Review of Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gred20

Traditional educational systems in Ethiopia: A

pedagogical practices inquiry

Molla Bekalu Mulualem, Alemayehu Bishaw Tamiru & Asrat Dagnaw Kelkay

To cite this article: Molla Bekalu Mulualem, Alemayehu Bishaw Tamiru & Asrat Dagnaw Kelkay
(2021): Traditional educational systems in Ethiopia: A pedagogical practices inquiry, Review of
Education, Pedagogy, and Cultural Studies, DOI: 10.1080/10714413.2021.1985373

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2021.1985373

Published online: 01 Nov 2021.

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REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES
https://doi.org/10.1080/10714413.2021.1985373

Traditional educational systems in Ethiopia: A

pedagogical practices inquiry
Molla Bekalu Mulualem, Alemayehu Bishaw Tamiru, and
Asrat Dagnaw Kelkay

Introduction
Ethiopia is one of the oldest countries in the World, with about 3,000-years
of history (Pankhurst, 1972; Teshome, 1979). The country had its own
traditional system of education before the introduction of modern or
Western type of education in 1908. However, since the beginning of so-
called modern education in Ethiopia, the curriculum has been copied from
western countries, according to historical facts. The curriculum lacked inte-
gration with indigenous knowledge rooted in Ethiopian communities’ cul-
tural context. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church (4th c) and the Mosque
(7th c) were also the institutions that provided education long before the
introduction of modern schools into Ethiopia (Derebssa, 2008; Woube,
2004). These religious institutions have been responsible for the dissemin-
ation of Ethiopian traditional education and have played an important role
in the development and preservation of the country’s culture and literate
elite for thousands of years (Mohammed, 2012; Seyoum, 1996; Teshome,
1979). The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has well structured system of trad-
itional education that provide education to Ethiopians equivalent to mod-
ern primary to university level education since it is founded in 330 A.D.
(Ephrem, 2013; Pankhurst, 1972). The primary level of church education(-
reading school) deals with the foundations of reading, writing, arithmetic,
ethics and moral education where as the higher level of church education
system (monastic university) was devoted to teaching subjects such as the-
ology, philosophy, computation, history, Qene (poetry), and music. This
traditional Church education system made Ethiopia to have the only
ancient written scripts in sub-Saharan Africa and well-developed numerals
system of its own.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church school system has different levels such
as Nebab Bet (Reading school), Qedasse Bet (Liturgy school), Zema Bet
(Music school), Qene Bet (Poetry school) and Metsehaf Bet (Literature
school) divisions. Qene (poetry) school is one of the oldest and higher lev-
els of church education, originated in the Aksumite Kingdom with the

ß 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

2 M. B. MULUALEM ET AL.

introduction of Christianity about the 4th century (Ephrem, 2013). For

over 1,700 years in the church, Qene has been the oral process of know-
ledge creation to express personal insights about what they have seen,
heard, and observed while also sharing knowledge (Marye & Boudreau,
2010). Qene is a philosophy, art, imagination, and a way of knowing, and
it is a new findings essay for spiritual benefit and philosophized artistic
wisdom, and it is examining in secular aspects and in the field of art that
reflects the feelings and thoughts of a human being in wonderful language
usage and poetic style by using gold and wax models, which bear deep
mystery, fertile creative ground (Marye & Boudreau, 2010; Mersha, 2018).
Learning, exploring or researching, understanding, abstracting or analyzing,
questioning or critiquing, gestating or giving birth to ideas, creating nov-
elty, and philosophizing are all examples of intellectual activities in Qene
schools (Enbakom, 1974).
In Ethiopia, particularly among the Orthodox Christian community,
Qene (poetry) has been the oral tradition of constructing knowledge.
Originally, the tradition of knowledge creation by poetry was limited to
Church Schools for the purpose of performing religious services, but it
is now widely practiced and ingrained in Ethiopian culture, and is often
used by local singers and other individuals for social occasions
(e.g., funeral and marriage ceremonies).Both the output, knowledge in
the form of a poem resulting from a “live” process of knowledge pro-
duction, and the process are referred to as Qene (poetry). A Qene
(poem) often has two types of interpretation: a surface (wax) and a
deeper (gold) meaning, with the deeper meaning based on symbolism or
allusion in the surface meaning (Kefyalew, 1999; Levine, 1972). As a
result, when a well-informed speaker says something, it is possible that
his message has two meanings (wax and gold), and the listener must be
able to discern the secret meaning/gold (Levine, 1972). This necessitates
some discretion on the part of both the speaker and the translator in
selecting and constructing the context in which the interpretation will be
constructed.
Currently, there are 50,000 traditional Qene schools in the churches
and monasteries in Ethiopia. In these Qene schools, students undergo a
long and arduous course of study (Geez language and the composition of
poetry) located in the churches and monasteries of Ethiopia and using
oral instruction. Geez language is the medium of instruction. The Geez
language is an important part of Ethiopia’s ancient and medieval civiliza-
tion, and it contains a wealth of written documents that have inspired
numerous books on Ethiopian culture, tradition, law, art, philosophy, the-
ology, religion, health, diet, and social life (Ephrem, 2013; Yirga, 2013).
The student who studies Qene require a thorough knowledge of the Geez
 REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 3

language, a fine understanding of the history of Ethiopia, a critical under-

standing of the Bible and other historical and religious texts (Teshome,
1979). However, many scholars who have studied and written about the
Ethiopian education system (Abinet, 2019; Alemayehu, 2012; Amare,
2005; Elleni, 1995; Ephrem, 2013; Hiwot, 2016; Paulos, 2005; Teshome,
1979; Yirga, 2013) indicated that traditional knowledge systems were not
recognized and studied properly in the country. Similarly, the researchers
also strongly believe from their reading and experiences that modern edu-
cation has greatly influenced research, teaching, and learning in the
Ethiopian education system. Thus, the traditional education system in
general and Qene church schools in particular were not properly studied
and documented in the country. Therefore, exploring the pedagogical
practices of Ethiopian Orthodox Church Qene schools and drawing expe-
riences to modern education is the main purpose of this study. In line
with that, this study is an attempt to answer the following
research question:
What pedagogical practices are there in Ethiopian Orthodox Church Qene
(poetry) schools?

Materials and methods

Research approach
This study aims to explore and examine the pedagogical practices of
Ethiopian Orthodox Church Qene schools, as well as their implications for
modern educational practices. My own personal interests and experience
led me to this study, with the aim of bringing recognition to the peda-
gogical and knowledge practices that were explored, as well as providing a
new understanding in academic arenas about how such pedagogical practi-
ces should be interpreted.
The exploratory nature of this study influenced my methodology choice,
which required a broad qualitative approach.

Research design
A qualitative ethnographic research design was used to address the purpose
of this study. An ethnographic research design is chosen when the
researcher wishes to gain knowledge and understanding of a particular cul-
ture-sharing group (Creswell, 2007). Therefore, an ethnographic design was
employed in this study to understand more about the pedagogical culture
of traditional Qene church schools.
4 M. B. MULUALEM ET AL.

Sources of data and sampling

The Ethiopian Orthodox church education provided in churches and mon-
asteries found in different parts of the country. However, in this study,
three Qene schools were selected purposely due to their long experiences.
Accordingly, Washera St. Mary, Debre Mawi St. Mary, and Kidus Gebreal
Qene schools which are found in West Gojjam, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
were selected as a sample of the study. Data were collected from 17
research participants. In the church education system, one teacher is
assigned to teach at each level of the school. Therefore, three of Qene
teachers were selected as data sources using comprehensive sampling tech-
nique. In addition, 12 senior students (4 students in each school) were
taken as research participants purposely due to their seniority and experi-
ences. Two church scholars who have experience both Qene schools and
modern education were also selected using a purposive sampling technique.

Instruments of data collection

Data was collected via participant observation and semi structured inter-
views. The researchers were able to visit and collect data from Qene schools
for 3 months from February 15 to March 15, 2020 and August 13 to
October 13, 2020. The data collection was interrupted for 5 months due to
COVID-19.

Observation
In this study, participant observation was used as the main data collection
tool. Participant observation is one of the key methods of an ethnographic
approach because of its significant role in exploring the social processes
and interactions of people and their behavior in “natural” settings (Patton,
2002). Thus, the researchers observed the instructional processes focused
on methods, assessment practices, classroom interactions and nature of the
school environment for 3 months.

Interview
Data were also collected from 17 research participants using semi struc-
tured interviews. The main purpose of interviewing was to explore the
existing pedagogical practices in Qene education. Before starting the inter-
view, the participants were informed about the purpose of the study.
During the interview, the responses were taken using hand- written notes
and tape recorders. The interviews were taken from 50 min to 1.5 h.
 REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 5

Finally, the responses of the interviewees were transcribed, analyzed, and

incorporated in the final report.

Data analysis
In this study, a thematic narrative description analysis technique was
employed. This data analysis technique in an ethnographic study is a
detailed description the context and processes observed and an explanation
of the elements explored in detail (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Therefore, a
thematic approach and narrative description of the relevant pedagogical
practices of Qene schools were qualitatively analyzed on the basis of the
themes and subthemes identified from interview and classroom observation
data. The researcher read the transcripts of interviews and field notes sev-
eral times and made notes using short phrases, ideas, or key concepts rele-
vant to the research questions. These phrases, ideas, and key concepts
served as codes or categories identified for themes.

Ethical issues
Before the data collection, the objectives of the study were explained to the
participants. The participants were also informed that the information they
provided would only be used for the purposes of the study, and that it
would not be given to a third party. In addition, the researcher ensured
confidentiality by identifying the participants by code rather than name.

Results
In this section, the results of the study were presented and discussed. The
results were organized and presented in terms of the major themes based
on Qene Education and Pedagogies (teaching and learning methods and
assessment and evaluation practices).

Qene (poetry) education and pedagogies

In the educational culture of EOTC, religious teachers who specialize in
one of the higher education programs and are recognized for excellence by
the respective centers have a religious and moral obligation to transmit
their knowledge to their successors and the next generation. For this rea-
son, recognized teachers establish religious schools called “Wonber
Mezergat” (open new schools) in their area of specializations around the
church. Therefore, Qene School is the third level of church education sys-
tem of Ethiopia (Y1, Interview, February 18, 2020). The Qene education
requires learning the Geez language and Qene composition (poetry).
6 M. B. MULUALEM ET AL.

Students start studying Geez verbs and usage in Qene schools with the
guidance of a teacher or senior student (tutor). Geez is the medium of
instruction and also provided in Qene schools as a subject in
the curriculum.
In this regard, one of Yenetas (religious teachers) of Qene claimed that:
Geez language is the first part of studying in Qene schools. In EOTC, Qene is composed
or created by Geez in the sem ena work (wax and gold) model. Deep knowledge of Geez
is the basis of Qene. Geez is used as the language of God in EOTC, too. Studying
‘Gessessa’ (learning how to conjugate Geez verbs), grammar, syntax, and construction of
sentences are also central to Qene schoos. (Y2 Interview, September 19, 2020)

In addition to Geez language, Qene students often learn various Qene

forms or models that the student has to master to be able to compose the
Qene poems that are sung in different parts of the church’s liturgy or used
to celebrate church ceremonials. Regarding the Qene levels, one of the
Qene Yenetas stated that students are expected to learn the nine famous
Qene models or levels to master Qene in the sem ena work (wax and gold)
Qene model at Qene schools. Students learn from “Gubae Qana” (the first
and simplest form of Qene which has two rhyming verses). Then students
study “Ze amlakiye” (three verses Qene), “Mibezhu” (three long verses
Qene), “Wazema” (five verses Qene), “Sellassie” (six verses Qene), “Zeyize”
(five or 6 verses Qene), “Mewodis” (eight verses Qene), “Kibryieti” (four
verses Qene), and “Itane Moger” (the last and highest level with seven or
eleven verses). Therefore, a student is expected to study all these levels of
Qene and be accredited by recognized centers of Qene schools to be a
Qene intellectual and teacher.
Regarding the organization of the teaching and learning processes,
during the field observation, the researcher noted that a single teacher edu-
cated students with different levels in a multi grade system and in a self-
contained class nature. There is no proper classroom setting. Students sit
under a tree shade or “Mahiber Bet” (common classroom) to attend their
education and achieve the educational objectives. From the field observa-
tions, the researcher also found that students learn together at different lev-
els(beginners, intermediate, and advanced).The system makes it accountable
for senior students to support their juniors (slow learners).
The educational culture of Qene schools was explained by one of the
Qene students (QSW4) as follows:
For each student, senior students (tutors) are assigned to teach as ‘Asqetsai’ (tutors)
for beginners at each level, or ‘Asnegari’ or ‘Azerafi’ (advanced tutors) for
intermediate and advanced students who are all tutors at various levels of education
in Qene schools. The senior (advanced) students teach their assigned students and
discipline them. After students have carefully practiced and learned with their tutors
they present their Qene (poetry) to the Yeneta (teacher) for an oral examination
 REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 7

(oral defense). Yenetas have the mandate to decide about the status of the student. If
the presented Qene matches the standard, they pass to the next level otherwise they
return back to their tutors to repeat and study. Students at all levels Qene learn from
each other in this way. (QSW4, Interview, September 20, 2020)

Regarding the teaching and learning tradition of Qene schools, all the
interviewed Yenetas said that not all students in the school were taught by
us (teachers), but each student and tutor (advanced student) is responsible
for the teaching and learning processes. Yeneta assigns tutors to teach the
lower levels. Yenetas’ role is to organize and facilitate the teaching and
learning processes and to evaluate the students.
In relation to this, one of Yenetas explained the culture of teaching and
learning in Qene schools as follows:
We (Qene teachers) organize and manage the teaching and learning environment in
a flexible way according to the pace and nature of the students’ abilities. Group
learning is our culture, not only group learning, but also group life; they live
together, they eat together, they learn together, they solve problems together. We
primarily guide, facilitate, initiate, and encourage students to learn in groups about
themselves. However, group learning is the culture of our education system; each
student is responsible for his own learning and achievements. Personal assessment
and evaluation is mandatory. No student passes from one level to another without
knowing and understanding the lesson. They regularly assess by their tutors and
Yeneta. (Y3 interview, October 10, 2020)

From the data we can understand that group learning is a normal activ-
ity in Qene schools. Senior students are responsible for supporting learn-
ing and progress of beginner and other level of students. Yenetas act as
facilitator and guider. Therefore, the researchers understand that student
centered and cooperative learning strategies were well practiced in Qene
schools. Moreover, what we have observed and appreciated during the
field observation is that the value given to senior students. Each student
respects and accepts his tutor as a teacher, regardless of the student’s age.
The tutors will have full responsibility for the learning and progress of
the students.
In the field observation the researchers noted that the three Qene
schools have similar teaching and learning culture. They provided educa-
tion in two forms, regular (day) and evening sessions. In the two sessions,
the schools provided different subjects. In the day session, students learn
about History education (storytelling), Qene “Qotera,” and Qene
“Negera.” In the evening sessions, students learn about Geez language and
Qene “Zerefa.” In each session, regular and evening, students with differ-
ent levels learn together in one classroom usually under a big tree around
the church compound.
As the researchers observed in the day sessions, all students gathered and
sat down in “Gubae Bet” (traditional classroom) to attend History
8 M. B. MULUALEM ET AL.

education or storytelling usually in the morning based on their level of

education around Yenetas (teachers). Yenetas recounted stories from the
Bible and other sources during the history education or storytelling session.
The objective of history education or storytelling in Qene education is to
allow students to have a deeper knowledge and understanding of the Bible
and other church writings, and to compose Qene based on these narratives.
Yenetas provide examples of the Kibre Negast, the lives of the Saints and
their feast days, our culture, traditions, and significant moral, social and
political issues such as the coronation of Kings in the lesson. Students had
to relate to Biblical narratives such as the Birth of Christ, his Baptism,
Crucifixion and Resurrection for seasons and months. Based on these sto-
ries or narratives, the Qene students begin to count and compose Qene,
which is a unique pedagogical approach called Qene “Qotera” (independ-
ent study).
From the foregoing data analysis on the teaching and learning culture of
Qene schools, one can understand that multi-grade system, differentiated
instruction, and cooperative learning strategies are well practiced in Qene
schools. This implies that the concept and the application of differentiated
instruction, group learning, multi-a system were well practiced in the trad-
itional education system of Ethiopia before the introduction of modern or
Western type of education.

The pedagogy of Qene “Qotera” (independent study)

Qene “Qotera” is the pedagogical approach or lesson in a day session in
which the students begin to count and compose Qene independently (Y3,
Interview, October 10, 2020). The theme of Qene “Qotera” or composition
was based on the story told in the morning in the Bible or the legend of
the Saint whose feast is to be celebrated in the next day. The students
struggle to count and create a new Qene (poem) without the guidance of
teachers and tutors. All interviewed Qene teachers and students said that
Qene “Qotera” is one of the challenging sessions for beginner students.
One of Yenetas (teachers), for example, described the Qene “Qotera” ses-
sion as follows:
One of the challenging sessions in Qene education is Qene ‘Qotera’. It is the time
when each individual student goes to a quiet place to study, such as a forest, a
river, a field to count and compose Qene in the morning session based on
Yeneta’s historical narrative. The student’s choice of words, matching the house,
adjusting the wording test, listening to the gold, combining wax with gold
combined with the melody during the Qene counting/composing session would be
a challenge for the student. The student is then wrapped in clothes, rolled up,
dropped, raised, and thrown to the ground to count and create Qene. (Y1,
Interview, February 18, 2020)
 REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 9

The same thing about the nature of the Qene “Qotera” session has been
reported by Qene school students. For instance, one of the Qene students
explained that:
Qene ‘Qotera’ is one of the teaching and learning approaches in Qene schools’ that
requires a higher concentration of students to compose Qene, especially for
beginners. It demands each student to think critically, question him/herself, and
critically observe hi/her environment; rehearse the stories presented by Yeneta, and
evaluate him/herself. In this approach, the student goes to a very quiet setting,
especially in forests, fields, and rivers. The student is expected to create Qene from
what has seen and experienced in the social, cultural, economical, and political
events in his/her surroundings. This makes the Qene ‘Qotera’ session the most
challenging, particularly for beginners. (QSG2, Interview, October 11, 2020)

From the preceding analysis, therefore, it is possible to understand from the

Qene “Qotera” pedagogical approach that Qene schools apply different stu-
dent-centered learning approach such as questioning, self-assessment, inquiry,
independent learning, and observation. This implies that the Qene schools
pedagogical practices of “Qene Kotera” had the concept and application of
student centered pedagogy. Therefore, Qene schools pedagogical practices can
be used as a lesson for formal school pedagogical practices of Ethiopia.

The pedagogy of Qene “Negera” (oral presentation and defense)

Qene “Negera” is the oral presentation and defense session in Qene
schools. In this pedagogical approach, the students present their Qene
orally in front of tutors (senior students) and the teacher. This is the
approach in which students arranged in different groups learning based on
their level (beginner, intermediate, and advanced) and each student pre-
sented his/her Qene to the tutors and teachers to get feedback. (Y3,
Interview, October 10, 2020)
As the researchers confirmed during the field observation and interview
with teachers and students, each student presented his/her Qene first to
tutors before they presented to yeneta. The tutors listen carefully and pro-
vide feedback on the use of language, the right number of words, phrases,
verses, grammar arrangements, pointing out mistakes ranging from incon-
sistencies between nouns and adjectives, nouns and verbs, feminine or mas-
culine, and the mystery of the Qene, whether it is plain or harmonized
within the story, and judging to what extent the Qene presented is
adequately illuminating. If the presented Qene is satisfactory, the tutors
decide about the student to prepare and present his/her work to the teacher
to get feedback. Finally, it was the responsibility of the teacher to decide
the status of the student. The result implies that different stakeholders
(senior students and teachers) have taken the responsibility of teaching and
learning in Qene schools.
10 M. B. MULUALEM ET AL.

From field observations and interviews with teachers and students, the
researchers noted that in the oral defense session a student walked to the
middle of the classroom, crossed his shemma (cloth) in front of his should-
ers, stood in front of Yeneta and presented his new Qene orally in Geez lan-
guage and watched Yeneta for comments. Yeneta, however, asked the
student to repeat the Qene by saying “Melisew” or “Melishiw” (repeat) to
check whether the student had a thorough knowledge of his/her Qene or
not. The student repeated his/her Qene word by word and interprets the
gold and wax (hidden and surface) meaning of the presented Qene in
Amharic language. It was then time for the presenter to receive critiques and
corrections from Yeneta, and senior students. All the classroom students and
the teacher engage in commenting, asking questions, and debating for fur-
ther improvement of the presented Qene on its novelty, language, depth,
meaning, presentation style, and other requirements of Qene composition. If
the presented Qene was new and created according to the Qene composition
rules, Yeneta provided praise and recognition to pass to the next level other-
wise Yeneta told him to take it back and improve it with tutors. This is the
culture of teaching, learning, and evaluation in Qene schools. Therefore,
from this analysis, one can understand that Qene “Negara” approach
involves different student centered learning strategies.
As the researchers observed in the teaching and learning processes of
Qene schools, adequate support was given by the teacher and tutors to a
student when performing a task or presenting his Qene. The support was
provided in the form of posing questions and giving oral feedback, exam-
ples, or explanations. The support is intended to facilitate students to
improve their abilities, skills, and knowledge about Qene and its compos-
ition. The main goal of supporting is to help students become an independ-
ent learner. As we have observed, students learning support can be
provided to individuals or cooperative groups of students. Thus, this sup-
port shows that there is a concept and application of scaffolding in church
education either in individual learning or in cooperative learning
environments.
From the foregoing data analysis of Qene “Negera” teaching and learning
approach, one can also deduce that various pedagogical approaches are
applied in the instructional processes. For instance, questioning, discussion,
argumentative public oral defense, self- and peer-assessment, peer learning
and scaffolding, critical analysis and interpretation, critiques, and reflection,
which are the principal strategies of active learning. Thus, group dynamics,
peer support and collaboration culture is nurtured in Qene schools. This
implies that active learning strategies are widely practiced in traditional
Qene schools. As a result, the Ethiopian formal education system, which
predominantly uses a teacher-centered approach and summative evaluation,
 REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 11

could benefit from the pedagogical practices of Qene schools, which

emphasize a student-centered approach and a formative continuous assess-
ment and evaluation system.

The pedagogy of Qene “Zerefa” (the oral production and presentation

of Qene)
Qene “Zerefa” is one of the teaching and learning approaches where senior
students and Yenetas orally presented their original Qene once or twice a
week in “Mahiber Bet” (common classroom). This is the approach in which
the students instantly compose Qene poems in certain events or ceremonies
like religious festivals, funeral and wedding.
In this regard, one of the Qene teachers explained Qene “Zerefa”
approach as:
It is the effort of the student to produce a new Qene, which is unsaid, unheard,
unseen, unknown, and unexpected and orally presented in front of students or other
social, political, cultural and religious events. (Y2, Interview, September 19, 2020)

Supporting the above idea, one of the Qene students said that in Qene
“Zerefa” approach, the student expresses new knowledge using his previous
knowledge that best describes the situation in sem ena werk (wax and
gold) model (QSW2, interview, September, 19, 2020).
Qene “Zerefa” was conducted by senior students and teachers. During
the session with the teachers, the facilitator students clapped their hands in
the evening and the students started to gather in “Mahiber Bet” (common
classroom). After the students gathered and sat down according to their
level of education, Yeneta is coming in and started his blessing, “In the
name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.” Then after one senior
(advanced) student was selected and stood up and crossed his Shemma
(cloth) on his chest and over his right and left shoulders, the sign of the
Cross. The selected student, stepped to the middle of the group, stood in
front of Yeneta. Yeneta presented his original Qene in front of students.
The selected student repeated the teachers’ Qene three or four times and
the students repeated it after him. In the same way, Yeneta orally presented
three or four Qene in the same session. In the next day, Yeneta translated
Geez Qene into the Amharic language and the hidden and apparent mean-
ings of each Qene were presented. This was done to give examples of Qene
by their teacher.
In the next session of Qene “Zerefa,” four or five senior students were
expected to present their original Qene. During this session, Yeneta and
other students listen very carefully the presentation and the translation of
the Geez Qene into the Amharic language. After Qene “Zerfa,” the teacher
posed questions, comments and provides opportunities for classroom
12 M. B. MULUALEM ET AL.

discussion, debate, and dialogue with the presenters. Finally, a critical

assessment and evaluation was held on the presented Qene. This was done
to enrich and qualify Qene “Zerafi” (presenter) students experience
and knowledge.
From the preceding findings, therefore, it is not difficult to understand
that critiques, critical interpretation, questioning, self and peer evaluation,
argumentative public oral defense, and reflection are well practiced peda-
gogical approaches in Qene “Zerefa.” However, the various local peda-
gogical practices which, is rooted in Ethiopian traditional Qene schools is
marginalized in the Ethiopian school pedagogies. Thus, indigenous peda-
gogical practices can be seen as an alternative to formal school pedagogical
practices, and they must be incorporated into Ethiopian education’s
mainstreaming.

Assessment and evaluation practices in Qene schools

One of the objectives of this study was to explore the assessment and
evaluation practices of Qene Bet schools. Therefore, the data collected by
observation and interview were presented and analyzed in this section. The
researcher has noticed during the observation and interview with Qene
teachers and students that the students were given oral examinations on
the spot of instruction by the Qene teachers and students. In each
approach, Qene “Qotera,” “Negera,” and “Zerefa,” student learning was
orally assessed and evaluated by teachers and tutors. As observed in the
Qene Schools, there were no formal written forms of assessment, such as
examinations, tests, or quizzes.
Regarding to the assessment and evaluation practices of church educa-
tion, one of the Qene teachers reported that:
I do not conduct a formal written evaluation. This is not the culture of church
education. The student has to be conscious of hi/her own efforts and conduct self-
evaluation as long as he/she is studying in church education. The student orally
presented his/her lesson in front of the teacher and students and both the teacher
and students participated in evaluating the student. (Y3, Interview, October 10, 2020)

The other Qene teacher explained the nature of assessment and evalu-
ation practices in Qene education system as:
The students were evaluated orally in Qene schools. In assessing students’ works at
each stage of Qene, the tutor, the student him/herself, and the teachers are
responsible. No room for mistakes and cheating. The most prohibited practice in
Qene schools is cheating. The evaluation focuses not only on academic issues, but
also on their ethics and behavior. ‘Gibregebinet’ (moral education) is one of the
pillars of church education. Therefore, students and the teacher formally and
informally evaluated their politeness, respectfulness, kindness, and other behaviors of
students. (Y1 Interview, February, 18, 2020)
 REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 13

As the researchers observed, the assessment and evaluation system in the

Qene schools is individual oriented. It does not compare an individual stu-
dent with others. The student’s previous performance is compared with
his/her progress on learning outcomes. In this regard, one of the inter-
viewed Qene students explained the assessment and evaluation practices
as follows:
There is no paper-pencil examination in the school. Teachers assessed and evaluated
our success in our day-to-day activities in the lesson, we are evaluated and feedback
is given on the session. Yeneta or senior students evaluated our progress on the basis
of the pace and achievement of the student. However, final decision was made by
Yeneta whether the student was promoted from one level to the other or not.
(QSG3, Interview, October 12, 2020)

The idea of Qene school teachers and the classroom observation indi-
cated that feedback is not given by the teacher only. Students are also
encouraged to assess and evaluate the work of their peers. The tutors are
also kin to give constructive feedback after continuous follow up. These
give students more responsibility for their own learning and also they are
not totally dependent on the teacher as the only source in the school.
In general, the findings of this research indicated that the assessment
and evaluation system in Qene schools is a formative continuous assess-
ment undergone with the involvement of the students, tutors and the
teacher. The students need to be involved both as assessors of their own
learning and as resources to other students. All of these Qene schools’
assessment and evaluation practices could be used as a model for Ethiopian
modern education’s assessment and evaluation practices, which are primar-
ily focused on written and summative evaluation.

Discussions
The teaching and learning methods
The educational system and its teaching and learning processes of EOTC
schools were criticized by contemporary modern education scholars in
Ethiopia as being conservative and having low standards (Birhanu &
Deneke, 1995; Girma, 1967; Ferede & Haile, 2015). For instance, Birhanu
and Deneke (1995) explained that the contents of EOTC teaching were
theological and emphasized memorization and rote learning as the learning
process and delayed innovative activities in the secular world with its rigid-
ity. Similarly, Ferede and Haile (2015) stated that the teaching and learning
of church education was based on rote memorization, and the content of
the education system did not develop the understanding of the innovation,
critique, and imagination of students. Nevertheless, the findings of this
study indicated that Qene (poetry) schools have their own unique
14 M. B. MULUALEM ET AL.

indigenous pedagogical approaches, such as Qene “Qotera,” “Negera” and

“Zerefa” that apply different student centered approaches. For instance, in
Qene “Zerefa” pedagogical approach, students expected to create new Qene
(poem) by observing their environment that demands students to question
themselves, think critically, interpret the meaning, defend argumentatively
and assess themselves. This implies that Qene church schools apply differ-
ent student centered teaching and learning approaches which are used as a
resource for modern education pedagogical practices.
The findings of this study also revealed that the nature of the teaching and
learning model of sem ena work (wax and gold) approach in Qene schools
requires students to search and create a new Qene (poem) that has not been
heard and said before. The wax and gold model of teaching and learning in
Qene schools demands students to question themselves, think critically, discuss
among groups, reflect on their practice, assess themselves, and give argumenta-
tive public oral defense. This result is consistent with the findings of Mulugeta
(1959) and Teshome (1979) who reported that Qene instruction seeks great use
of the imagination and creative mind of the students and reflective thinking.
These teaching and learning strategies played great roles in the facilitation of
higher order thinking, deep understanding, imagination and problem solving
skills which are consistent with the core ideas and principles of constructive
learning theory and deep learning strategies.
From these findings, one can deduce that the ancient EOTC Qene
schools reflected deep learning approaches that require higher-order think-
ing skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Therefore, the policy makers and educational practitioners of Ethiopia
should consider the pedagogical experiences of Qene schools to minimize
the core problems of educational quality in the contemporary educa-
tional practices.
The results of the study also showed that in all Qene pedagogies; Qene
“Qotera,” “Negera,” and “Zerefa” approaches, scaffolding, reflective learn-
ing, and pace learning are well practiced. For example, teachers and tutors
can support students through scaffolding by modeling, directing, question-
ing, giving feedback, and reinforcing them while they are learning in
cooperative or individual learning environments. Students also learn
through questioning, critique, inquiring, and assessing themselves while
studying in Qene schools. The literature also supports the results of this
study as reflective learning practice is a matter of careful thinking, examin-
ing their learning and processing one’s experiences (Ghaye & Ghaye, 1998).
Therefore, the teaching and learning environment of the Qene schools gives
students the opportunity to evaluate their learning, promote learning by
themselves, develop their understanding, and facilitate self-monitoring and
self-assessment.
 REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 15

Besides, the findings also indicated that repetition and memorization

were considered a significant method in Qene education. These findings
are found to be consistent with some previous studies (Birhanu & Deneke,
1995; Girma, 1967; Deribessa, 2008; Hailegbriel, 2003). These scholars
described the nature of Church education that emphasized memorization
and rote learning as the process of learning. These studies exempted mem-
orization as mechanical learning without understanding and thus without
the possibility of application in real life situations. However, the findings of
this study showed that memorization was considered a significant method
in the facilitation of higher order thinking in Qene education. As the
research participants noted, memorization is just the first step of under-
standing. Blind rote learning and mindless imitation are not the features of
Qene education. From the findings, therefore, one can understand that in
the Qene education learning integrates memorization and understanding.
Rote memorization without thought and reflection must be differentiated
from the form of memorization encouraged by Qene schools. The inter-
viewed participants of Qene teachers of the church, therefore, argue against
the misunderstanding that memorization excludes thinking and advocates
the opposite.
Therefore, from the findings, one can understand that Qene schools have
incorporated different student-centered pedagogies and self-directed activ-
ities so that their students do not simply learn by rote memorization. The
teaching and learning tradition of Qene schools aim to nurture students
who have critical, logical, systematic and creative thinking, knowledgeable
with content mastery, and careful and clever to overcome problems
encountered. Such pedagogical practices have an irreplaceable role in the
contemporary educational practices of Ethiopia.

Assessment and evaluation practices

Regarding to the assessment and evaluation practices in Qene education,
the findings of this study revealed that authentic assessment through oral
reflection and mastery-oriented performance-based assessments are the key
assessment strategies used in Qene education. The Qene schools offered
oral examinations to the students. The oral assessment and evaluation was
practiced at every session of the program. The results indicated that self-
evaluation, peer evaluation, and teachers’ oral examination are properly
implemented in Qene schools.
As the findings of the study indicated that the assessment carried out in
Qene education is an integral part of the teaching and learning processes.
The assessment focused on monitoring learning progress and diagnosing
learning difficulties before promoting from one subject (level) to another.
16 M. B. MULUALEM ET AL.

The present findings are also in line with the principles of authentic assess-
ment, which considers teaching, learning, and assessment as ongoing, inter-
twined and all happening at the same time (Earl, 2012; Earl & Katz, 2006).
This implies that formative continuous assessment is well practiced in
Qene schools. Supporting the findings of this study, Hussein (1988)
reported that the promotion of students from one level to another in trad-
itional Islamic and Church schools does not require the development of
complicated quantitative tests rather it is done through continuous oral
assessments. A student had to first master a particular subject or level
before moving on to another subject or level and there were no written
examinations. The results also indicated that different actors such as
Yenetas, peers, tutors, and students themselves were involved in the assess-
ment and evaluation system.
This finding, therefore, indicated that more opportunities were found for
active participation of learners in the process of authentic assessment com-
pared to that of traditional paper and pencil tests. In authentic assessment,
the students themselves were exploring the issue of the study in to get in-
depth understanding which shows the students self-learning and taking
responsibility of their own learning (Earl, 2012). They also made decisions
about the issues to be explored, processes, and products of assessment and
played the role of a decision maker. The role of teachers during authentic
assessment as a facilitator, helpers, encourager, and pushers which is con-
sistent with the findings of this study in which Yenetas are facilitating stu-
dents through questioning, reflection and pushing students to think and
observing their environment to create Qene. Learning goals are encouraged
when scaffolding and support are provided, effort and improvement are
recognized, mistakes are treated as learning opportunities, students have
the opportunity to revise their work, evaluation emphasizes learning, and
individual competition and comparison are minimized.
From the foregoing findings of this study, one can deduce that the
assessment and evaluation practices of Qene education can therefore be
taken as a lesson for contemporary Ethiopian education practices based pri-
marily on paper-and-pencil tests. In Ethiopia schools, the learning results
of students are evaluated mainly in paper-and-pencil tests in terms of what
they have memorized at the expense of their intellectual understanding.

Conclusions
The objective of this study was to explore the pedagogical practices of trad-
itional Qene schools and its implication to modern education. The findings
of the study indicated that the Qene schools have and practiced their indi-
genous pedagogical approaches. In Qene Pedagogies; Qene “Qotera,”
 REVIEW OF EDUCATION, PEDAGOGY, AND CULTURAL STUDIES 17

“Negera” and “Zerefa,” cooperative learning, reflective learning, scaffolding,

differentiated instruction, pace learning, independent learning, critical inter-
pretation, argumentative oral defense are well practiced. Thus, the peda-
gogical approaches of the Qene schools promote learner-centered and deep
learning approaches.
The findings presented in this study also revealed that Qene schools’
assessment and evaluation system was through self-assessment, peer assess-
ment, and oral evaluation of teachers that provides students with opportu-
nities to self-monitor, rehearse, practice, and receive feedback from
teachers, tutors and their peers to regularly check the learning progress of
students with feedback. The findings of this study, therefore, support
assessment for learning, which is the core idea of formative continu-
ous assessment.
The findings of this study have numerous pedagogical implications. For
instance, from the pedagogical approach of Qene schools, modern educa-
tion practitioners in Ethiopia should take as a lesson the practices of differ-
entiated education, reflective learning, scaffolding, cooperative learning, and
authentic assessment, as these are challenges from primary to higher educa-
tion in the Ethiopian context.

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Qene school teachers, students, and church scholars for sharing their
knowledge and experiences on the teaching and learning practices of church schools. I
would also like to extend my indebtedness to Tadesse W/Gebreal, English language
Lecturer and PhD candidate in Addis Ababa University for his assistance in lan-
guage editing.

Notes on contributors
Molla Bekalu Mulualem, Institute of Education and Behavioral Sciences, Debre Markos
University, Ethiopia.
Alemayehu Bishaw Tamiru, College of Education and Behavioral Sciences, Bahir Dar
University, Ethiopia.
Asrat Dagnaw Kelkay, College of Education and Behavioral Sciences, Bahir Dar
University, Ethiopia.

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