Electrical Engineering Materials

Unit-III
Unit – III: Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductors:
“A semiconductor material is one whose conductivity lies between that of a conductor and an
insulator.” The two most commonly used semiconductor materials are germanium and silicon.

Applications of Semiconductor Materials:

Semiconductor materials are used in:
(i) Rectifiers (ii) Temperature-sensitive resistors (iii) Varistors
(iv) Photoconductive and photovoltaic cells (v) Hall Effect Generators
(vi) Strain gauges (vii) Transistors (viii) LDR and LCD

Type of Semiconductors Commonly Used:

The following materials arc commonly used as semiconductors:
(i) Boron (ii) Carbon (iii) Silicon (iv) Germanium
(v) Phosphorus (vi) Arsenic (vii) Antimony (viii) Sulphur
(ix) Selenium (x) Tellurium (xi) Iodine

Electron Energy and Energy Band Theory:

When each atom with its neighbouring atom shares electrons in order to fill its valency ring with
8 electrons, a covalent bond is said to be formed. Figure 2.1 shows covalent bonding. When atoms
enter into this bonding, each atom in effect has 8 valency electrons and this result in making such
material a good insulator. Covalent bonding leads to the development of a polycrystal. In a
polycrystal, several individual crystals are held together imperfectly. The extra atoms are not
properly locked in place. Due to impurities, there may be extra electrons which cannot lock into the
covalent bond structure. Thus, a semiconductor is produced.
An impure material having three valency electrons is called trivalent bond,
e.g., gallium, indium and aluminium.
An impure material having five valency electrons is called pentavalent group,
e.g., antimony, arsenic, phosphorus.

Intrinsic Semiconductors. If a crystal (silicon or germanium) does not contain any impure atoms
(contains only one type of atoms), it is called an intrinsic material. When an electron is freed from
the atom of an intrinsic material, it breaks a covalent bond and leaves behind a vacancy (called a
hole). The free electron and the hole form an electron-hole pair. The higher the temperature, the
greater the number of free electrons and holes. When a voltage is applied to an intrinsic material, it
acts as a conductor.

Extrinsic Semiconductors. Pure silicon or germanium exhibits, characteristics closer to that of an

insulator than a semiconductor. In order to make a material conducting, a small quantity of impurity
must he added to it. The addition of impurity makes pure germanium or silicon a conductor. The
process of adding impurities is called “doping.” A material which has been doped is called an
extrinsic material.
The extent to which the impurity has been added is called the “doping level”. When a
pentavalent group provides an extra electron to the semiconductor material, the atom of the material
which donates the extra electron is called a “donor atom.”
When a trivalent group is added to intrinsic materials such as silicon, one covalent bond is
broken, that is, a hole is created. An electron from an adjacent atom can fill the hole which is now
moved to another atom. The doping atom has now one surplus negative charge and has become a
negative ion. A hole is the absence of an electron and hence has a positive charge. The doping
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element is an “acceptor”, since it takes or accepts an electron.

Excitation of Atoms:
When each electron in an atom is in its normal orbit, the atom is said to be in an unexcited state.
To move an electron farther away from its nucleus requires additional energy. The additional
energy can be obtained from any of the following sources: light, heat, static electricity, magnetism,
kinetic sources.
When the electron is in the higher energy level, the atom is said to be in an excited state. The
quantum of energy, in electron volts, required to move an electron from one energy level to higher
energy level varies from material to material.
When the required amount of light or heat energy is absorbed by a valency electron, it will leave
the valency bond and move up to the ionisation level. If it does so, it is released from the attraction
forces of the nucleus. Then it is free to float between the atoms and to conduct electricity. An
electron above ionisation level is said to be in the conduction band and is called a free electron.
When the electron leaves the valency band, the resulting atom is no longer neutral but has a
positive charge and is called positive ion. The atom is said to be ionised.
The atom that has been ionised by the loss of an electron does not remain so for a long time. Its
positive charge will attract a nearby free electron which will give up its acquired energy. Thus, there
is a constant interchange of electrons being given up and retrieved.

Energy Band Representation of Ionisation:

In the silicon atom, K and L shells arc full, but M shell contains only
four electrons. According to the 2n2 formula, the M shell can contain
18 electrons, but the M shell in silicon is the valency shell and thus
can have not more than 8 electrons. In the germanium atom, the K, L
and M shells are filled and the N shell is the valency shell containing
4 electrons. Since only the valency electrons are important from the
chemical and electrical point of view, both germanium and silicon
atoms are shown in simplified form by representing only the outer
most shell in Figs. 2.3 (a) and (b).

Simplilied Si and Ge Atoms:

The electrical characteristics of a
semiconductor fall between those of a
conductor and an insulator.
A semiconductor has 4 electrons in its
valency ring (outermost orbit). A good insulator
has 8 electrons in its valency ring. The best
conductor has one electron in the valency ring.
The two most widely used semiconductors
are silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge). Their
atomic structures are shown in Figs. 2.4 (a) and
(b).

N-type Material. When a pentavalent impurity

is added to in an intrinsic material such as silicon or
germanium, only four of its valency electrons lock
into the covalent bond formation of atomic structure.
The fifth valency electron of the impurity atom is
free to wander through the crystal.
Figure 2.5 shows the addition of an atom of
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arsenic as an impurity. The impurity atom becomes ionised and has a positive charge when its fifth
electron moves away. The positive impurity ion is not free but is firmly held in the crystal structure.
The pentavalent atom donates an extra electron and is called a donor impurity. A material with a
donor impurity has excess of electrons in its structure. It is called N-type material. The net charge of
N-type material is still neutral since the total number of electrons is equal to the total number of
protons.

Arsenic impurity atom provides a fifth electron that cannot enter a covalent bond structure.
P-type Material. When a trivalent impurity is added to the intrinsic material, the two lock into a
crystal structure. The impurity has three valency electrons. There is a hole in the covalent bond
structure created by the lack of an electron. The hole represents an incomplete covalent bond and
exhibits a positive charge in order to complete the bond and form a stable 8-electron structure, a
valency electron from a nearby atom gains sufficient energy to break loose from its bond and jump
into the hole due to its attraction. Therefore, this type of impurity as called an “acceptor”. The
electrons available to fill the hole and complete the bond have been released by the nearby atom
whose bonds have been broken and holes created. Thus, the process will continue creating a mobility
of holes. The impurity atom becomes negatively ionised as it accepts an electron. The germanium or
silicon atom which releases one electron becomes positively ionised. The net charge of the material
is still neutral. The total number of electrons is equal to the total number of protons.
The intrinsic materials doped with a trivalent impurity are called P-type materials.

Majority and Minority Carriers. In N-type material, conduction takes place through the electrons
created mostly by the doping and a small number created by thermal generation.
The small number of holes created by thermal generation move in opposite direction. In N-type
material, the number of free electrons is large. These electrons are called majority carriers. Holes are
in small numbers and are called minority carrier.
In P-type material, the holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

Distinction between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors:

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. These materials do not contain any 1. These contain added impurities.
impurities.
2. Conduction takes place by thermally or 2. Conduction takes place by the free electrons
optically excited electrons. or holes.
3. Conductivity takes place at higher 3. Conductivity takes place at normal
temperature. temperature.
4. Conductivity increases with increase of 4. Conductivity does not depend on
temperature. temperature, but on the level of doping.

Working and applications of semiconductors

1. Germanium and Silicon Rectifiers
When a P-type material and a N-type material are joined together, they form a junction called
P.N. junction.
When an external voltage is applied across the two materia1, a flow of current results if the
positive and negative terminal of the voltage source are connected respectively to the ends of the P
and N materials. The voltage applied this way is called “forward-biasing” the P.N. junction. If the
applied voltage is reversed, that is, the positive of the supply voltage is connected to N side and
negative of the supply is connected to the P side, there is no flow of current. This is called “reverse
biasing”. Thus the P-N junction offers high conductivity when forward biased and no conductivity
when reverse biased. Thus the semi-conductor can be used as a rectifier, The modern P-N rectifiers
use germanium or silicon as semiconductor material.

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Fig. 2.6(a) The operation of PN junction under Fig. 2.6(a) The operation of PN junction
reverse bias under forward bias

2. Comparison between Germanium and Silicon Rectifiers

Germanium Rectifier Silicon Rectifier
1. It is easier and simpler to make. It is difficult to make.
2. Melting point is 9000C. Melting point is 14150C
3. Widely use in both high frequency and Widely use in both high frequency and
supply frequency circuits, as non-controlled supply frequency circuits, as non-controlled
and controlled rectifiers and controlled rectifiers
4. Can be operated at high current density and Can be operated at high current density and
reverse voltage with an efficiency of about reverse voltage with an efficiency of about
98%. 98%. However, in heavy current
applications, this finds wider industrial use.
5. Working temperature is limited to -500C to Working temperature is upto 2000C.
+700C.
6. Continuous operation at temperature above It is more sensitive to weak signals and
+600C causes thermal ageing and hence can be used in high frequency
deterioration in electrical characteristics. electronic circuits.
7. At low temperatures, there is considerable No effect at low temperature.
drop in permissible reverse voltage.

3. Copper Oxide Rectifiers

The earliest semiconductor to be used was copper oxide. Its application was in copper oxide
rectifier.
Copper oxide rectifier is a plate of 99.98% pure copper on which a film of cuprous oxide is
produced by a special process. From one side of the plate, cuprous oxide is cleaned and electrode is
soldered directly to the copper. The second electrode is soldered to cuprous oxide film. When a
positive potential is applied to the oxide layer and negative to the copper, it corresponds to forward
biasing of a P-N junction. By arranging the copper plate elements in stacks, rectifiers for use in many
kinds of measuring instruments and circuits can be obtained. These rectifiers have low permissible
current density. They are not used for power supply purposes.

Fig.2.7 Copper Oxide Rectifier

To have a good contact with copper oxide, a lead plate is pressed against it. The two terminals of
the rectifiers are the copper plate and lead plate. The oxide will be in between the plates as shown in
Fig. 2.7. This rectifier will allow the current to flow only from oxide to copper and will not allow
flow from copper to oxide.
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The voltage that may be applied to a single rectifier ranges between 4 and 8 V, so a number of
units are connected in series for operating on high voltages. Similarly, parallel connection of the
units increases the current rating of the rectifiers, as the maximum current density in the forward
direction is 0.1 to 0.15 A/cm2 at an allowable voltage of 8V.
The life of copper oxide rectifiers is 12 to 15 years and efficiency is 70%.

Applications: These types of rectifiers are mostly used for meters, battery cell charging, radios,
X-ray works, measuring instruments, railway signalling, telecommunication systems, etc.

4. Selenium Rectifiers
In this type, a film of 0.5 mm thickness is deposited on one side of the metallic back plate (iron
or aluminium) by means of chemical treatment, a film of “blocking” or “barrier” layer is formed
between selenium and counter electrode.
The rectification is from back plate to selenium. The rectifier construction is as shown in Fig. 2.8.

A single unit can sustain about 6 V. The normal current density is about 0.04 A/cm 2 for full wave
rectification. The power efficiency is 50 to 75%.
The units can be combined in series or in parallel, similar to that of copper oxide rectifiers to
work at desired voltage or for the required current capacity.

Applications: This type of rectifiers are widely used for battery charging, telegraph and
telephone circuits, control circuits, railway signalling, meters, electroplating and other works.
Such rectifiers are available in capacities of up to 50 to 100 kW.

Temperature sensitive elements (Thermistors)

If the temperature of a semiconductor material is increased, that causes a decrease in its
resistance. This property is used in temperature sensitive elements which are called as ‘thermistors’.
The thermistors are thermally sensitive material (resistors). They are made from oxides of certain
metals such as copper, manganese, cobalt, iron, and zinc.
Applications of thermistors: Thermistors find application in temperature measurements and
control. They sense temperature variations and convert these variations into an electrical signal
which is then used to control heating devices. Thermistors are also used for measurement of radio
frequency power, voltage regulation and time delay circuits.

Photoconductive Cells
The resistance of semiconductor materials is low under light and increases in darkness.
Photoconductive cells can be used in applications which require the control of a certain function or
event according to the colour or intensity of light.
Applications: They are used in burglar alarms, flame detectors and control for street lights.

Photovoltaic Cells
Photovoltaic cells are devices that develop an emf when illuminated. They convert light energy
directly into electrical energy.
Applications: The applications of photovoltaic cells are in photographic exposure meters,
lighting control systems, automatic aperture control in camera.

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Varistor
The resistance of semiconductors varies with the applied voltage. This property is used in devices
called varistors.
Applications: They are used in voltage stabilizers and for motor speed control.

Hall Effect Generators

When a current flow through a semiconductor bar placed in a magnetic field, a voltage is
developed at right angles to both current and the magnetic field. This voltage is proportional to the
current and the intensity of the magnetic field. This is called the “Hall Effect’.
Consider the semiconductor bar shown in Fig. 2.9, which has contacts on all four sides. If a
voltage E1 is applied across the two opposite sides A and B, a current will flow.
If the bar is placed perpendicular to magnetic field B as shown in the figure, an electric potential
EH is generated between the other two contacts C and D. This voltage E H is a direct measure of the
magnetic field strength and can be detected with a simple voltmeter.

Fig. 2.9 Hall Effect Generator

Applications: The Hall Effect generators may be used to measure magnetic fields. It is capable of
measuring magnetic field strengths that have strength of 10-6 of the magnetic field of the earth.

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)

Liquid crystals arc organic fluids whose molecules can be re-aligned by the application of an
electric field to the liquid crystal.
Applications: The LCDs are used in display circuits such as electronic calculators, computers,
counting machines, etc.

Light Dependent Resistors

These have ceramic substance on which a film of cadmium sulphide or cadmium selenide is
deposited. When light falls on this surface, resistance decreases. These are sensitive to visible light
only. Power rating varies from 50mW to 0.6W. Their response time is a few milliseconds.
Applications: They are used in dc chopper amplifiers as photo choppers and light alarms.

LEDs
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric
current passes through it. The output from an LED can range from red (at a wavelength of
approximately 700 nanometers) to blue-violet (about 400 nanometers).
An LED consists of two elements of P-type semiconductors and N-type semiconductors
materials. These two elements are placed in direct contact, forming a region called the P-N junction.
In this respect, the LED resembles most other diode types, but there are important differences. The
LED has a transparent package, allowing visible light to pass through. Also, the LED has a large PN-
junction area whose shape is tailored to the application.
Advantages of LEDs compared with incandescent and fluorescent illuminating devices, include:
 Low power requirement: Most types can be operated with battery power supplies.
 High efficiency: Most of the power supplied to an LED is converted into radiation in the desired

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form, with minimal heat production.
 Long life: When properly installed, an LED can function for decades.

Applications:
 Indicator lights: These can be two-state (i.e., on/off), bar-graph, or alphabetic-numeric
readouts.
 LCD panel backlighting: Specialized white LEDs are used in flat-panel computer displays.
 Fiber optic data transmission: Ease of modulation allows wide communications bandwidth
with minimal noise, resulting in high speed and accuracy.
 Remote control: Most home-entertainment "remotes" use IREDs to transmit data to the main
unit.
 Optoisolator: Stages in an electronic system can be connected together without unwanted
interaction.

Piezo - Electric Materials (Quartz and Rochelle salt)

Certain crystalline substances like quartz, Rochelle salt and tourmaline exhibit a piezo-electric
effect. When the crystals are mechanically deformed and vice versa (stretched or compressed), a
potential difference between the opposite faces of the crystal is created. The crystal can be shown to
have an ‘electrical’ equivalent circuit similar to an inductor and a capacitor (tank circuit).
Applications: This effect of crystals is applied in oscillators and multi-vibrators.

Semiconductor LASER & its Charactersitics

Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a quantum electronics device
that generates intense electromagnetic radiation. Currently solid ruby laser (chromium ions in
alumina), liquid lasers (having rare-earth ions), and gaseous laser (such as carbon dioxide) are used
in successful application but semiconductor lasers are more efficient than these lasers. GaP, GaAs
and GaSb are the most significant compounds for this purpose.
In semiconductors lasers, light emission is obtained through a p-n junction as a result of
recombination of electrons and holes. An extremely narrow and perfectly straight junction line
provides beneficial laser action. Miniature semiconductor laser employ various methods of excitation
such as injection of electrons and holes through the p-n junction, optical pumping and a beam of fast
electrons. A higher energy gap of semiconductor material results in emission of shorter wavelength
as shown in fig. 3.31.

Fig- 3.31 Effect of Forbidden Gap on the Emission of Wavelength in a Semiconductor Laser
Photoconductors
When radiation is incident on a semiconductor, its conductivity increases; this effect is called
‘photoconductive effect’. The photoconductive effect is explained below:
The radiant energy incident on the semiconductor ionizes some of the covalent bonds resulting in
new hole-electron pairs in excess of those generated thermally. These increased number of carriers
result in decreased resistivity, i.e., increased conductivity. Such a device is known as photo-resistor
or photo-conductor.
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A commercial photoconductor may undergo resistance change of several kilo-ohms with change
of incident light intensity by 100 foot candles.

Photo diodes
It is a form of light sensor that converts light energy into electrical energy (voltage or current).
Photodiode is a type of semi conducting device with PN junction. Between the p (positive) and n
(negative) layers, an intrinsic layer is present. The photo diode accepts light energy as input to
generate electric current.
It is also called as Photodetector, Photo Sensor or Light Detector. Photodiode operates in reverse
bias condition i.e., the p – side of the photodiode is connected with negative terminal of battery (or
the power supply) and n – side to the positive terminal of battery.
Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide and
Indium gallium arsenide.
Internally, a photodiode has optical filters, built in lens and a surface area. When surface area of
photodiode increases, it results in less response time. Few photo diodes will look like Light Emitting
Diode (LED). It has two terminals as shown below. The smaller terminal acts as cathode and longer
terminal acts as anode.

The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an LED but the arrows point inwards as
opposed to outwards in the LED. The following image shows the symbol of a photodiode.

Avalanche photo diode

When the reverse bias of a photodiode is increased to near the breakdown voltage, carriers in the
depletion region can be accelerated to the point where they will excite electrons from the valence
band into the conduction band, creating more carriers. This current multiplication is called avalanche
gain, and typical gains of 50 are available. Avalanche diodes are specially designed to have uniform
junction regions to handle the high applied fields.

Photo transistors
A Phototransistor is an electronic switching and current amplification component which relies on
exposure to light to operate. When light falls on the junction, reverse current flows which are
proportional to the luminance. Phototransistors are used extensively to detect light pulses and convert
them into digital electrical signals. These are operated by light rather than electric current. Providing
a large amount of gain, low cost and these phototransistors might be used in numerous applications.

Phototransistor Symbol
It is capable of converting light energy into electric energy. Phototransistors work in a similar
way to photoresistors commonly known as LDR (light dependent resistor) but are able to produce
both current and voltage while photoresistors are only capable of producing current due to change in
resistance.
Phototransistors are transistors with the base terminal exposed. Instead of sending current into the
base, the photons from striking light activate the transistor. This is because a phototransistor is made
of a bipolar semiconductor and focuses on the energy that is passed through it. These are activated by
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light particles and are used in virtually all electronic devices that depend on light in some way. All
silicon photosensors (phototransistors) respond to the entire visible radiation range as well as to
infrared. In fact, all diodes, transistors, Darlington’s, TRIACs, etc. have the same basic radiation
frequency response.
The structure of the phototransistor is specifically optimized for photo applications. Compared to
a normal transistor, a phototransistor has a larger base and collector width and is made using
diffusion or ion implantation.