CHAPTER-3: FERROUS METALS/ ALLOYS

CONTENTS
• Steels- classification: Plain carbon steels, Alloy steels- stainless steels
( Ferritic, austenitic, Martensitic stainless steels), Tool and die steels-
cold work tool steels, hot work tool steels, high speed tool steels,
special purpose tool steels, Die steels, High temperature heat resisting
steels, Water hardened, oil hardened, air hardened steels, killed, semi-
killed, rimmed steels
• Effects of alloying elements in steel
• Cast irons- classification: white cast iron, grey cast iron, chilled cast
iron, Meehanite cast irons, Nodular cast irons, Malleable cast irons
• Effects of alloying elements in cast iron
• Indian standard specification of Ferrous metals and alloys
 STEELS- CLASSIFICATION, PROPERTIES, APPLICATIONS & EFFECTS OF
ALLOYING ELEMENTS

• BASED ON CARBON CONTENT– (Plain-carbon steels)– low-carbon steels, medium- carbon steels,
high-carbon steels
• Based on Alloying elements--- (Alloy steels)– Low alloy steels and high alloy steels
• Based on Grain coarsening characteristics--- fine grain steels and coarse grain steels
• Based on type of furnace used for melting--- Electric furnace steels, open-hearth steels, Bessemer
steels
• Based on amount of de-oxidation– killed steels, semi-killed steels, rimmed steels
• Based on quenching medium employed– water hardened steels, oil hardened steels, air hardened
steels
• Based on depth of hardening– Non hardenable steels( low-c/ mild steels), shallow hardening
steels( get hardened only at surface; they are used for gears, camshafts etc), deep hardening
steels( applications same as high-c steels)
• Based on application– tool steels, die steels, special purpose steels, stainless steels,
• PLAIN CARBON STEELS
Type of plain Percentage of Applications
Carbon Steel Carbon
Low Carbon Steels 0.008-0.3% steel wire, sheets, rivets, screws, pipes, nails and chains, cam
shafts, tubes, crank shafts, railway axles, fish plates.

Medium Carbon 0.3-0.7% connecting rods, brake levers, railway coach axles, spline
Steels shafts, thrust washers, clutch discs, set screws, plate punches

High carbon Steels 0.7-2% Upto 0.8%C-Cold chisels, wrenches, jaws for vices, wheels for
railway service, shear blades, Hacksaws, 0.8-0.9%C-rock
drills, railway rails, Leaf springs, Punches and dies, Musical
instrument wires, More than 0.9% C- Railway springs, Twist
drills, Files, Cutting tools, Drawing dies, knives etc.,
• ALLOY STEELS- steels whose properties are due to alloying elements, other than carbon. They are classified
into High strength low alloy steels, Dual phase steels and micro alloyed steels.
• HSLA steels: They possess good strength to weight ratio, low carbon content <0.3%, and their microstructure
consists of fine ggrained ferrite and a hard second phase of carbides, carbonitrides, or nitrides. They are
produced in the form of sheets, plates, bars, structural shapes.Their ductility, formability and weldability are
inferior to those of conventional low alloy steels. They are used in automobile bodies to reduce weight, and
in transportation, mining, and agricultural equipment. Plates made of HSLA steels are used in ships, bridges,
and building construction, and shapes such as I—beams, channels, and angles in structures.
• Dual phase steels: These are processed specially to hhave a mixed ferrite and Martensite structure. They
have high work hardening characteristics( i.e., a high value of n) and thus have good ductility and formability.
• Micro-alloyed steels: They possess superior properties and eliminate the need for heat treatment. They
have ferrite-pearlite microstructure, with fine dispersed particles of Carbonitride. Their composition consists
of 0.5 %C, 0.8% Mn, and 0.1% V. They possess uniform strength and eliminate the need for quenching,
tempering and stress relieving.
• SPECIAL ALLOY STEELS—
• Stainless steels- ferritic, austenitic, Martensitic stainless steels
• Tool steels
• Shock resisting steels– for leaf springs and coil springs
• High strength steels—Maraging steels, modified tool steels, ultra high strength steels.
 STAINLESS STEELS

• Stainless steel is an alloy of Iron and carbon with a minimum of 10.5% Chromium, Si and
Manganese.
• Other elements such as Nickel and Molybdenum may be added to impart other useful
properties such as enhanced formability and increased corrosion resistance.
• Chromium produces a thin layer of oxide on the surface of the steel known as the 'passive
layer'. This prevents any further corrosion of the surface.
• Increasing the amount of Chromium gives an increased resistance to corrosion.
• They are classified into five types: Martensitic, ferritic, austenitic stainless steels,
precipitation hardened steels, and Duplex- structure steels. Although stainless steel is
much more resistant to corrosion than ordinary carbon or alloy steels, in some
circumstances it can corrode.
• It is 'stain-less' not 'stain-impossible'. In normal atmospheric or water based environments,
stainless steel will not corrode as demonstrated by domestic sink units, cutlery, saucepans
and work-surfaces.
 STAINLESS STEELS-FERRITIC, AUSTENITIC & MARTENSITIC STEELS
Factor of Ferritic stainless Austenitic stainless steels( Martensitic stainless steels( 400
comparison steels( 400 series) 200 and 300 series) and 500 series)
Microstructure Consists of Ferrite as Consists of Austenite as Consists of Martensite as major
at room major phase major phase phase
temperature
General Magnetic, can’t be Possess highest corrosion They are only type hardenable by
properties hardened by heat resistance, retains ductility heat treatment, magnetic in all
treatment, possess even at low temperatures, conditions, possess best thermal
lower ductility, lower non-magnetic, can be conductivity of all stainless steels,
formability than welded. can not be cold worked,
austenitic steels,
highly soft.
Composition C-0.08-0.2%, Si-1%, C-0.03-0.25%, Si-1-2%, C-0.15-1.2%, Si-1%, Mn-1%, Cr-
Mn-1-1.5%, Cr-11-27% Mn-2-10%, Cr-16-26%, 11.5-18%
Ni-3.5-22%
Applications Heating elements for Aircraft engine parts, heat Pumps and valve parts, rules and
furnaces, screws and exchanger parts, kettles, tapes, turbine buckets, surgical
fittings, oil burner cooking utensils, milk cans, instruments.
parts components subjected to
severe chemical
environments
• Precipitation hardened steels: contain chromium and nickel, along
with copper, aluminium, Titanium or molybdenum. They have good
corrosion resistance, good ductility, and high strength at elevated
temperatures. Their main application is in aircraft and aerospace
structural components.
• Duplex-structure steels: Have a mixture of austenite and ferrite.
These steels have good strength and higher resistance to corrosion (
in most environments) and to stress- corrosion cracking than do the
300 series of austenitic steels.Typical applications of duplex structure
steels are in water treatment plants and heat exchanger components.
 TOOL & DIE STEELS:

• They are specially used for working, shaping and cutting of metals. They should possess the
following properties.

• Hard, tough and wear resistant.

• Tendency for decarburization, oxidation and grain growth should be minimum.

 COLD WORK TOOL STEELS
Water hardening steels:
*contains C 0.6 to 1.4%

*possess poor hardenability, hence hardened by Water hardening

* Contains very little or no alloying elements, hence less expensive.
 Undergo tempering rapidly, and become soft at high temperatures—hence, not used for hot working or
cutting of metals at high speeds.
 Undergo distortion during hardening
 Used for cold wkg- Blanking dies, threading dies, drills, forming tools, hammers, chisels, wood working
tools, shear blades, knives and razors.
Oil hardening steels:
 Contain small amount of alloying elements such as W, Mn, Cr, Mo and V.
 Have better hardenability than water hardening type.
 Used for blanking and forming dies, shear blades, cutting tools and gauges.
 Distortion during hardening is less
 Contains 1%C, 0.95%Mn, 0.5%W, 0.75%Cr, 0.2%V.
• Air hardening steels:

 Have high hardenability due to addition of various alloying elements such as Mn, Cr, Mo and W.-
total content of alloying elements exceeds 5%

 Have less distortion during hardening, high wear resistance, and good depth of hardening.

 Used for slitting dies, drawing dies, intricate die shapes, gauges and punches.

• High Carbon high chromium steels:

 Have high hardenability, less distortion during hardening.

 Contain C-1.5-2%, Cr-12%, + W, Mo, V in small amount.

 Used for drawing dies, blanking dies, forming dies, coining dies, thread rolling dies, trimming
dies, shear blades, punches, cold forming rolls, cutting tools, gauges.
 HOT WORK TOOL STEELS

 Used for hot working of metals, such as for stamping, drawing, forming, piercing, extruding, upsetting and
swaging.
 Have good strength, toughness, hardness and wear resistance, resistance to tempering at high
temperatures. Contain carbon- 0.35 to 0.65%

They are of three types:

 Cr- type: contain 3-7% Cr + W, Mo, V, C-0.35 to 0.55%

*Have high ductility, toughness, resistance to splitting.
*Used for die casting dies, extrusion dies, forging dies, mandrels and hot shears

 Mo- type: contains 14 to 20% Mo, Cr, W and C-0.55 to 0.65%

 W-type: *contains 9 to 18%W, 2 to 12% Cr, C- 0.3 to 0.5%

* Used for dummy blocks,, hot extrusion dies, forging dies and hot punches.
 HIGH SPEED TOOL STEELS

*Maintain high hardness up to a temperature of about 5500C

*W-Type HSS: they are designated by T-series. Most widely used grade contains 0.7%C, 18%W,
4%Cr, 1%V.

*Mo-type HSS: Designated by M-series. Some amount of W in previous type is substituted by Mo,
to decrease cost. They are difficult to heat treat because of more tendency of oxidation,
decarburization and grain growth during heat treatment, compared to W- type. Most widely used
grade contains 0.85%C, 6%W, 5%Mo, 4%Cr, and 2%V

* Super HSS: contains about 5%V and shows very high hardness ( Rc70-72), in the properly heat
treated condition, as compared to RC65/66 of the usual HSS.

* HSS are used for drills, taps, reamers, milling cutters, saws, lathe tools, punches, drawing dies
and wood working tools.
 SPECIAL PURPOSE TOOL STEELS
*Shock resisting steels(S-series): contain less carbon( =0.5%) for better shock resistance. Due to this, their hardness after
hardening is also less. Alternatively, hardenability is increased by Mn, Cr, W, Mo, V, Si addition. Si and Mo increase strength,
toughness and shock resistance. They are used for punches, chisels, concrete breakers, rivet sets, forming dies, shear blades
etc.
* Low alloy tool steels (L-series): They are similar in characteristics to water hardening tool steels. Chromium is the major
alloying element of this group. They are used where high wear resistance and toughness are required.
* Carbon- Tungsten tool steels (F-series): contain Carbon moore than 1% with W, as alloying element. Compared to water
hardening steels, they have much higher wear and abrasion resistance. They are used for broaches, reamers, burnishing
tools, taps etc.,
* Mould steels ( P-series): used for plastic moulds. Molud should have high surface hardness to take care of abrasive action
of moulding powder/granules, and tough core to withstand the shock during the compression cycle. Mould requires a high
degree of surface finish. They are low in carbon content (<0.2%) and contain Cr and Ni as main alloying elements.
 DIE STEELS

Die steels for hot Cr- Base: They are used in the absence of shock load and repeated loads, at <315 C(
0

beyond this temperature, they hhave poor mechanical properties).

working  They contain C-0.35 to 0.4%, Cr-5%, V- 0.4%, W-5%, Mo-1.5 to 5%.
 Used for cold heading dies and bending dies.

W-base: W- content increases useful temperature range to 5950C. Carbon content is

controlled from 0.35 to 0.5%, to control hardness, brittleness, hardenability and
toughness. Other elements in composition are Cr-2 to 12 %, V-1%, W-9 to 18%.
 Used as dies for die casting of Al- alloys, permanent moulds for brass and
bronze castings, dies for extruding of brass.

Mo- base: They contain C-0.6 to 0.65%, Cr-4%, V-1 to 2%, W-1.5 to 5%, Mo- 6to 8%.
Due to their good red hhardness, they can be used where operating temperature
does not exceed 5500C.
Die steels for cold *The oil hardening low alloy type( group-O): contains Mn and smaller amounts of Cr
and W. They have good machinability and good resistance to decarburization;
working toughness is only fair and red hardness is as poor as straight carbon toll steels. They
are used for threading dies, form tools.

*The Medium alloy group( group-A): They contain C-1%, Mn-3%, Cr-5%, Mo-1%.
They have excellent non-deforming properties, good wear resistance, fair toughness,
red hardness, and resistance to decarburization, bbut only poor machinability. They
are used for Blanking, forming, trimming, and thread rolling dies.

* The high C- high Cr type( group-D): contains upto 2-2.5%C, 12%Cr. They also
contain Mo, V, and Co. They have excellent wear rresistance and non-deforming
properties. Used for blanking and piercing dies, drawing dies, thread rolling dies.
 KILLED, SEMI-KILLED AND RIMMED STEELS
• Killed steels are thoroughly deoxidised (by adding Al, Si, Mn) steels. As these elements get rapidly oxidised,
the amount of dissolved oxygen in steel decreases ( i.e., blow holes are eliminated) and content of inclusions
increases. Thus, deoxidised steel shows more shrinkage pipe due to absence of blow holes. This pipe is
removed (by cutting) before final processing of steel ingot. Hence, the yield decreases. Thorough de-
oxidation is generally used for producing high carbon steels and alloy steels. However, it can be used for low
carbon steels also, provided cost permits. It makes steel with uniform properties throughout the cross
section, and free from blowholes. Such steels are used for components which have to be forged, carburised
or heat treated.
• Semi- killed steels are partially de-oxidised steels. The blow holes formed by evolution of CO compensate for
part of the shrinkage, hence the pipe is less. Usually steels containing 0.15%-0.25% C are produced in this
condition and are used for sheets, plates and structural shapes.
• Rimmed steels are low carbon steels containing less than 0.15%C, produced in sheet form—in rimmed
condition (non- deoxidised condition) and are used for deep drawing and forming operations. A molten
steel contains large amount of dissolved oxygen and other gases. During solidification, due to decrease in
solubility, these gases try to go out as CO. However, a large part of these gases get entrapped in the
solidifying ingot, if de-oxidation is not done. As a result, the thin solidified layer of ingot i.e., rim (skin)
contains less carbon. Further, the gases entrapped in the blow holes compensate for solidification shrinkage
and reduce the pipe, thereby increasing the yield. The presence of entrapped gases, makes steel to have
large number of blow holes. These blow holes are eliminated by subsequent working operations.
 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL
ELEMENT EFFECTS
Sulphur • Forms iron sulphide as a brittle compound—it accumulates along the grain boundaries, results
in intergranular corrosion
• Promotes hot cracking tendency- hence steels containing more sulpur should not be subjected
to hot working
• Minor amount of sulphur promotes machinability
• Whenever sulphur is added, Mn is also added simultaneously, to reduce brittleness in steel.
Phosphoro • Forms Iron phosphide as a brittle compound
us • Increases tensile strength and hardness in steel
• Promotes cold cracking tendency – hence, steels containing more amount of P can not be
subjected to cold working.
• Increases corrosion resistance in steels.
Silicon • Increases tensile strength and toughness without decreasing ductility
• Increases resilience- hence steels containing more Si are used in springs, wires in musical
instruments.
• Increases resistivity
• Makes the steel magnetically soft, decreases power losses- hence such steels are used in
electrical applications such as transformers, generators and motors.
• It is a powerful de-oxidiser
• Si decomposes cementite into graphite( hence, it is known as graphitiser)
Manganese • Increases tensile strength and hardness
• Steels containing 14-15%Mn, are used for bulldozer blades, as they
possess excellent wear resistance and non- magnetic nature( they are
known as HADFIELD- Mn STEELS)
• Promotes quench cracking tendency
• Minor amount of Mn improves machinability
• It is an Austenite stabilizer.
Nickel • Increases tensile strength and toughness without decreasing ductility
• Increases corrosion resistance but decreases coefficient of thermal
expansion( steels containing 36% Ni exhibit practically zero coefficient
of thermal expansion– they are known as INVAR STEELS—used in the
mfg. Of precision instruments)
• It is an Austenite stabilizer.
W, Cr, V, Mo • They are carbide forming elements
• They increase hardness and wear resistance
• They control grain growth and result in grain size refinement.
• NOTE:
• W– predominantly increases hot hardness
• Cr– predominantly increases corrosion resistance
• V– predominantly increases endurance strength/ fatigue strength
• Mo– predominantly increases creep resistance.
Titanium and • They are carbide forming elements
Niobium • They increase wear resistance and creep resistance
• They arrest grain growth and result in grain size refinement
Aluminium • Results if formation of Iron aluminides as brittle compounds
• It is a powerful deoxidiser
• Arrests grain growth and results in grain size refinement.
Boron * Increases surface hardness, wear resistance and corrosion
resistance
 CAST IRONS- CLASSIFICATION, APPLICATIONS & EFFECTS OF
ALLOYING ELEMENTS
• Cast iron- refers to a famil y of ferrous metals that are used directly in cast form.
• Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content more than 2%. The alloy
constituents affect its colour when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities which allow
cracks to pass straight through, grey cast iron has graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack
and initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks, and ductile cast iron has spherical
graphite "nodules" which stop the crack from further progressing
• ADVANTAGES OVER STEEL
• Least expensive
• Lower melting point( 1140-12000C) than steel(1,380-15000C)
• It possesses good casting properties such as high fluidity, low shrinkage, casting soundness, ease of production and a higher
casting yield.
• Cast irons can provide a very wide range of metallic properties ranging from a high yield strength to high ductility and toughness.
• higher compressive strength is 3-4 times than its tensile strength.
• Cast irons can be machined easily.
• high damping capacity and resistance to wear.
• Alloyed cast irons possess high corrosion resistance and heat resistance
• PRODUCTION OF CAST IRON– by re-melting of Pig iron in Cupola furnace.

• TYPES OF CAST IRONS-- White cast iron, Grey cast iron, chilled cast iron, Meehanite cast iron, Spheroidal graphite cast iron(SGCI)/ Nodular cast iron/
Ductile cast iron, Malleable cast iron.
• WHITE CAST IRONS/ MOTTLED CAST IRONS

COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS

C=1.8-3.6%, 1.It’s fracture surface Used for producing
Si= 0.5-2%, appears white. malleable cast iron,
Mn=0.2-0.8%, 2. C is present in Jaw crusher plates
P=0.18%, S=0.1% combined form with needing abrasion
iron as Cementite. resistance.
3.Hard, brittle and
wear resistant
• GREY CAST IRONS
COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=2.5-3.8%, 1.Has presence of graphite Machine tool beds,
Si= 1.1-2.8%, flakes in ferrite/pearlite frames and structures,
Mn= 0.4-1%, P=0.15%, matrix. manhole covers,
S=0.1% 2. Fracture surface cylinder blocks and
appears as grey in colour. heads of I.C. engines,
3.shows lowest melting piston rings etc.,
point of ferrous alloys.
4. high fluidity, vibration
damping capacity, good
resistance to sliding wear
• CHILLED CAST IRONS
COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
• Obtained when casting is Rail- road freight car
solidified against metal chiller, as wheels, Grain crushing
white cast iron on surface and grey mill rolls, hammers,
cast iron in the interior. grinding balls etc.,
• Rapid cooling on surface produces
cementite and slow cooling
produces graphite flakes in the
interior.
• High hardness and wear resistance
on surface and low hardness and
strength at core.
• MEEHANITE CAST IRONS
COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=2.5-3% 1.Denotes a group of heavy duty Used for heat
cast Irons inoculated with calcium resistance, abrasion
silicide( acts as a graphitizer). resistance, corrosion
2.Possess good creep resistance. resistance applications.
3.can be heat treated by water
quenching or oil quenching and
stress relieved by annealing.
4. can be welded by arc welding or
gas welding.
• NODULAR/SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE(SG)/ DUCTILE CAST IRONS
COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=3.2-4.2%, Si= 1.1- 1.Graphite appears Farm implements
3.5%, Mn= 0.3-0.8%, as nodules and tractors, earth
P=0.08%, S=0.2% 2.Possesses good moving machinery,
machinability valves & fittings,
Steel mill rolls,
pipes, pumps&
compressors.
• MALLEABLE CAST IRONS
COMPOSITION CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS
C=2-3%, Si= 0.6- 1.It is hammered and Rail road car wheels,
1.3%, Mn= 0.2-0.6%, rolled to obtain different Agricultural
P=0.15%, S=0.1% shapes. implements,
2.has high young’s conveyor chain
modulus, low coefficient links, Gear
of thermal expansion, housings,
good strength & Automotive
corrosion resistance due crankshafts etc.,
to Cr & Ni added.
EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN CAST IRON
ELEMENT AMOUNT EFFECTS
%
Si 0.5-3 Controls the form of carbon in Cast iron
S 0.06-0.12 Forms Iron sulphide( low melting point compound), promotes hot shortness.
(Formation of FeS can be avoided by addition of Mn, because of its greater affinity
for sulphur)
P 0.1-0.3 *Forms iron phosphide, which inturn results in a ternary eutectic with cementite
and austenite( known as steadite). This decreases toughness and makes cast iron
brittle.
* Increases fluidity of Cast Iron

Mn 0.1-1 Takes care of Sulphur by forming Manganese sulphide.

Ni, Cr, Mo, --- To get desired structure and properties
Mg, Cu, V
NOTE: RELATIVE AMOUNTS OF Si AND C WILL DECIDE WHETHER CAST IRON WILL CONTAIN CEMENTITE,
GRAPHITE OR BOTH. In addition, structure of CI may consist of ferrite, pearlite, flake and spheroidal graphite,
temper Carbon etc.,