Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle

Related terms:

Energy Engineering, Hydrogen, Battery Electric Vehicle, Greenhouse Gas, Hybrid

Electric Vehicle, Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle, Fuel Cell Vehicle, Internal Combus-
tion Engine

View all Topics

Lifetime Cost of Battery, Fuel-Cell, and

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Mark A. Delucchi, Timothy E. Lipman, in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, 2010

3.4.3 Other nonenergy operating costs

Compared with ICEVs, PHEVs will have different insurance costs, because these
are partly a function of vehicle value (which is different for PHEVs); different tire
costs, because these are partly a function of vehicle weight; different registration
costs, because these are a function of vehicle value or vehicle weight; and different
emission-inspection fees, because these are related to the characteristics of the
engine and emission control system, which will be different for PHEVs. However, as
indicated above, we have not found an analysis that quantifies these differences for
PHEVs specifically. Lipman and Delucchi [34, 35] evaluate these other nonenergy
operating costs for a range of non-plug-in HEVs, and estimate that an “advanced”
mid-sized HEV with a relatively large electric power train (providing 40% of the
total required power) has a 15% higher insurance cost per kilometer than does the
comparable ICEV, due to the higher initial cost of the HEV, but lower lubricating oil,
tire, and registration costs, the latter two on account of the lower estimated vehicle
weight of the HEV. We expect that results would be qualitatively similar for PHEVs.

> Read full chapter

Power Electronic Systems and Control
in Automobiles
Ruoyu Hou, ... Ali Emadi, in Control of Power Electronic Converters and Systems,
2018

23.1.4 Requirements of LV Battery Charger APM

In conventional ICE vehicles, a belt-driven alternator is utilized to provide power to
the vehicle electrical loads. In electrified vehicles, in order to replace the alternator,
a LV battery charger APM is needed to create an electrical conversion between the
HV system and the LV system and also provide galvanic isolation between HV and
LV. This ensures that a failure within the HV system won’t affect the LV system and
shut down the vehicle. The opposite is also true, galvanic isolation would protect the
HV system from a failure happening on the LV system, which is directly accessible
to the driver and passengers within the vehicle [12].

The LV system in a vehicle constitutes of many different nonpropulsion loads. These

can be categorized as lighting, wiper and window systems, air conditioning and
heater, electronic, battery and power electronics cooling system, and other loads.
A power distribution in a 2.4 kW LV system is shown in Fig. 23.3.

Fig. 23.3. Power distribution in a 2.4 kW LV system of vehicle application.

Table 23.3 shows several APM ratings from several original equipment manufactur-
ers (OEMs) or in the electrified vehicles on the market [13–15]. It is clear that a typical
power rating of the APM is around 2.4 kW. There is also a chance that the load power
of the LV system might be rated higher in vehicles where additional luxury loads
are requested, such as sunroof, active suspension system, or other entertainment
systems.

Table 23.3. LV Battery Charger APM Specifications

Models Toyota Prius Chevrolet Tesla Road- Delphi Continental BRUSA-

II and III Volt ster BSC624
(TDK-Lamb-
da)
Power (kW) 1.4 2.0 2.4 2.2 3.0 2.8
Input volt- 165–270- 260–420- 297–411- 216–422 170–460 220–450
age (V) (202 nom.) (360 nom.) (366 nom.)
Output volt- 12 nom. 11–15.5(14 12 nom. 7–15.5(12 6–16(14 8–16(14
age (V) nom.) nom.) nom.) nom.)
Maximum 100 135 200 175 200 200
output
current (A)

> Read full chapter

Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen

Fuel Cell and Gasoline Vehicles
Mohammed M. Hussain, Ibrahim Dincer, in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, 2010

6 Concluding Remarks
An LCA of HFCV and ICEV has been presented in this chapter. An LCA is a technique
to assess the energy and associated environmental impact of a system or product.
The assessment presented in this chapter is based on various sources available in the
published literature. The characteristics of the vehicles (HFCV and ICEV) assessed
are energy consumption and GHG emissions during their entire life cycles.

It is found that the energy consumption and GHG emissions during the fuel cycle of
hydrogen are higher than the fuel cycle of gasoline, and fuel production stage of the
hydrogen fuel cycle is the major contributor to the total energy consumption and
GHG emissions. However, during the vehicle cycle, the energy consumption and
GHG emissions of ICEV are higher than that of HFCV, and the greatest contributor
to the energy consumption and GHG emissions is the vehicle use stage of the ICEV.
Moreover, it is found that the overall life cycle energy consumption of HFCV is about
2.3 times less than that of ICEV and overall GHG emissions of HFCV are about 2.6
times lower than that of ICEV.

> Read full chapter

Revolution, Evolution, or Back to the

Future? Lessons from the Electricity
Supply Industry's Formative Days
Robert Smith, Iain MacGill, in Distributed Generation and its Implications for the
Utility Industry, 2014
3.1 Everything Old Is New Again: An EV Road Trip Through
Time
It seems that the smart money is betting on EVs. Major automobile companies
are producing or developing EV models, governments are subsidizing research
and sales, and Warren Buffett has invested in Chinese EV manufacturer BYD. Tesla
Motors' CEO is Fortune's 2013 Businessman of the Year and its “Model S” the car of
the year. EVs, storage batteries, and V2G technologies look set to take off and take
over. Platt et al. discuss the implications in Chapter 17. However, a user-centered
history of electric transport suggests a different story.

The long dominance of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles was not obvious at
the start of the twentieth century. The bicycling craze of the 1870s had lead to better
roads that paved the way for the automobile; firstly only as dangerous rich kid's toys,
until around 1908 when the electric starter and the Model T Ford brought safety,
convenience, and affordability to motoring. In America, around 1908, electric and
steam vehicles were as common as internal combustion and included taxis, motor
bikes, trucks, and buses. Many saw quiet clean EV as ideal “town cars” and noisy,
sooty, smelly ICE better suited for longer country trips and “Edison truly believed
the ICE was nothing more than a bridge technology that would eventually lead to
the electric car.”30 (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Edison and the electric car.

Edison, America's most successful inventor, and Henry Ford, America's most suc-
cessful businessman, worked together to develop an electric car. Eventually the lack
of an effective battery defeated Edison's inspiration and perspiration and his belief
that “I don’t think nature would be so unkind as to withhold the secret of a good
battery if a real earnest hunt for it is made.”31

So, while the Model T Ford went on to sell over 16.5 million, the electric car
disappeared from view for a century.32 But even as electric cars became rarities on
roads, they never completely disappeared holding on in niches like milk floats, golf
carts, wheelchairs, forklifts (with batteries as counterweights), and moon buggies. In
a larger sense, EVs on roads are again an exciting novelty, but electric transport has
been ubiquitous the whole time as trains, trams, elevators, travelators, cable cars,
and lifts continue to move billions daily. And as a final “back to the future” twist,
bicycle sales outstrip car sales worldwide33 and electric bicycle sales are projected
to reach 26 million in 2013, outstripping electric cars in users, kilometer and
kilowatt-hour.

What of new V2G technologies, as discussed by Platt et al.? In fact, the concept
behind V2G, “power takeoff ” (PTO) from cars, is not new. For rural owners a Model
T Ford was as much a portable engine as a means of transport. With a belt drive
attached, it became a water pump, ran farm tools, or acted as an electric generator.
PTO is still a common feature in tractors and trucks, but stand-alone generators are
generally preferred these days, as stand-alone batteries may be in the future.

As Faruqui and Grueneich point out, electrification of transport via EV could let utili-
ties flatten load and grow their way out of current problems—a solution straight out
of Samuel Insull's playbook for trams and trains. Yet, EV's impact is still uncertain and
mass take-up still seems many years away even on optimistic forecasts. Moreover,
when batteries are cheap enough to make EV economic they are cheap enough for
stand-alone use as well—a different challenge and an impetus for capacity tariffs.

The idea of distributed electric energy storage is also not new either. A paper in
the Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians in 1888 proposed
the use of DC power distribution with customer-located accumulators (batteries) to
better manage the peakiness of London electric lighting loads. And again, in faraway
Tamworth in 1907, electric lighting services for households and shops were based on
charging batteries overnight when the town's power station was running for electric
street lighting34 (Figure 4).
Figure 4. An early argument in favor of distributed energy storage to manage the
peakiness of lighting loads in London from the Journal of the Society of Telegraph
Engineers and Electricians in 1888.

Will distributed energy storage, as V2G or household batteries, be a game changer

for the grid? Perhaps, but it will compete and coexist with the myriad old unexciting
energy storage solutions currently in households as:

• rechargeable batteries in laptops, phones, and mobile devices;

• traditional batteries in toys, tools, torches, and minor appliances;

• thermal storage in electric, gas, and solar hot water and in building mass and
in fridges and in some cases geothermal;
• bottled gas where main gas is unavailable but also for most people's BBQs;

• wood, oil, and coal for heating and petrol-powered mowers and tools; and

• even propane, kerosene, and tallow/wax that are still present in candles,
lanterns, and camp stoves.

Most importantly, all these storage solutions will compete with the 100 years invest-
ed in developing and expanding a ubiquitous grid.

> Read full chapter

Smart grids and the role of the electric
vehicle to support the electricity grid
during peak demand
Ahmad Zahedi, in Application of Smart Grid Technologies, 2018

3.4 EVs and the smart grid

EVs are becoming an alternative to the conventional ICE vehicle, and will soon
become an integrated part of the electricity network. Without applying any control
over the charging behavior of EV owners, peak demand could be significantly
increased beyond the delivery capacity of electricity networks. Communication be-
tween the electricity company and EV owners is made possible with an advanced
electricity meter called a smart meter, which can provide the consumer with useful
information.

The smart grid is often thought of as a grid that enables closer integration be-
tween electricity supply and demand as well as two-way communication between
the electricity company and customers via smart meters by using new modern
communication technologies. Smart meters can be used to encourage EV owners to
charge their EVs outside times of peak demand. Furthermore, EVs can be charged
at times when there is excess solar photovoltaic (PV) generated electricity, thus
they can aid in the integration of renewable energies. Also, provided that the EV
supply equipment is capable of both delivering and receiving energy to and from
the EV's battery, consumers can be further encouraged to provide electricity during
times of peak demand through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) or vehicle-to-home (V2H)
support. An in-vehicle device proposed in this paper is to maximize the consumer's
understanding of how they can optimally manage their EV, which would result
in a smoother rollout of EVs on a large scale. Providing an in-vehicle display will
encourage the EV owners to adopt smart charging strategies by informing them of
the benefits that may be gained from the adoption of such strategies. Furthermore,
the scope of smart charging can be extended to ensure that users charge when
the electricity mix on the network has a large renewable density, meaning that the
indirect cause of CO2 emissions from EV operation is far lower than if the electricity
was predominantly generated by, for example, a coal-fired power station.

> Read full chapter

Battery Environmental Analysis

Peter Van den Bossche, ... Joeri Van Mierlo, in Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, 2010
1 Introduction
Battery and hybrid electric vehicles, in substitution of internal combustion engine
(ICE) vehicles, are a part of the solution to problems such as urban air pollution,
fossil fuel depletion and global warming [1–3]. When analysing electric vehicles, the
battery is often considered to be the main environmental concern, be it pertinent
or not. Anyhow, the environmental impact of the battery should be assessed. Many
batteries contain heavy metals, each with their specific toxic properties to environ-
ment and human health (HH).

The impacts of the different battery technologies should be analysed individually to

allow the comparison of the different chemistries and to enable the definition of the
most environmental friendly battery technology for electrically propelled vehicles.
This can be done in a qualitative or a quantitative way. Provided that the necessary
data are available (often the most challenging task of an exhaustive environmental
study), life cycle assessment (LCA) is the most appropriate method for quantitative
comparisons of products or services. Therefore a significant part of this chapter is
dedicated to the LCA of traction batteries for electric vehicles [4].

The first step of the environmental analysis presented in this chapter was to list the
available battery technologies for electric vehicle applications. Afterwards, a model
for the different battery types has been developed and introduced in an LCA software
tool. This model allows an individual comparison of the different phases of the life
cycle of traction batteries. This makes it possible to identify the heaviest burden on
the environment for each life phase of each battery.

> Read full chapter

Battery electric vehicles in China: own-

ership and usage
Enjian Yao, ... Rui Zhang, in Transport and Energy Research, 2020

8.3.2.1 Introduction
EVs have been widely considered as a potential alternative to replace internal com-
bustion engine vehicles, which usually cause heavy air pollution. One significant
barrier to a wider adoption of BEVs is, however, the limited driving range, leading to
the range anxiety (Franke and Krems, 2013). In this regard, deploying more charging
infrastructures could be helpful to mitigate the rage anxiety and maintain BEV
drivers’ daily travel demand. In line with such a consideration, Beijing has built a
charging network of 92,300 public and private chargers (Yin, 2017) and also made
a plan to further promote a charging network of 435,000 chargers by 2020 (Beijing
Municipal Commission of Development and Reform, 2016).

One of the obstacles to develop a sufficient private charging network [i.e., every
BEV owner has a home charger (HC)] is that the land sources are scarce in Beijing,
leading to the lack of private parking lots. Existing studies show that the ownership
rate of HCs (ORH) is 70%, meaning that 30% of BEV drivers do not have an HC
(Yin, 2017), and these drivers have to charge their BEVs at public chargers. Due to
this, Beijing government has mainly focused on the construction of public charging
facilities, for allowing more BEV drivers to charge their BEVs in a similar convenience
such as GVs.

Even though it seems that the charging demand exceeds the public charging supply,
the current utilization rate of public chargers is extremely lower than expected, which
is less than 15% in terms of occupied time (Jiang, 2018). What causes this result is
that the current distribution of public chargers cannot match the charging demand
spatially and temporally.

This section uses a public charging location model to figure out how to maximally
maintain the existing activity patterns of BEV drivers. First, a BEV charging decision
model is built by considering the charging choice behaviors of both BEV drivers
with an HC (HC BEV drivers) and BEV drivers without an HC (NHC BEV drivers) in
Beijing. Then, a location choice model for public charging stations is constructed for
maximally maintaining the BEV drivers’ daily trips.

> Read full chapter

Brake-Blending Control of EVs

Chen Lv, ... Dongpu Cao, in Modeling, Dynamics and Control of Electrified Vehicles,
2018

8.1.2 Dynamic Blending Control

Dynamic blending control targets dynamic processes. In contrast to a conventional
internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle, an EV equipped with a regenerative
brake has three different braking states: friction braking, regenerative braking, and
blended braking. These three braking states may occur independently or switch
between each other frequently during one braking process. In particular, because the
dynamics of an electrified powertrain is quite different from that of a conventional
friction brake, the introduction of the electric motor torque during deceleration
may make it a new source of vibration and jerk on the system and vehicle levels.
In addition, the dynamic modulation of the frictional braking force may also cause
pressure fluctuations in the brake circuits, resulting in negative impacts on brake
performance, brake comfort, and even the energy efficiency of the vehicle (Lv
et al., 2014a–c). Thus determining the electrified powertrain dynamics and its im-
pact on blended brake control have become significant aspects of regenerative
braking control. It is also important to determine how to dynamically couple the
two different braking forces and coordinate the three different deceleration states
to simultaneously ensure braking performance and improve energy efficiency. A
cooperative control algorithm for an electronic brake and regenerative braking for an
automatic-transmission (AT)-based HEV was proposed to maintain the demanded
braking force and driving comfort during a downshift with regenerative braking
(Jo et al., 2012). A differential braking and driving vehicle stability control strategy
was developed for a hybrid electric sport utility vehicle equipped with axle motors
(Bayar et al., 2012). Several critical techniques that are suitable for the development
and examination of HEVs with regenerative braking capability have been proposed.
A hybrid antilock break system (ABS) for EVs and hybrid vehicles, endowed with
in-wheel-motors (IWMs) and friction brakes, has also been designed (de Castro et
al., 2012). However, electrified powertrain dynamics and its impact on regenerative
braking control performance are rarely seen in the existing research. Although some
researchers have studied the powertrain system dynamics of EVs, they targeted the
traction control under critical driving conditions or focused on the NVH (noise,
vibration, and harshness) performance of the vehicles (Amann et al., 2004; Yin et
al., 2009).

In this chapter, with the aim of cooperative optimization of regeneration efficiency

and ride comfort, brake-blending control strategies are investigated for electri-
fied passenger cars. The models of blended brakes, including a nonlinear electric
powertrain model and a hydraulic brake system model, are developed in MAT-
LAB/Simulink. The control effects and regeneration efficiencies of the control
strategies in a typical deceleration process are studied and analyzed via simula-
tion and vehicle testing. Moreover, since the regenerative braking provided by an
electric powertrain is far different from conventional friction braking with respect
to system dynamics, the effects of the powertrain nonlinearities, i.e., the backlash
and flexibility on vehicle drivability during regenerative deceleration, are analyzed.
To further improve brake-blending control performance, a mode-switching-based
active control algorithm with a hierarchical architecture is developed for the backlash
and flexibility compensation. The proposed control algorithms are compared with
the baseline strategy under the regeneration-braking process. Some simulation and
experimental results are also given.

> Read full chapter

Traction energy and battery perfor-
mance modelling
Aisling Doyle, Tariq Muneer, in Electric Vehicles: Prospects and Challenges, 2017

2.9.3 Concluding comments of where EV's are best suited

The BEV has potential to be to a very successful alternate to the ICEV in the
automobile industry. Informed route choice plays a significant role in vehicle
efficiency. These vehicles perform best on level or descending gradient and
performing best at speeds around 50 mph or below to extend vehicle range. Rough
road surfaces consume a lot of energy, due to increased friction between tyres and
road surface. Urban driving where there are fewer stops and lower speeds are ideal
for this vehicle depending on topography. Change in direction, in rural driving,
gives the BEV the opportunity to decelerate and avail of regenerative braking. A 4
mile drive cycle carried out in Edinburgh (see Table 2.9.4) demonstrates that battery
energy consumption is proportionally linked to vehicle speed.

Table 2.9.4. Traction and regenerated energy from drive cycle (city of Edinburgh,
Newington to Chesser ASDA, 4 miles) at various speeds

Speed (mph) Energytraction (kWh) Energyrecovered (kWh) Enett (kWh)

30 1.4 0.4 1
25 1.1 0.3 0.8
20 0.8 0.2 0.6

> Read full chapter

Flooded starting-lighting-ignition
(SLI) and enhanced flooded batteries
(EFBs)
M. Gelbke, C. Mondoloni, in Lead-Acid Batteries for Future Automobiles, 2017

5.4 Market trends

In contrast to the case of mild- and full-hybrid electric cars ICE vehicles with
micro-hybrid operations are the most efficient technical solution for making
the first level of reduction in fuel consumption. With an additional cost of about
€100–200 (stop–start function) fuel consumption can be reduced by 5–10%. By
way of comparison the fuel reduction offered by full-hybrid cars lies in the range
25–35% with additional costs between €2200 and €3200 per car at best [16] and up
to €4500–5500 in extended versions.

Additionally, cars using micro-hybrid strategies can be introduced into the market
very fast because there is no need for extended development and general change in
car concept.

Since the forecast for world new car sales in 2015 is about 76.4  million units
(compare: sales of electric cars in 2014 was 304,000 vehicles; mild- and full-hybrids
less than 2  million pieces worldwide in 2014) and respecting that growth rate
of world vehicle production is estimated at 2.6%/year [17] it is evident that the
introduction of micro-hybrid functions to ICE vehicles will provide the biggest
contribution to CO2 emissions reduction.

7.6 million of the 21  million cars sold in 2012 in Europe had the stop–start function
already. The forecast for the European market suggests a market share for stop–start
of 66% in 2016 and of 100% in 2019. Very different is the current situation in the
United States where in 2014 only 6% of new cars sold were equipped with stop–start
[16]. Modifications of technical solutions have to be introduced in order to get a
higher customer acceptance there (for example: no switching off of air-conditioning
during stop). These modifications are on the way as are solutions to extend the
stop–start function [18]. The market in Japan is also different: The high market share
of 20% of sales in 2014 for full-hybrids may be at least partially attributable to
customer subsidies. The biggest market, China, is also undergoing change.

Additionally there are a lot of developments aimed at introducing 48-V board net
solutions to increase fuel economy via e-boosting and more efficient recuperation
at moderate extra costs (estimated at 25–50% of full-hybrid extra costs) [16]. This
could influence the market beyond 2020.

Fig. 5.16 reports a market trend forecast for storage devices up to 2018 for mild and
micro-hybrid applications worldwide and at biggest regional markets according to
Lux Research, Inc. [19].
 Figure 5.16. Market trend for use of storage devices at mild and micro-hybrid
application according to Lux Research, Inc. [19].

Fig. 5.16 shows the tremendous growth of the market for storage devices in the
micro-hybrid application as well the different battery technologies that will dominate
in different regional markets. Due to technical advantages like higher temperature
resistance and better micro-cycling behaviour of most developed EFBs and due to
lower costs as well as the possibility to use existing production technologies EFBs
will gain a strong and increasing share of the market.

> Read full chapter

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