AE31007: Basics of Aerodynamics

Presented by
Dr. Susmita Bhattacharyya
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Contents

• Basic Terminologies

• Lift and Drag

• Variations of Lift and Drag Coefficients

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Basic Terminologies (1/2)
• Streamlines: Lines drawn in a flowfield at a given time

such that velocity vectors are tangents to the lines

• Stream tubes: A bunch of streamlines form a stream tube

Figure 4.2 from Anderson’s
• Continuity equation: Mass can be neither created nor book

destroyed (𝜌𝐴𝑉 = constant)

𝑑𝑝
• Momentum equation: 𝐹 = 𝑝 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − 𝑝 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑉
𝐹=− 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑉
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 222232
Basic Terminologies (2/2)
𝑑𝜌
• Compressibility: 𝜏𝑤 =
𝜌𝑑𝑝

• Below M 0.3, change in density due to change in pressure is

negligible

• Hence, air is assumed to be incompressible below M 0.3

• Above that compressibility effects caused by change in

density have to be taken into account

Figure 4.29 from Anderson’s book

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Fundamental Theory of Lift
• Upper stream tube A sees the airfoil as an obstruction

• Its cross section is reduced as it tries to adjust itself

around the airfoil

• 𝜌𝐴𝑉 = constant, 𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉

Figures 5.17, 5.18 and 5.77

from Anderson’s book

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Drag
• Another aerodynamic force called drag is also generated

• We will consider four types of drag: skin friction, pressure, induced

and wave drag

• Skin friction drag arises due to shear stress between adjacent layers

𝑑𝑉
• Shear stress 𝜏𝑠 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 , 𝜇= viscosity coefficient

• Viscosity is a property that resists relative motion between adjacent

layers

Figures 4.39, 4.40 and 5.4 from

Anderson’s book 222262
Dimensional Analysis – Lift and Drag Coefficients
• Net aerodynamic force and moment are functions of
▫ Freestream velocity 𝑉∞
▫ Freestream density 𝜌∞ (altitude)
▫ Planform area of wings S
▫ Angle of attack 𝛼
▫ Shape of airfoil
▫ Viscosity coefficient 𝜇∞ (skin friction contributes to aerodynamic force)
▫ Freestream Mach number 𝑀∞ (speed of sound)

• With dimensional analysis

1 1 1
▫ 𝐿= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝑙 , 𝐷= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝐶𝑑 , 𝑀= 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 𝑆𝑐𝐶𝑚
2 2 2

▫ Compact representation
▫ 𝐶𝑙 , 𝐶𝑑 and 𝐶𝑚 depend on less number of parameters (𝛼, Reynolds number RE , 𝑀∞ ) RE = Inertia forces/viscous forces
▫ Dynamic similarity 222272
Variations of Lift Coefficients with 𝛼
• Cl vs. 𝛼 curves are shown for symmetric and positively

cambered airfoil for a given 𝑀∞ and RE

𝐶𝑙

Camber
increases

Figures 4.56, 5.7 and 5.8 from Anderson 222282

𝛼
Variations of Lift Coefficients with 𝛼 with Flaps

Fowler
Incoming airflow
Slat
𝐶𝑙
Slotted 𝐶𝑙 Slot

Plain
Plain leading edge flap
Clean plain (effective α
decreases and
camber increases)

Clean

𝛼 𝛼

Leading Edge Flaps

Trailing Edge Flaps

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Variations of Lift Coefficients with 𝑅E
• Reynolds number divides the flow into two regimes:
Laminar and Turbulent
• It affects Cl vs. 𝛼 curves near or after flow separation

𝐶𝑙 Reynolds
number
increases

Figure 4.43 from Anderson

𝛼 2222102
Pressure Drag
• Pressure drag is significant near or after flow separation

Figure 4.50 from Anderson 2222112

 Induced Drag – Finite Wings (1/3)
• Bound vortices introduce an upwash in front and downwash behind

Induced flowfield
due to vortices
Closed vortex
system
Local lift vector is
Downwash tilted behind
TOP SURFACE
(relative low pressure)
Figures 1.28 and 1.29 from Pamadi’s book, Figure 5.47 from
(relative high pressure) Anderson’s book and Figure 4.3 from Brandt’s book 2222122
BOTTOM SURFACE
Induced Drag – Finite Wings (2/3)
𝐶𝑙
• As per incompressible flow theory, induced angle of attack 𝛼𝑖 = , 𝑒 = span
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅
efficiency factor ≤ 1, 𝑒 = 1 for elliptical planform

𝐶𝑙2
• Induced drag coefficient 𝐶𝑑𝑖 = 𝐶𝑙 𝛼𝑖 =
𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

Lift distribution for elliptical planform

Figures 5.47 and 5.48 from Anderson’s book

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Induced Drag – Finite Wings (3/3)

• 𝐶𝑙 = 𝑎0 𝛼0 = 𝑎(𝛼0 + 𝛼𝑖 )

𝛼𝑖
• 𝑎0 𝛼0 = 𝑎𝛼0 1 +
𝛼0

𝑎0 𝑎0 𝑎0
•𝑎= 𝛼𝑖 = 𝐶𝑙 = 𝑎0
1 + 𝛼0 1 + 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅𝛼0
1 + 𝜋𝑒𝐴𝑅

• Slope of 𝐶𝑙 vs. 𝛼 curve reduces as aspect

ratio decreases
Figure 1.31 from Pamadi’s book
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How to Reduce Induced Drag?

• Increase aspect ratio

• Use winglets

• Winglets produce a side force that

acts against drag

Figure 1.32 from Pamadi’s book

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Drag Polar
• Plot of 𝐶𝑙 vs. 𝐶𝑑 is called drag polar

C
D
Total Drag

Induced Drag

Pressure Drag

Skin Friction Drag

C
L
Figure 4.10 from Introduction to Aeronautics: A Design Perspective by
Steven A. Brandt, Randall J. Stiles, John J. Bertin, and Ray Whitford
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Wave Drag (1/3)
• Pressure waves formed as a slender body or point
mass moves through a fluid at different speeds are
shown
• At sonic speed a Mach wave is formed
• At a supersonic speed, a Mach cone is formed
• All points within the cone are aware of the body and
outside the cone are not
𝑎𝑡 1
• Mach angle μ: sin 𝜇 = =
𝑉𝑡 𝑀

Figure 1.36 from Pamadi’s book 2222172

Wave Drag (2/3)
• For a body of finite thickness, two types of waves are formed
 For a convex corner, an infinite number of pressure waves combine together to form a shock
wave
 For a concave corner, an expansion fan is created

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Wave Drag (3/3)
• A sharp edge airfoil can be approximated to
have double wedge shape
• A component of drag force arises due to
shock waves and expansion fans
• It is called wave drag DW B
𝜃 − 𝛼A C
• At supersonic speed, lift and wave drag
𝑉∞ 𝛼+𝜃
coefficients are given by D
4𝛼
• 𝐶𝑙 = 2
(𝑀∞ −1)1/2

4 2 𝑡 2 𝑡
• 𝐶𝑑𝑤 = 1 𝛼 + 𝑐
, 𝑐
= thickness to
2 −1
𝑀∞ 2

chord ratio Taken from Pamadi

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Drag Polar with Wave Drag

Wave Drag

Partly from Figure 4.10 from Introduction to Aeronautics: A Design

Perspective by Steven A. Brandt, Randall J. Stiles, John J. Bertin, and Ray
Whitford
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 Variations of Lift and Drag Coefficients with Mach Number

Figure 4.29 from

Brandt’s book

4𝛼
𝐶𝑙 = 2 , M > 1.2
(𝑀∞ −1)1/2

Drag Coefficient
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Reasons for Variations of Lift and Drag Coefficients with Mach No

Figure 1.42 from Pamadi’s book

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How to Reduce Wave Drag?

• Thin airfoils

• Low aspect ratio wings

• Supercritical airfoils

• Wing sweep
Figures 1.46 to 1.48 (with some corrections as per
Anderson’s Fundamentals of Aerodynamics) from
Pamadi’s book 2222232
Wing Sweep

Figures 5.54 to 5.55 from Anderson’s book

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