KEYNOTE

Ethics and Altruism:

What Constitutes
Socially Responsible
Design?
by Rachel Cooper

usinesses are making responsible design

B an explicit feature of their development
processes and long-term competitive strate-
gies. Initiatives range from responding to
the needs of less privileged and underserved
constituencies to design for safety and design against crime. Rachel Cooper surveys
these perspectives, their sources, and the effects they are having on the design profes-
sion, the corporate community, and society in general.

Responsible design…. Is there any other
kind? Well yes, possibly, but that is not
the way forward. Designers do usually
believe they are contributing value to
the world; it is an underlying assump-
tion that most design graduates hold as
they pass through the portals of educa-
Rachel Cooper, tion into the profession. However, these
Professor,
days there does seem to be a stronger
focus on the designer’s responsibility
University of Salford
and the contributions he or she can
make to society, our lifestyles, and the
environment in general—socially
responsible design. This has developed
side by side with the corporate social
responsibility (CSR) movement and the
widening of the definition of sustain-
ability to encompass social, economic,
and environmental issues, where previ-
ously sustainability had been predomi-
nately associated with environmental
matters.
Some cynics suggest that companies
have adopted CSR only because it is an
easy way to respond to recent anti-cap-
italist protests.1 However, the evidence
suggests that this movement is more
directly a response to political, social,
ethical, and environmental change. The
proposition is that we should judge
organizations on noneconomic, as well
as economic, criteria. Of course, there
have always been legal responsibilities
for companies, but as G.P. Lantos sug-
gests, they are “of limited scope… they
1. S. Stern, “The Perils of CSR,” RSA Journal,
January 2004, p. 32.

10 Design Management Review Summer 2005


merely provide a floor or moral minimum for
business conduct, and are reactive, telling us
what ought not to be done, rather than proac-
tive, telling us what ought to be done.”2 Ethical
responsibilities bring us into a much broader
domain. They involve “doing the right thing”
and avoiding harm or social injury. They are
derived from religious convictions, moral tradi-
tions, humane principles, and human-rights
commitments.
And this is hardly a new idea. Business ethics
began to be an issue as far back as the 1960s,
fueled by the rise of environmentalism, femi-
nism, and the struggle against racism and other
types of discrimination. As Henry Ford said in a
speech at the Harvard Business School in 1969,
“The terms of the contract between industry
and society are changing…. Now we are being
asked to serve a wider range of human values
and to accept an obligation to members of the
public with whom we have no commercial
transactions.”3 By 1979, A.B. Carroll was
proposing four responsibilities for good corpo-
rate citizenship: economic, legal, ethical, and
philanthropic.4
Governments, too, recognize and promote
CSR. In March 2005, as part of their ongoing
program of trilateral cooperation under the
North American Agreement on Labor
Cooperation (NAALC), the governments of the
United States, Canada, and Mexico held a con-
ference on the labor dimensions of corporate
social responsibility in North America. CSR
Europe was founded in 1996 as a result of the
European declaration of businesses against social
exclusion and approved by a group of European
business managers in the presence of President
Jacques Delors. The UK government promotes
CSR as essentially about companies moving
beyond a base of legal compliance to integrating
socially responsible behavior into their core val-
ues, with recognition of the sound business ben-
efits in doing so,5 and the World Business
Council for Sustainable Development defines
CSR as business’s continuing commitment to
behaving ethically and contributing to economic
development while improving quality of life for
its workforce, as well as for the local community
and the society at large.
Individual businesses define CSR in their
own terms, and there are many definitions to be
seen on corporate websites.
• We are responsible to the communities in which
we live and work and to the world community, as
Ethics and Altruism: What Constitutes Socially Responsible Design?
well. We must be good citizens—support good
works and charities and bear our fair share of
taxes. We must encourage civic improvements
and better health and education. We must main-
tain in good order the property we are privileged
to use, protecting the environment and natural
resources. —Johnson & Johnson
• Our corporate social responsibility policy objec-
tive is to earn the trust of our customers by acting
responsibly in the communities we serve. This
means recognizing our impact on society at all
levels and working to maximize the benefits we
bring, while minimizing the impacts—Tesco
• We must help the company achieve profitable
and sustainable growth. We must protect and
enhance the brand and company. Sustainable
can have many meanings, all of which apply
here. Sustainable growth suggests that Nike will
be around for generations—that Nike is planning
for the long haul. Sustainable growth also
requires us to find ways of generating profit while
minimizing our potentially negative impact on
communities or nature.—Nike
CSR has therefore developed as a company’s
obligation to consider its entire role within soci-
ety, as well as its long-term future—to ensure
that not only does it do no harm but that it will
also contribute to the creation of a better world
and the greater good of mankind. This rather
daunting task is the responsibility of all organi-
zations—public, private, large, or small.
CSR and Design
Design’s response to social responsibility, like
business’s response, has mirrored the great
activist movements. Indeed, it has been a recur-
ring theme, with designers addressing a range of
quality-of-life issues. In the 1960s, designers
began actively to consider design’s wider impli-
cations for society. Several approaches emerged,
2. G.P. Lantos, quoted in T.S. Johnson’s “How the Notion
of a Calling Manifests Itself in the World of Business:
One Viewpoint,” in America, vol. 162, no. 5 (February 10,
2001), p. 117.
3. R.C. Chewning, J.W. Eby, and S.J. Roels, Business
Through the Eyes of Faith (San Francisco: Harper and
Row, 1990), p. 207.
4. A.B. Carroll, “A Three-Dimensional Model of
Corporate Performance,” Academy of Management
Review, vol. 4 (1979), p. 497.
5. See www.csr.gov.uk.
Design Management Review Summer 2005 11
Responsible Design

including green design, consumerism, responsi-

ble design, ethical consuming, ecodesign, sus-
tainability, and feminist design. Accessibility and
inclusivity have also received a great deal of
design interest and activity.
Social responsibility is in part derived from
the individual ethical values of designers, but it
is also a response to the needs of their clients. As
we have seen, many businesses are setting their
own agendas for corporate social responsibility.
However, if they are to turn these ideas into real-
ity, design must be an essential ingredient.
Designers make decisions daily with regard to
the use of resources and the lifecycles of prod-
ucts and services, as well as the way in which a
company or a brand is perceived. In essence,
designers are essential to bringing social respon-
sibility to life.
In the UK, one of the enabling forces behind
understanding design’s contribution to such
issues has been the Design Council, which has
commissioned research into ways in which
designers and clients incorporate social respon-
sibility into their actions. The vignettes below
offer some examples.
Design for Patient Safety
Supported by the UK National Health Service
(NHS), as well as by the Design Council, design
researchers and colleagues at the Helen Hamlyn
Research Center of the Royal College of Art
applied effective design thinking to the products,
services, processes, and environments of the
health service with an eye to reducing errors and
accidents. The resulting report suggested that the
cause was not simply the design of medical
devices, products, packaging, or information,
but the way the NHS as a whole understands
and uses design. Indeed, it goes on to say that “in
the past, the NHS has not used design in an
effective way, nor has it grasped the value and
significance of design to patient safety. Too
many healthcare products have been designed
based on a paucity of knowledge of the system
into which they will be placed or the needs of
the people who will use them. When this hap-
pens, errors in the system can be overlooked or,
worse still, are inadvertently designed into the
organization.” The report cites examples: an eld-
erly woman failing to take the prescribed medi-
cine due to poor communication in the pharma-
cy; poorly designed and unreadable labels; and
poorly designed medical devices that lead to fail-
ure in medical delivery and care. It also suggest-
ed that there are no quick fixes: “On the con-
Figure 1. To emphasize the relationship between design and health,
the Helen Hamlyn Research Center at the Royal College of Art
designed its report to arrive in an IV drip bag, with the label as the
title of the report.
trary, it is of the utmost importance that single
design initiatives are seen in the context of the…
healthcare system as a whole and the way it
impacts on safety and risk management.” The
report went on to outline a new design-led
approach and a series of research-based recom-
mendations and actions toward the develop-
ment of knowledge, systems, and processes that
would provide the foundation for effective
design decision making across the health service
and industry (figure 1). The report concluded
that these findings required further research;
however, they did provide the foundations of a
much safer NHS, “in which the opportunity for
errors in the healthcare system is ‘designed out’
before accidents occur rather than afterwards.”6
The Learning Environments Campaign
The Learning Environments Campaign is a
Design Council initiative begun in 2003 that
tackles the critical challenge for school design
and construction: How can we create schools
that are truly fit for learning in the twenty-
first century? The Learning Environments
team is composed of designers, educators, and
procurement experts, and since 2003 they
have been working with a group of schools to
develop and test the impact of improved learn-
ing environments.
6. Patient Safety Team, Department of Health and the
Design Council, Design for Patient Safety, October 2003.

12 Design Management Review Summer 2005


One case example is that of St Margaret’s, a
boys’ school in Liverpool. This school was inter-
ested in assessing how improvements to the
learning environment might raise boys’ achieve-
ments, given that boys tend to underperform
against girls throughout the education system.
The school’s head teacher and the whole staff
were involved in the design process. They identi-
fied that boys have shorter attention spans, are
less motivated by traditional learning, and are
more kinesthetic, hands-on learners. They found
ways of addressing these issues by varying the
boys’ activities more often, by giving them more
active tasks, and by offering more opportunities
for them to demonstrate their work. The next
breakthrough idea involved the classroom itself:
a 360-degree “flexible” classroom, to be exact. As
described by the Design Council, the room’s
concept centers on the “heart”, a secure and
mobile multimedia projection module in the
middle of the room. A combined table/chair
device reduces the footprint of a traditional desk
and chair, leaving space for the teacher to circu-
late around the “racetrack” and so access each
student individually. The flexibility of the desk
and chair means it can be moved by students to
support individual, paired, and group work,
while the whiteboards around the walls can be
removed (to reveal additional display space) and
placed on tables to facilitate group work. The
aluminum window blinds can move individually
to control light and air flow and can also be used
as whiteboards to provide additional display and
projection space, meaning that at the end of the
lesson, the teacher can refer to a vivid learning
trail that has built up around the walls. Finally,
the “utility belt around the walls allows vital
shared storage space.” A prototype of the class-
room has been developed for the school and is
under evaluation (figure 2).
Figure 2. The 360-degree “flexible classroom” was designed to increase the flexibility
of classroom space so that boys, in particular, could learn in a variety of ways with
multiple interactions with each other and their teacher. All this was based on the need
to aid boys’ concentration and motivation.
Ethics and Altruism: What Constitutes Socially Responsible Design?
Design in Government
The Design in Government Departments initia-
tive was another Design Council program meant
to illustrate how good design thinking might
help government be more responsive to society.
Indeed, the program won the endorsement of
Prime Minister Tony Blair, who noted that “used
strategically to help in the development, delivery,
and communication of policies and services,
design can help to deliver important benefits
across government.”
The Department for Education is an exemplar
for this initiative, and the outcome was a program
called the Learning Journey. A MORI (Market
and Opinion Research International) poll had
told educators that although most parents agreed
that they shared with schools the responsibility to
educate their children, they would appreciate
clearer information and guidance in doing so.
The Education department worked with the
Design Council, the Atelier Works design consul-
tancy, and children’s illustrator Quentin Blake to
design a set of helpful guides for teachers, parents,
and children (figure 3).
Design Against Crime
Design Against Crime (DAC) is a British govern-
ment initiative and the most far-reaching
attempt by a national government to connect
design with this critical area of social policy.
Underpinned by evidence-based research that
seeks to identify the nature and benefits of best
practice in this field, DAC is developing knowl-
edge resources to inform professional design
practice, as well as resources and incentives to
embed its findings within design education at
both secondary school and university levels.
The initiative arises from considerable and
continuing research by the British Home Office
and others into the effectiveness of crime pre-
Figure 3. Learning Journey guides are designed to encourage parents and children to
engage in and better understand the path to education.
Design Management Review Summer 2005 13
Responsible Design
Figure 4. This IDEO shopping cart features removable baskets, which makes it less attrac-
tive to thieves as a barbecue grill.
vention strategies. In 1999, the Home Office, in
collaboration with the Department of Trade and
Industry and the Design Council, commissioned
research teams at the University of Salford,
University of Cambridge, and Sheffield Hallam
University to investigate the current state of
design against crime in new product develop-
ment, professional design practice, and design
education7 This first phase of research identified
some positive examples in which the design of
products and environments had contributed to
crime prevention, but it also highlighted prob-
lems with design’s knowledge system—that is,
while there was considerable research that could
inform the design process, it was rarely commu-
nicated to designers or those who briefed them,
and only seldom did it enter the design class-
room.
In January 2001, a second phase of the proj-
ect commenced with the aim of addressing these
problems and piloting a number of related ini-
tiatives targeted at professional designers and
design students. The program developed teach-
ing materials for 14 to 16-year-old schoolchild-
ren, the aim of which was to build awareness of
crime, as well as of crime prevention. However,
the program also introduces the children to the
7. The Home Office is the British government ministry
primarily responsible for the UK’s criminal justice sys-
tem. The Department of Trade and Industry is the
British government ministry responsible for industrial
competitiveness, consumer protection, the international
promotion of UK industrial interests and, through its
funding of the Design Council, design policy. Full
research reports from this project can be downloaded
from www.designagainstcrime.org.
14 Design Management Review Summer 2005
Figure 5. Tamper-proof cans of Dulux paint feature a seal which, once broken, cannot be
replaced, foiling unscrupulous dealers who were diluting the contents.
value and use of design. In addition, the project
mounted a competition called the Design
Against Crime Challenge, which was offered to
all UK design students and resulted in 110
entries, five final prizes, and an exhibition at the
UK Design Council. The aim of this was to
encourage Design Against Crime to be included
in the design curriculum at the university level
and to encourage design students to include
anti-crime thinking in the portfolio of issues
they took into account when answering design
briefs. An effort called the Professional
Development Initiative resulted in Think Thief
guidelines for professional designers. In addi-
tion, 30 Design Against Crime case studies were
documented to be used directly with industry
audiences to promote DAC in the corporate sec-
tor.
Although the program was, of course, UK-
based, the United States, South Korea, and
Sweden also contributed some case studies. The
IDEO consultancy, for example, took on the
challenge of designing a shopping cart that was
attractive to shoppers but not to thieves.
(Shopping carts are often removed from stores
and later abandoned on waste ground or side-
walks. In fact, in the US, nearly two million of
them are stolen every year, costing consumers
$175 million yearly). The design solution IDEO
came up with was to remove the main basket so
that the trolley is of no use to thieves, and
replace it with several small baskets that make
shopping easier, as well as keeping groceries
from getting squashed (figure 4).
Another design brief was contributed by the
RPC Containers Co., which was looking for a
tamper-proof paint can. Apparently, one of
RPC’s retail clients was having trouble with cus-
tomers who diluted their paint or replaced it
with water before returning it for a refund. The
solution was an innovative type of tamper-evi-
dent packaging (figure 5).

Figure 6. Coopamare, in Sao Paolo, Brazil, is a cooperative business built on collecting and recycling city waste.
Designers Changing the World
These examples show designers working with
both public and private sector clients. But
designers are also developing ways of under-
standing their own role in social responsibility,
and this is happening all over the world. Take,
for instance, Maria Loschiavo dos Santos’s
Design of Urban Artifacts project, which
addressed Brazil’s increasing joblessness and
homelessness and led to the development of a
new strategy of income generation.8 Dos Santos,
a member of the faculty of the School of
Architecture and Urban Planning at the
University of Sao Paolo, Brazil, had noticed that
some Sao Paolo residents had started up what
could only be called recycling activities, and were
collecting these materials as their major means
of subsistence. Coopamare is one such recycling
co-operative. Started up by residents as a means
of generating income, it is located on city-owned
waste land. With the help of dos Santos and her
design students, the Coopamare collectors have
improved the site, and they now have electricity,
running water, and restrooms.
8. Maria Cecilia Loschiavo dos Santos, “Design for Social
Responsibility: Perspectives on Students’ Work,” from the
European Academy of Design Conference Proceedings,
EAD06, Bremen, Germany, April 2005.
Ethics and Altruism: What Constitutes Socially Responsible Design?
Clearly, these collectors are promoting an
environment-friendly economy as they clean the
city of Sao Paulo. The materials they find are
sorted and reintegrated into the productive
cycle. Although they play an important role in
urban waste management, they receive no
health, housing, or education benefits. However,
this project enabled dos Santos and her design
students to work with the collectors to design
better systems for the reuse of waste, such as a
domestic waste container that recycled a particu-
lar brand of milk packaging, as well as a card-
board modular structure that would be reused
in multiple ways. This allows the Coopamare
collective to add value to the materials they col-
lect (figure 6).
Stuart Walker is a British designer based in
Canada, whose work takes us beyond environ-
mentally friendly products by challenging our
notions of the object and by reframing what the
product is, while critiquing notions of aesthetics
and how they are related to unsustainable prac-
tices (see table 1). He believes that today’s world
of product design is akin to the advertising
industry, where outer appearance often gives the
impression of innovation and sophistication but
the inner product is rather conventional and
unchanged. He then goes on to illustrate what
he calls “divested design,” or design that is
Design Management Review Summer 2005 15
Responsible Design

Table 1: An Aesthetic Typology for Contemporary, Unsustainable Products

Aesthetic Identifier Description Relationship to Unsustainable Practices

Culturally This is a function of mass production for global
neutral distribution. Cultural or regional preferences and
or distinctions are generally omitted from the
bland design because the same product has to be
acceptable to different users all over the world.
In their design and production, products that exhibit such aesthetic
neutrality often fail to respond to the particularities of place that are
so important to the notion of sustainable development.

Pristine, This depends on capital- and energy-intensive With everyday use, the perfect appearance quickly becomes
polished, production processes, as well as a “one-time scratched and damaged—which can engender user dissatisfaction
and use” of finite resources, to achieve faultless and premature product disposal and replacement. In addition, deliv-
fragile forms and surfaces. ery to the market of such products requires a heavy reliance on
packaging. Thus, the flawless but delicate surface design of many
contemporary products helps stimulate unnecessary consumerism
and contributes to waste production.

Concealing The exterior of the object is perceived as an
and envelope or casing. It is usually a molded or
disguising press-formed shell that has little bearing on the
function or form of the inner workings of the
product.
This is a barrier to product comprehension. It not only hampers prod-
uct repair, but can also contribute to a lack of resonance with, and
attachment to, our material possessions, because we do not under-
stand them and we cannot engage with them, except in a very
superficial way.

Curved, The exterior forms of many contemporary prod-
rounded, ucts, often made of plastics, are distinguished by
and forms that can be readily injection-molded.
smooth Consequently, hard edges are eliminated, corners
are rounded, and forms become smoothed and
easy to mould.
This molded aesthetic is indicative of energy- and resource-intensive
mass-production processes that are environmentally damaging and
frequently socially problematic. Production is often done in low-wage
economies with poor worker conditions and lax environmental poli-
cies. Hence, this aesthetic characteristic can be indicative of environ-
mentally and socially unsustainable practices.

Fashionable Many so-called consumer durables are designed When such “permanent” products— which are problematic in
or in ways that both pander to and spur on short- terms of their disposal—are designed in ways that quickly become
showy lived trends through unnecessary updates and outdated, it is indicative of irresponsible practices and lack of respect
changes in form and color. for the environment and the use of finite resources. Such designs
foster premature aesthetic obsolescence, waste, and consumption.

Complete This aesthetic quality is a function of the overall Most products demand passive acceptance by the user; there is little
and presentation of the object in terms of its sophisti- or nothing to be added or contributed by the user. Even the repair of
inviolable cated forms, finishes, and materials. a simple scratch or break is not invited, and it would be difficult to
achieve a satisfactory result. Thus, the user cannot truly “own” the
object if he or she cannot engage with it, understand it (except on
a very superficial level), or maintain or care for it. Again, this can
foster a lack of valuing of the object and lead to its premature dis-
posal. This feature is related to the “professionalization” of design
and the fact that the physical descriptions of our material goods
have effectively been taken out of the hands of ordinary people and
local or regional communities.

16 Design Management Review Summer 2005


stripped of conventional notions of product
styling (figure 7).
Down the Road
We see in these examples the ways in which
some designers focus on specific domains within
socially responsible design. Unfortunately,
design problems do not tend to fall into such
defined boundaries. If, for instance, we solve
some design against crime issues by preventing
access or putting barriers around designs, we
inhibit accessibility; if we strip the essential con-
sumer aesthetic from a product, we may destroy
brand value and the potential profit accruing to
it. There is now a need to shift from the focus on
single issues toward taking a more holistic
approach. Designers often have to take into
account a complex range of issues and develop
methods of considering tradeoffs between, for
example, crime and inclusiveness, or the econo-
my and social inclusiveness (as an example, con-
sider neighborhood gentrification).
Vivacity 2020 Sustainable Urban Design for
the 24-Hour City, a major project funded by the
UK’s Engineering and Physical Science Research
Council, attempts to develop socially responsible
tools and techniques for design decision making
in the urban environment. The project includes
researchers in design, social sciences, and the life
sciences. It identifies sites as case studies and col-
lects data on environmental issues, such as pol-
lution, acoustics, and thermal quality, as well as
on social issues such as residents’ perception of
quality of life, housing quality and design, and
crime and economic data. It is also mapping the
stakeholders in the urban design decision mak-
ing process, identifying who makes decisions,
and where and when, as well as whether those
decision makers are professional designers or
nondesigners. It goes on to analyze best prac-
tices, tradeoffs, and relationships between these
sustainability dimensions as a basis for provid-
ing guidance to the design decision makers.
Purists like to differentiate between “socially
responsible design” and “design for social
responsibility.” It is clear that design has a role in
delivering the corporate social responsibility
agenda (design for social responsibility), and
there are many examples of how this takes place
both in the public and the private sector. When a
designer is hired by a client to use design to
deliver social responsibility, cynics might suggest
it is just another contribution to the public rela-
tions strategy. However, the enlightened will
know that “CSR is bound to fail in companies
Ethics and Altruism: What Constitutes Socially Responsible Design?
Figure 7. The outer façade of Stuart Walker’s “tomato
clock” features has been replaced by a plain white chassis or
armature. Thus its functional components have been brought
to the fore rather than being encased, and a short-lived, dis-
posable, and environmentally harmful battery has been
replaced by a simple, natural battery—in this case, the
tomato. Although this too is short-lived (even more so
than the battery), its disposal is not harmful. In this
way, an attempt has been made to reverse the
hierarchy in product design from internal compo-
nents encased in a fashionable (often rather
subjectively or arbitrarily defined) casing, to
a chassis that supports and presents the
functional parts. Through this experi-
mental or propositional approach,
the intention is to stabilize form
and develop an approach
that is more enduring.
where it is adopted for reasons of public rela-
tions.”9 However, to be effective, the dimensions
of social responsibility have to be understood
and delivered through the ethos of socially
responsible design.
There is a need for further work to take place
before we can deliver an effective design
response to social responsibility, for organiza-
tions as well as the design profession. First,
clients and designers need to further define the
dimensions of social responsibility and identify
places where design can contribute to the overall
goal of corporate social responsibility. Second,
the delivery of design solutions must be sup-
ported by evidence. There is therefore a need to
understand the impact of design interventions.
The vignettes cited here illustrate that in order
to address, for instance, crime or patient safety,
we need accurate data on the results of design
interventions. This trend toward evidence-based
design must continue. And third, we must
understand the design decision-making process,
the tradeoffs to be made, and of course how this
contributes not only to corporate social respon-
sibility but also to the overall objectives of socie-
ty, as well as of business.
9. S. Stern, ibid.
Design Management Review Summer 2005 17
Responsible Design

Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the great
contribution made to the development of the
theory of Socially Responsible Design by her col-
leagues in the Design Policy Partnership, Mike
Press, Caroline Davey, and Andrew Wootton. She
would also like to acknowledge the work under-
taken in the various domains by design academ-
ics and design professionals, which provide
examples of socially responsible design, and to
thank Sue Bencuya of the Design Management
Institute for her kind guidance. Finally, without
the support and contribution of Ginny Spencer
project administrator at Salford University, this
paper would not have been written.

Suggested Readings
Buckle, P., Clarkson, P.J., Coleman, R., Lane, R.,
Stubs, D., Ward, J., Jarrett, J., and Bound, J.
Design For Patient Safety (London: Patient Safety
Team, National Department of Health, and the
Design Council, October 2003).

Lantos, G.P., “The Boundaries of Strategic

Corporate Social Responsibility,” Journal of
Consumer Marketing, vol. 18, no. 7, 2001, and
“The Ethicality of Altruistic Corporate Social
Responsibility,” Journal of Consumer Marketing,
vol. 19, no. 3, 2002.

S. Learmount, M. Press, and R. Cooper, Design

Against Crime, Report for the Design Council,
Home Office and Department of Trade and
Industry, Chapter 9, 127-146.

Whitely, N. Design for Society (London: Reaktion

Books, 1993).

Papanek, V. Design for the Real World (Chicago:

Academy Chicago Publishers, 2nd rev. ed.,
1985).

Design Council. Design Helps (report for gov-

ernment departments illustrating case study
research undertaken by R. Cooper and J. Heeley,
University of Salford, 2003).

Reprint #05163COO10

18 Design Management Review Summer 2005