meter method

Velocity Measurement by Float

In this method, a straight and uniform reach of the river is selected for the float to
travel. The time t taken by a float to travel a certain distance L is measured.
A C E

B Poles D F

This method consists noting the time taken by the floats to traverse a measured
distance. Then
Dis tan ce travelled by a float in m
 Velocity in m / sec .
Time taken in sec

There are three types of float commonly used in practice

- Surface floats
- Sub-surface floats of Double floats
- Velocity rods or rod floats.

Surface floats: They are made up of light material for example cork. Any object that
can float can be used as surface float.
To make them easily distinguishable they are painted on top. The floats should be of
sufficient small size so that they may be carried further by the velocity of the surface
filament.
The measurements of velocity are done as mentioned below.
- Two wire ropes or cables are stretched across the channel at right angles to the flow.
The ropes are marked to divide the channel width in various paths or tracks for floats.

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- The two ropes are separated by a known distance. The distance between
the ropes is called a reach or a run. This distance should be sufficiently
long.
- For rivers and large irrigation channels it should be more than 50 metres.
Usually 75 metres length is found to be sufficient
- A third marked rope is stretched across the channel upstream of the reach
by about 15 to 20 metres. The floats are released at this point.
- By the time the floats enter the run they acquire uniform velocity.
- The floats which follow their respective tracks are only considered.
- As the velocity of the floats is affected by wind, a calm day should be
chosen for taking observations.
- By this method surface velocity is obtained which is not the mean velocity
of flow. Hence this value should be multiplied by a constant to arrive at a
mean velocity of flow.
Sub-surface float or Double float: It consists of a lighter surface float attached by a
cord to a hollow metal sphere or a cylinder which is another subsurface float.
Sub-surface float is slightly heavier than water. The depth to which sub-surface floats
be confined may be increased or decreased by adjusting the length of the cord.
When the sub-surface float is adjusted accurately (about 0.2 D above bottom) the
velocity obtained by timing the surface float is nearly equal to the mean velocity.
 This method is superior to surface float.

Surface Float Sub-surface Float Rot

Float

Fig. Floats
Rod Float: A velocity rod or a rod float consists of a hollow metal tube or a wooden
rod. Diameter of the float rod is about 3 to 5 cm. The rod is weighted at the bottom to
keep the rod floating vertically with its top just above the water surface. The rod
should be of sufficient length to cover entire depth. To suit different depths the rod is
made in adjustable length that is it is made telescopic. For large rivers the rod floats

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may be made of wooden logs of about 30 cm diameter weighted at bottom to keep

them vertical.
The velocity with which the rod travels in the channel is nearly equal to the mean
velocity over its depth.

D
D1
Fig. Cross section of Rod floats

The mean velocity of the section may be calculated from the formula

 D1 

Vm  V 1.012  0.116 

 D 

Where V is the observed velocity of the rod float
D is depth of flow in a channel
D1 is clearance between lower end of the rod and the bed of channel.
The measurement of velocity is an important aspect of many direct stream flow
measurement techniques. A mechanical device, called current meter, consisting
essentially of a rotating element is probably the most commonly used instrument for
accurate determination of the stream velocity filed. Approximate stream velocities
can be determined by floats.

Velocity Measurements by Current Meters

The most commonly used instrument in hydrometery to measure the velocity at a
point in the flow cross-section is the current meter. It consists essentially of
- a rotating element which rotates due to the reaction of the stream current
with an angular velocity proportional to the stream velocity.
There are mainly two types of current meters which are in common use, namely:
- cup type and
- propeller type current meter.
The principle involved in both the meters is that the water flowing past the rotating
element of the meter makes it revolve due to the unbalanced drag force acting on it
and the speed of the rotating element is directly proportional to the velocity of water.

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Cup type current meter

The cup type current meter consists of a wheel of six conical cups rotating about a
vertical axis as shown in the fig. below,

Electrical connection Cable

Counting Stabilizing
mechanisim Fin

Cups

Sounding
weight

Fig.: Cup type current meter

The tail vanes (also known as the fins) will always align the meter along the direction
of flow. The purpose of sounding weight with streamlined shape at the bottom is to
keep the meter cable as nearly as possible.
The speed of the meter, after it is inserted at a point where velocity is to be measured,
is obtained by starting a stop watch on a click and stopping it on another click after
about 45 seconds.
The number of clicks counted divided by the elapsed time gives the speed of the
meter N in revolutions per second. Then the velocity measured by the meter is given
by
v = a + bN
where a and b are the calibration constants of the meter supplied by the manufacturer.
The normal range of velocity measured is 0.15 to 4.0 m/s.

Water surface A

2.0
a) 1.5
V3 1.0
Water surface
0.2d 0.5
0.6d v0.2d
0.8d A
d v0.6d

v0.8d
Channel bed
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b)

Fig. Velocity Distribution of a Channel Section

The profile suggests that the velocity needs to be measured at number of locations at
a section and also at different elevations to get the average velocity of the whole
channel section.
It is clear that the velocity of flow utilized for obtaining the discharge should be
uniform throughout the section. But in practice it is not possible. The velocity is
never uniform throughout the section. The obvious reason is, that frictional resistance
offered by the sides and the bed of the channel reduces the velocity.
Also the velocity of the top layer of water is reduced due to friction between the
atmosphere and the water surface or due to any other reason. Thus as we go inwards
from the channel boundaries the velocity of flow goes on increasing. The reduction in
the velocity of the flow at boundaries depends on the resistance offered by the surface
in contact.

 Velocity measurement by Ultrasonic method

Another method to measure velocity of a stream is the use of ultrasonic sound wave
moving in water from one side of the channel to other. Two transducers capable of
emitting and recording sound waves are placed at the same reduced level on either
side of the river banks, making an angle  with respect to the river bank as shown in
Fig. below.

P2 Bank left

A B
V
Flow L  P1 P2

P1 Bank right Section

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Fig: Velocity measurement by ultrasonic method (P1 and P2 are Transducers)

When the transducer P2 sends ultrasonic signals, it is received by P 1. The signals

move
with their own velocity in the water medium plus the velocity of water favouring it.
When P1 sends signals, it is received by P2 with velocity of water opposing it. The
velocity of water is computed from the relation
L 1 1
V    
2 cos   t1 t 2 

where L is the distance between P1 and P2 , t1 and t2 respectively represents the times
taken by sound wave to reach from P2 and P1 and from P1 to P2.

6.3. Methods of Discharge Measurement

Several methods may be used to measure a discharge of regular irrigation channels
and irregular channels like rivers, streams etc. The discharge may be measured either
- by passing the whole flow into or through some suitable measuring device or
- by measuring the velocity at number of points in wetted cross section of the
channel.
Streamflow is measured in units of discharge (m3/s) occurring at a specified time and
constitute a historical data.
Streamflow measurements can be broadly classified into two categories
- direct determination
- indirect determination
Under each category there are a host of methods, the important ones are listed below:

o Discharge Measuring Structures

o Area-velocity methods,
o Area-slope method
o Dilution Technique
o Ultrasonic method

As a rule, direct measurement of discharge is a very time-consuming and costly

procedure. Hence, a two-step procedure is followed.

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 First, the discharge in a given stream is related to the elevation of the water
surface (stage) through a series of careful measurements.
 In the next step the stage of the stream is observed routinely in a relatively
inexpensive manner and the discharge is estimated by using the previously
determined stage-discharge relationship.

6.3.1. Discharge Measuring Structures

Under this category are included those methods which make use of the relationship
between the flow discharge and the depths at specified locations.
Discharge measuring structures may be constructed for measuring discharges in small
streams. They use indirect method of computing discharges from stages using
standard equations. The different types of flow measuring structures generally
considered in practice are weirs.
A weirs are may be defined in general way as an obstruction in a channel that causes
upstream storage and flow over or through the obstruction.
This definition, therefore, includes many hydraulic structures, such as spillways and
drop structures. Most, if not all, of these structures can be can therefore be rated and
used for the purpose of flow measurement.
The commonly used weir types for flow measurements are:
 sharp-crested triangular,
 sharp-crested rectangular,
 Broad-crested weir etc.
The term "sharp-crested" means that the weir is so constructed that there is only a line
contact of the flow with the weir crest, whereas "broad-crested" means the flow is in
contact with the crest for a finite distance parallel to the flow direction.
This is the most reliable method of discharge measurement. For weirs of the type
commonly employed, the discharge is simply related to the head over the crest with
the result that it can be computed with the help of theoretical formulae by making a
direct measurement of this head.
The equation used for different weirs are:
 Triangular notch, up to 1.5 m3/s (sharp crested, V shaped triangular structure
 8   5/ 2
Q  cd   2 g tan H
 15  2

H = head over notch

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 = angle of notch
cd = coefficient of discharge (0.60 to 0.69)

 Rectangular notch (sharp crested rectangular opening)

2
Q  Cd 2 g LH 3 / 2
3
L = length of opening of the notch
 Trapezoidal notch (sharp crested)
Q  1.86 b H 3 / 2

L = b = bottom width of notch

 Weirs
2
Q  b 2g ho
3/ 2
[m3/s] for v o  1.0m / s
3

Q 
2
3

 b 2 g ( ho  hko ) 3 / 2  hko 3 / 2  for vo  1.0m / s

  coefficient of disch arg e

2
v
hko  o
2g

ho
Q
vo 
Ao

  0.49  0.51   0.50  0.55   0.64   0.73  0.75   0.79

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Fig. Different forms of weir structure and values of 

The coefficient of discharge in each equation is the function of the friction loss due to
the weir, the amount of vertical and horizontal contraction of flow, effect of adhesion
and cohesion, and the form of the weir structure. The value of these discharge
coefficients can be obtained from any standard tables.

6.3.2.2. Measurements of Area

Form the previous discussion it is clear that the velocity of river section varies in all
the directions. The velocity is zero at the river periphery and changes rapidly as we
move from the channel bed. A single area-velocity measurement for the entire section
will give highly erroneous results. Therefore, the cross section of river at the gauging
site is divided into a number of subsections by imaginary verticals. The number of
such subsections for stream is divided by the following criteria.
1. Discharge carried by any subsection should be upto 10 % of the total
discharge of the entire section.
2. The width of any subsection should be about 5 % of the total width of the
river at the site.
3. There should not be any large velocity difference between the adjacent
subsections
4. The discharge variation between adjacent subsections should be 5-10 %.
Table: Guidelines for deciding number of subsections of a river section for
discharge measurements
River or channel width (m) Number of observation Maximum section width (m)
sections
Upto 15 15 1.5
Between 15 – 90 15 6
Between 90 – 180 15 15
Over 180 25 To be fixed suitably
For computation of area, determination of water depths at various subsections is
carried out by any of the following methods

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- Wading or Sounding Rod: A man walks across the river section with a
graduated wading rod and the depth of water at each of the predefined
subsection is measured.
- Echo-sounder: For deep channels carrying the water at high velocities, an
electroacustic device called echo-sounder is often used. This instrument
gives accurate results in the least time and is best suited for soft and
mobile beds.
 A transducer is lowered at the surface of the water and high frequency
sound waves are emitted from it. Reflected sound waves from the river bed are
received back by the instrument and the time lapse between transmission and
reception is converted to depth of water at the location.

Measurement Procedure
For area velocity method, the following procedure called mid section method for
measurement of discharge may be followed.
i) Divided the cross-section of the river into n number of vertical sections as
per the guidelines given before.
ii) Measure the depth of water at sections h1, h2,... hn-1 by a wading rod,
sounding rod or echo-sounder. For n number of sections, there will be
(n+1) number of verticals but the depth h at the beginning and end being
zero, the number of verticals being (n-1) as shown in Fig. below.

Verticals

W1 W2 W3 WN-1 WN

h1
1 h2 h3 h4 h5 hi hi+1 N-1
2 Ai

4 5

Fig: Stream section for area-velocity method

iii) Measure the horizontal distances of the verticals h1, h2,..., hn-1 from the
reference bank as W1, W2,....,Wn-1.

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iv) Compute the area at the subsections such that the depths h 1, h2,..., hn-1
represents the mid points of the sections.
h1  h2 
First and last triangular area A1    W1 .
2 2 

 W2  W3 
Intermediate area A  h2  .
 2 
v) Measure the velocity at the location of the points and compute the average
velocity at each subsection by any of the following methods.
a) One point method: velocity observed at 0.6h depth below the surface
gives mean velocity with  5 % accuracy Vm = V0.6h
b) Two point method: Mean of two velocities recorded at 0.2h and 0.8h
gives better results than a) with 2 % accuracy. For this method the
water depth should be greater than 0.6 m. Average velocity is
calculated as Vm = 0.5 (V0.2h + V0.8h).
c) By velocity profile: A current meter is lowered and then raised from
the bottom of channel at a uniform rate of 0.04 m/s. The velocity of
flow is recorded at close intervals. The velocity of flow is the average
for the whole section. Two such complete cycles are observed and the
average velocity should not vary more than 10 %.
d) Surface velocity method: This method is usually adopted during high
floods. Here a surface float is used to get the surface velocity. This
velocity when multiplied by a coefficient (0.85 to 0.95) gives average
velocity of the subsection.
vi) Multiply the area (Ai) and respective average velocity for each subsection
to find out the discharge for the subsection (Qi) separately.
vii) By mean section method, area and velocity is computed.

A1  W1
 h1  0
; v a1 
 0  v1 
2 2
 h1  h2   v  v2  and so on
A2  W2 ; v a 2  1
2 2
and discharge is computed using the relations
Q1  A1  v1 ; Q2  A2  v 2

 For end sections the relation for triangles and for the middle section, rules for
trapezoidal sections are used.

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viii) Sum of discharges of all such subsections gives the total discharge for the

section. Q  Q i

Example:
The rating curve of a current meter used for measuring velocity in a small river is given as v = 0.62N
+ 0.032 m/s, where N is the revolution/s. Calculate the discharge of the river from the following data.
Velocity is measured at the mid of the section.
Distance from bank (m) 0 2 5 8 12 15 18 21 23 24
Depth (m) 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 1.9 1.4 1.1 0.5 0
N at 0.6d 0 60 90 120 150 140 100 80 50 0
Time (sec) 0 150 140 140 160 140 140 140 140 0
Solution

Distance from the left bank (m)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
0.0

0.5
Depth (m)

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Distance depth revol. Time N=revol/T Velocity mean V width mean d segment
(m) (m) (sec) (1/sec) (m/sec) (m/sec) (m) (m) Q (m3/s)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.14 2 0.3 0.084
2 0.6 60 150 0.400 0.280
0.355 3 0.9 0.959
5 1.2 90 140 0.643 0.431
0.497 3 1.5 2.237
8 1.8 120 140 0.857 0.563
0.588 4 2.1 4.942
12 2.4 150 160 0.938 0.613
0.633 3 2.15 4.080
15 1.9 140 140 1.000 0.652
0.563 3 1.65 2.789
18 1.4 100 140 0.714 0.475
0.431 3 1.25 1.615
21 1.1 80 140 0.571 0.386
0.320 2 0.8 0.512

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23 0.5 50 140 0.357 0.253

0.127 1 0.25 0.032
24 0
Total discharge (m3/s) 17.249

6.3.3. Area -Slope Method

The area slope method can be improved to give good results by incorporating the
principle of conservation of energy between the two points of the selected reach.
Considering reference datum as the channel bed at points (1) and (2) as shown in Fig.
below, Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to calculate the head loss as
2
V1 (1)
As sec tion (1) energy head H1   Y1
2g
2
V1 (2)
As sec tion (2) energy head H2   Y2
2g

1 Y2

Fig.: Slope method of calculation of Discharge

Energy slope over length between the two sections

2
 H1  H 2  Q
   Sf    (3)
 l  K

where Y1 and Y2 are the depths of water in the channel at section (1) and (2),
respectively, with velocities V1 and K is the channel conveyance which can be
obtained from Manning’s equation as
1 1/ 2 1/ 2
Q  A   R 2 / 3S f  K Sf
n
  (4)

A R 2 / 3
where K  (5)
n

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R is the hydraulic radius = A/P, A the area of cross section of the channel in (m 2), P
the wetted perimeter (m). from the equation (4), the slope of energy line S f of
equation (3) can be obtained. If two sections have different conveyance factors K1 and
K2 with roughness n1 and n2 respectively, then the equivalent K between those
sections can be calculated as
K   K1  K 2  (6)

where
2/3 2/3 (7)
AR A R
K1  1 1 and K2  2 2
n1 n2

The procedure for using area-slope method is:

1. Select the stream reach between two sections (1) and (2) shown in Fig. above.
2. From the cross section at (1) and (2), find the depths of water during the flood at
the two sections from the flood marks left by floating debris.
3. Compute cross sectional areas A1 and A2 and wetted perimeters P1 and P2
corresponding to the flood depths of step (2) of the particular flood.
4. Calculate the hydraulic radii R1 and R2 and the conveyances K1 and K2 after
selecting suitable roughness coefficient n1 and n2 for the section (1) and (2)
respectively.
5. Obtain the average or equivalent conveyance K between Section (1) and (2).
6. Calculate the discharge Q from equation (4) by assuming a suitable value of Sf.
7. Calculate the velocity V1 and V2 at the two sections (1) and (2) from the relation

Q = A1V1 and Q = A2V2.

8. From equation (1) and (2), calculate H1 and H2 and the energy slope from
equation (3).
9. The assumed value of Sf in step (6) should be the same the calculated value of

 H1  H2 
  of step (8).
 l 

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If the two values differ then take the energy slope of step (8) and repeat the steps (6)
to (8) till the energy slope at the end of the iteration are the same.

10. The discharge calculated at the end of step (9) is the estimated flood discharge.

Example: 1
During a high flood, a river reach of 1 km apart was having the following information
Up stream: Area of cross section A1 = 180 sq m
Wetted perimeter P1 = 50 m
Manning’s roughness coefficient n1 = 0,03
Reduced level of water = 78.3 m
Down stream:
Area of cross section A2 = 183 sq m
Wetted perimeter P2 = 51 m
Manning’s roughness coefficient n2 = 0,025
Reduced level of water = 78 m
Calculate the flood discharge. Neglect other losses.

Solution
Upstream (u/s) hydraulic radius R1 = (180/50) = 3.6 m
Downstream (d/s) hydraulic radius R2 = (183/51) = 3.59 m

1  1 
K1    A1 R1
2/3
Conveyance of u / s     180  3.6
2/3
 14100
 n1   0.03 

 1 
 A2 R2 2 / 3  
1 
Conveyance of u / s K 2     183  3.59
2/3
 17170
 n2   0.025 

Average conveyance for the reach   K1 K 2   14100  17170  15560

Assume fall in energy head 78.30 – 78.0 = 0.30 m between the reach of 1 km

0.30
Sf   0.0003
1000
Disch arg e Q  K Sf  15560  0.0003  269.5 m 3 / sec .

Q 269.5 269.5
V1    1.497 m / sec, and V2   1.473 m / sec .
A1 180 183
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Fall of head   h1  h2  
V 1
2
 V2
2
   78.3  78  1.497 2
 1.473 2 
 0.3036 say 0.304 m
2g 19.62
Iteration
Taking fall energy head now as 0.304/1000

 0.304 
Q  15560    271.43
 1000 

271.43 271.4
V1   1.508 m / sec, and V2   1.483 m / sec
180 183

Fall of head   78.3  78.0  

1.508 2
 1.4832 
 0.3038
19.62

 0.3038 
Q  15560    271.2 m / sec
3

 1000 

 The flood discharge during the event is 271.2 m 3/sec.

Example 2:
Compute the discharge at downstream gauge site when the water gauges at two sites
2350 m apart are 621.10 and 605.56 m. The area of cross-section at gauge 605.56 is
66.98 m2 and the wetted perimeter is 70.75 m. Manning’s n = 0.035.
Solution:

621.10  605.56
Water surface slope, S   1 / 151
2350
1 A
From the equation Q  R 2 / 3 S 1 / 2 and R  ,
n P

2/3 1/ 2
1  66.98   1 
Q       150 m 3 / s
0.035  70.75   151 

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6.3.4. Dilution Method

In this method a tracer like common salt or fluorescent dye of concentration C 1 is
injected at a constant rate of q1 to a small stream of constant cross section. The flow
in the stream is assumed to be steady. At the other station, sufficient downstream of
it, a pair of electrodes (for salts) or other suitable device is used to measure the tracer
concentration.

C1

C0 C2

t1 t t2

For the continuity equation, discharge Q in the stream is calculated using

q1  C1  C 2 
Q
C 2  Co

where C2 is the final constant rate of the concentration of tracer in the downstream, C o
the initial concentration of the tracer in the stream water present before the injection
of C1 into the stream.
The mixing length depends on the geometric dimension of the river cross section,
discharge and flow conditions. It may vary from 1 km in small mountainous stream to
more than 100 km in plain streams for large rivers. This method however gives
reliable results both for mountainous stream and rivers in plains.
Example:
Common salt solution of concentration 200 gm/l was added to a stream at a constant
rate of 0.2 cm3/sec. Concentration of this salt in the stream already present was
0.01ppm. At sufficiently downstream, the concentration of the salt in the stream water
was measured as 0.05 ppm. Estimate the stream discharge.
Solution:
Rate of injection of salt solution = 0.2 cm3/sec = 0.2  10-6 m3/sec
Concentration of salt C1 = 200 gm/l = 0.20 gm/gm
Final concentration of salt in water C2 = 0.050 ppm = 0.050  10-6 gm/gm

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Q
q1  C1  C 2 


0.20 10 6  0.20  0.5 10 6   1.0 m 3 / sec
C2  Co 0.050  10 6  0.0110 6 

Discharge in the stream is 1.00 m3/sec.

6.4. Stage-Discharge Relationship

In any program for flow measurements, the stream discharges cannot be measured
every day, or even as often as desired because of economic considerations.
Furthermore, during the flood event it is also not possible to measure the discharge
because of high velocities. Hence discharges occurring between periods of
measurement are determined from already developed stage-discharge relationships,
where the stage is the water surface elevation above a selected arbitrary datum plane.
The stage-discharge relationship is developed by measuring the stage simultaneously
with each measurement of discharge and plotting the same against the measured
discharge. Thus, if the stage is known, the discharge can be obtained from the
developed stage-discharge relationship.

Types of Rating curve

 Simple rating curve
If the measured discharge is plotted against the corresponding stage, the data will
normally define a curve which is approximately parabolic.
Stage

Discharge

Such a curve is generally satisfactory for a good majority of rivers where the
discharge station has been selected with due regard to the essential requirements of
good gauge site and stream is not subjected to too rapid fluctuations of the stage.

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The rating curve remains valid so long as the conditions at the gauging site remain
stable. The combined effect of all the channel and flow parameters is termed as
control. When the rating curve remains unchanged with time, we call the site to be a
permanent control, and when it changes with time, the site is known as shifting
control.
 Shifting control
A station is subjected to shifting control when the stage-discharge relationship
changes either gradually or rapidly as a result of physical changes in the control. In
case the control shifts abruptly and remain unchanged for some period of time,
separate rating curve can be drawn for each specific interval of time.
When the control changes gradually as a result of silting or other channel changes in
streams moving through channels of soft erodible bed and banks, the rapidity with
which changes occur in the control should be ascertained and a new rating curve
developed to be used for the period until gauging indicate another change in the
control.
When the change in the control is slow, no single rating curve would be applicable
during the transitional period of the control. An average rating curve is drawn during
the period.
Rising and falling stages have great effect upon the discharge curve. During the rising
stage of the river, the velocity and discharge are greater than they are for the same
stage when the discharge is constant because of a change in the bed roughness and
water surface slope. The reverse phenomenon occurs during the falling stage of the
river.

Average flow curve

Falling stage
Stage

Rising stage

A permanent control, the rating curve does not change with time but it may be
necessary to check it periodically. A site may have a single control for the full stage
or different controls each serving for different range of stages. A single stage-
discharge relation assumes the form

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Q  c  G  G0 
n
(a)
where
G = gauging height (m) and
G0 = the gauging height corresponding to zero discharge. It does not represent
the river bed level but a value below it.
Q = the discharge in m3/sec
c,n are constants that can be evaluated using the method of least squares, however, the
value of G0 should be evaluated before.
The above equation is assumed to be an appropriate fit between the discharge Q and
the stage in the river G. The constants c, G 0 and n are to be determined using the
observed data on G and Q.
The value of G0 is supposed to be the stage corresponding to zero discharge in the
stream.

Evaluation of G0:
There are a number of methods available to accomplish this.
One of the simples approach is trial-and error search for G0 which gives the best value
of correlation coefficient r and the lowest standard error for the observed set of stage
and discharge values.
A number of alternative methods are available to determine the value of G 0 like
graphical, semi-graphical or analytical approaches. One approach is to take
logarithms on both sides of the above equation
log Q  log c  n log (G  G0 ) (b)
this equation suggests that a plot of Q vs (G-G 0) would plot as a straight line on a log-
log paper whose slope is n and whose intercept on the discharge axis is log c.
It may be emphasised that fitting a mathematical curve of equation Q  c G  G0 
n

for extrapolation purpose at the upper or lower end of the stage-discharge curve is
only possible when the control does not change beyond a particular stage.
Procedure
In practice, G0, the gauge height corresponding to zero discharge, is not known and it
is therefore to be calculated from the observed data with the following steps:

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1. Plot discharge Q versus gauge G and fit a gauge discharge curve by eye
inspection such that there is equal number of points on each side of the fitted
curve.
2. select a few points on this fitted curve and note down their coordinates Q and
G
3. Assume different values of G0 and plot a curve on log-log sheet, between Q
versus (G- G0).
4. The correct value of G0 is that which in step 3 gives a straight line as per eq.
(b)
5. From this straight line of step 4 find out the value of c and n. C is the value of
Q where (G- G0) is equal to one and n is the tangent of the angle the line
makes with the (G- G0) axis.
6. Estimate higher values of Q for the desired gauges with the help of eq. (a).

Example: The stage-discharge data for a given river is as given in the Fig below.
Drive the stage-discharge equation.

624.4
624.2
624.0
623.8
623.6
Gauge (m)

623.4
623.2
623.0
622.8
622.6
622.4
622.2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Discharge (cumec)

Solution:
Some coordinates (Q, G) points as read from the Fig. are given in column 1 and 2 of the following
table
Discharge Gauge Assumed values of G0
Q from fig G from 621 621.3 621.5 621.7 622 622.3

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(G-G0) (G-G0) (G-G0) (G-G0) (G-G0) (G-G0)

200 623.32 2.32 2.02 1.82 1.62 1.32 1.02
250 623.45 2.45 2.15 1.95 1.75 1.45 1.15
300 623.6 2.6 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.6 1.3
350 623.75 2.75 2.45 2.25 2.05 1.75 1.45
400 623.9 2.9 2.6 2.4 2.2 1.9 1.6
450 624.1 3.1 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.1 1.8
500 624.3 3.3 3 2.8 2.6 2.3 2

The discharge Q versus (G-G0) are plotted on a Fig below on log-log scale. From the
fig. it is clear that G0 621.30 gives a straight line. Hence the correct value of G0 is
621.30. To compute c and n we take two values Q as Q 1 and Q2 on curve with G0 =
612.30 and find the corresponding values of (G1 -G0) and (G2 -G0). Now we solve the
following equations simultaneously to find c and n. the points are (200, 2.02) and
(400, 2.70).
Now,
log Q1 = log c + n log (G1 -G0)
log Q2 = log c + n log (G2 -G0)
Now from these equations, we have on substitution
Q2 G  G0
log  n log 2
Q1 G1  G0
400 2.70
log  n log
200 2.02
n = 2.405

Substituting n = 2.405 in equation gives c = 34.80. The gauge-discharge relationship

is
Q  34.80  G  621.30 
2.405

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10
Gauge (G-Go) (m)

Go = 621.0
Go = 621.3
Go = 621.5
Go = 621.7
Go = 622.0
Go = 622.3
1
100 1000
Discharge (cumec)

The values of values of G0, n and c may also be obtained from the following short-cut
method without resorting to rigorous regression analysis.
In the other approach, three values of Q are selected from a G-D curve such that

Q1 Q
 2 or Q2  Q1 Q3 . From a similar ratio of the right side of stage-
Q2 Q3

discharge relation we get

G0 
 G2 G G
1 3
2

 G1  G3  2G2 

Using the above equation, value of G0 can be evaluated. However, this method is less
accurate than the previous one and should be used with caution.

Example:
Three points on a rating curve of a stream gauging station obtained from an eye-fit
for the stage discharge data have the following coordinates (100m 3/s, 121.67m),
(200m3/s, 122.23m), and (400m3/s, 123.04m). Determine the equation of the rating
curve and compute the discharge in the stream corresponding to a stage of 124.5m.

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Solution:
G1 =121.67m) Q1 = 100m3/s
G2 =122.23m Q2 = 200m3/s
G3 =123.04m Q1 = 400m3/s
Since the given discharge satisfy the condition that Q2  Q1 Q3 the constant G0 in

the equation Q  c G  G0  can be obtained as

n

G0 
G G
 G2
1 3
2

 G1  G3  2G2 
121.67 123.04  122.23
2
G0   120.42
121.67  123.04  2  122.23

Now,

c  G  G0 
n
Q1
n
 G  G0 
   1 
c  G  G0   G 2  G0
n
Q2 
n
100  121.67  120.42 
    0.691  n  1.875
n

200  122.23  120.42 

Again from the equation Q  c G  G0 

n

Q1 100
c   65.87
 G1  G0  n
121.67 120.42 1.875
Therefore, the equation of the rating curve is given by
Q  65.81  G  120.42 
1.875

From this equation, the discharge corresponding to a stage of 124.5 m is obtained as

Q  65.81124.50  120.42
1.875

 65.81  4.08
1.875
 918.92 m 3 / s

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