See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/260874345

Fatty acid profile, oxidative stability of pork lipids and meat quality indicators
are not affected by birth weight

Article  in  animal · April 2014

DOI: 10.1017/S1751731114000093 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS

8 224

5 authors, including:

Ana Luisa Neves Alvarenga Dias Helio Chiarini-Garcia

Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU) Federal University of Minas Gerais
22 PUBLICATIONS   108 CITATIONS    96 PUBLICATIONS   3,018 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Fernanda R.C.L. Almeida

Federal University of Minas Gerais
69 PUBLICATIONS   621 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Sorghum grain in chicken nutrition View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Ana Luisa Neves Alvarenga Dias on 10 November 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Animal (2014), 8:4, pp 660–666 © The Animal Consortium 2014
doi:10.1017/S1751731114000093
animal

Fatty acid profile, oxidative stability of pork lipids and meat

quality indicators are not affected by birth weight
A. L. N. Alvarenga1, R. V. Sousa2, G.G. Parreira1, H. Chiarini-Garcia1 and F. R. C. L. Almeida1†
1
Laboratory of Structural Biology and Reproduction, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais,
Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil; 2Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Lavras, Caixa Postal 3037,
Lavras, MG 37200-000, Brazil

(Received 30 April 2013; Accepted 21 December 2013)

The aim of this study was to investigate whether fatty acid (FA) profile, oxidative stability of lipids and other meat quality traits
differed between high (HW: 1.8 to 2.2 kg) and low (LW: 0.8 to 1.2 kg) birth weight piglets. Forty new-born male pigs (n = 20 HW,
n = 20 LW) were reared in separate pens until the finishing period, when they were slaughtered at 150 days of age, and pH and
temperature were measured in the carcass. Afterwards, the Longissimus dorsi muscle was excised from the carcass, and samples
were collected for subsequent meat quality analyses (thaw loss, cooking loss, shear force, chemical analysis and sensory analysis
for tenderness). Birth weight had minor impacts on meat quality traits, which were limited to higher shear force in the LW group
( P < 0.01). Chemical components (moisture, protein, fat, ash), cholesterol levels and lipid oxidation (thiobarbituric acid-reactive
substances) were not affected by birth weight ( P > 0.05). FA profile and the amount of saturated, monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids were similar, but HW pigs had higher atherogenic index than their LW counterparts ( P < 0.01).
Notwithstanding the higher shear force presented by the lower birth weight pigs, in the sensory test, the panelists did not detect
any differences in the tenderness of pork from HW and LW animals. Therefore, our results suggest that low birth weight has
minimal impact on meat quality.

Keywords: birth weight, pigs, fatty acid profile, cholesterol levels, oxidative stability, atherogenic index

Implications
Low birth weight is associated with intra-uterine growth
restriction (IUGR), which causes large economic losses due to
lower postnatal growth performance, efficiency of feed utiliza-
tion and high mortality rate. However, it seems that birth
weight may have a minor impact on meat quality. Segregated
management of low birth weight piglets might be beneficial to
counteract the deleterious effects of IUGR on meat quality, but
further studies are necessary to properly address this question.
Introduction
During the last decades, the intensive selection for increasing
litter size in pig production has resulted in larger litter
variation in birth weight, leading to an increase in the
number of stillborn and small piglets with low survival rate
(Milligan et al., 2002). These small piglets suffer from IUGR,
which occurs naturally in pigs, and causes large economic
losses worldwide due to lower postnatal growth potential
†
E-mail: falmeida@icb.ufmg.br
and efficiency (Wu et al., 2008). There is evidence that birth
weight affects postnatal development and fat content in the
carcass (Gondret et al., 2006; Alvarenga et al., 2013) through
the impairment of muscle accretion (Alvarenga et al., 2013),
and may also have negative effects on meat quality traits,
such as pH (Rehdfeldt et al., 2008), drip loss (Rehdfeldt and
Kuhn, 2006), tenderness (Gondret et al., 2006) and meat
color (Bérard et al., 2010). Moreover, elevated intrauterine
crowding impaired hyperplasia and growth of myofibers
along with delayed myofiber maturation (Pardo et al., 2013).
Modern contemporary consumers have guided the pro-
duction of pork toward leaner and healthier meat (Cardenia
et al., 2011). In this regard, many studies have been done to
investigate the impact of meat quality and consumption on
health status. For instance, studies have demonstrated that
high concentrations of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and a high
ratio between n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) seem to be associated with a high prevalence of
cardiovascular diseases, due to their contribution to platelet
aggregation (Simopoulus, 2002).
In contrast, the health supporting role of meat has also
been documented, as reviewed in the case of dry cured ham

660

by Jiménez-Colmenarejo et al. (2010). Lower frequencies
of meat consumption and consumption of meat products
that underwent little processing have been reported as key
protective factors of desirable health outcomes (Kristensen
et al., 2005). Specifically, controlled pork consumption reduced
low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and was a component
of therapeutic diets in the study of Rubio et al. (2006).
Even though the effects of birth weight on postnatal
growth performance and carcass quality have been exten-
sively studied, its implications on fatty acid (FA) profile, lipid
oxidation and overall health indicators, still remain unclear.
As demonstrated previously, birth weight may influence fat
content in the carcass (Gondret et al., 2006; Alvarenga et al.,
2013), which in turn may directly affect the FA profile, that is
higher fat content increases SFA synthesis (mainly C16:0 and
C18:0), and consequently decreases PUFA (Guillevic et al.,
2009). In addition, greater intramuscular fat content as well
as greater SFA and MUFA content positively affected the
technological quality and oxidation stability of meat (Corino
et al., 2008). As pork is the most consumed protein source in
the world, and given the higher incidence of low birth weight
piglets on commercial farms, the present study aimed to test
the hypothesis that meat from low birth weight pigs will have
increased intramuscular fat content which will alter the FA
profile and directly affect lipid peroxidation.
Material and methods
Animals and treatments
Forty new-born male pigs (DanBred X PIC terminal line), born
to 4th to 6th parity sows and in litters of 10 to 15 pigs, were
individually identified as falling into two birth weight groups:
high (HW: 1.8 to 2.2 kg) and low (LW: 0.8 to 1.2 kg) and one
piglet was taken from each litter. The criteria of high parity
sows and litters of 10 to 15 pigs were consistent with the
hypothesis that these pigs had been subjected to negative
effects of IUGR, according to the recent studies conducted at
the University of Alberta (Town et al., 2004; Smit, 2007), and
were confirmed in the recent study of Alvarenga et al. (2013).
All sows were maintained under identical feeding conditions
from mating to parturition. All experimental procedures
involving animals were approved by the Ethics Committee in
Animal Experimentation (CETEA/UFMG).
The HW and LW piglets were reared separately in
collective pens until slaughter (~150 days of age) to avoid
competition among them, which would be harmful to
the LW group. Management was typical of a commercial
Brazilian swine production protocol throughout all phases of
production, and feed and water were provided ad libitum.
Pigs were fed standard nursery and growing-finishing
diets formulated to meet National Research Council (1998)
requirements. Weaning was performed at 23.1 days old on
average, and the nursery period lasted 6 weeks, and the
growing-finishing phase lasted 12 weeks. In the nursing and
growing-finishing periods, pigs were allocated in pens of 20
animals each, according to the treatment group, and their
Pork quality and birth weight
growth performance data have already been published
(Alvarenga et al., 2013). Pigs were slaughtered at 149 ± 2.7
days old after an overnight fast by electrical stunning and
exsanguination in compliance with the Brazilian national
regulations applied in slaughter houses.
Meat quality indicators
Just after slaughter, the hot carcasses were weighed and
kept in the cooler (4°C) for 24 h. After this cooling period,
measures of loin area (between the last thoracic and the first
lumbar vertebra), and backfat depth (at the last rib, 6.5 cm
from the dorsal line – P2 position) were taken. The
pH measurements were performed in the Longissimus dorsi
muscle of the left carcass, between the 12th and 13th thoracic
vertebrae, 45 min and 24 h postmortem with a portable pH
meter (model PH-710, Instrutherm, São Paulo, SP, Brazil).
The temperature was also measured 45 min postmortem,
using a digital portable thermometer (Instrutherm, model
TE300), specifically for meat temperature measurements.
After measuring pH and temperature, the Longissimus dorsi
muscles were excised (~30 cm length) from all carcasses, and
two consecutive cranial chops, of ~3.0 cm thickness, were
taken for meat color and water-holding capacity analysis, the
later measured as the drip loss percentage. Color was mea-
sured using a Colortec PCM (Clinton, NJ, USA), which had a
D-65 light font and an observation angle of 10°. The corre-
sponding values were calculated according to a color scale of
lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) established
by the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE). Mea-
surements were determined in triplicate at one point of the
chop. Drip loss was measured over 24 h in a cylinder of ~2.5
cm in diameter maintained at 4°C, according to standard
methods (Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC),
1995). Then, the remaining chops were wrapped in plastic
bags, and stored in the freezer at −20°C for subsequent
meat quality analyses (thaw loss, cooking loss, shear force,
chemical and sensory analyses).
In addition, one frozen vacuum-packaged chop from each
sample was kept for 24 h at 4°C and then weighed for thaw
loss determination. The chops were then kept at room tem-
perature for 1 h, weighed, and cooked up to an internal
temperature of 40°C, then turned and cooked again up to a
final internal temperature of 71°C. Raw and final chop
weights were used to determine cooking loss as described by
AOAC (1995). Shear force was determined in the cooked
samples using a TA-XT2i Texture Analyzer (State Micro
System, Survey, UK). A total of six sample cylinders (diameter
of 1.27 cm) per chop were used for the analysis. The results
were expressed as the maximum force (kg) needed to cut the
samples. Mean values for each animal were obtained by
averaging all the samples per animal.
Chemical analyses
Samples were minced in a commercial mix-blender until a
homogeneous mass was obtained, and chemical analyses
were carried out in triplicate. CP was estimated by the method
of Kjeldahl and intramuscular fat by Soxhlet (AOAC, 1995).
661
Alvarenga, Sousa, Parreira, Chiarini-Garcia and Almeida
Moisture was determined in an oven at 105°C for 18 h, and
ash concentration was determined in the residual samples
after drying for 12 h at 550°C. All chemical components were
expressed as percentages of the dry matter, except moisture.
Cholesterol analyses were determined by lipid extraction
(Folch et al., 1957), and subsequent colorimetry (Bragagnolo
and Rodriguez-Amaya, 1995).
Lipid oxidation (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance
(TBARs)) and FA profile
The extent of lipid oxidation was measured as TBARs. The
TBARs values were determined by the extraction method
described by AOAC (1995). Triplicate samples from each chop
were averaged and expressed as milligrams of malonaldehyde
per kilogram of dry matter.
For the analysis of FA profile, total lipids were extracted
according to the procedures described by Folch et al. (1957),
and the preparation of FA methyl esters was carried out
according to Hartman and Lago (1973). Briefly, FA were
saponified with a methanolic NaOH solution and methylated
under acid conditions by adding a solution of ammonia
chloride, methanol, and sulphuric acid. The FA methyl esters
were submitted to gas liquid chromatograph in a GC-17A
model chromatograph (Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto,
Japan), equipped with a flame ionization detector and a
30 m capillary column of polyethylene glycol (DB-WAX,
30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 µm), coupled to a software developed
by the manufacturer. The oven temperature was programmed
to increase from 180°C to 230°C (3°C/min) and held
isothermally at 230°C for 20 min. A 1 : 20 split injection ratio
was used. Hydrogen and synthetic air were used for flame
formation, and nitrogen was used as the carrier gas at a
constant flow rate of 2.75 ml/min, pressure of 15.5 psi and
linear velocity of 53.26 cm/s. The injection system was held at
230°C and the flame ionization detector system at 250°C. The
identification of FA was performed by comparing the retention
time of the FA methyl ester standard PUFA 2 (Supelco Inc.,
Bellefonte, PA, USA), composed by a mixture of 14 FA.
Individual FA was expressed as a percentage of the total
identified FA, then grouped as SFA, MUFA and PUFA.
Furthermore, the analysis of the FA profiles led to the
determination of the atherogenic index (AI), considered as a
health indicator related to the risk of cardiovascular disease,
which was calculated according to Ulbricht and Southgate
(1991) as:
X X 
AI ¼ ½4ðC14 : 0Þ + C16 : 0= SFA + PUFA
where C14:0 is myristic acid, C16:0 the palmitic acid, SFA the
saturated fatty acids, PUFA the polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Sensory test analyses
The preparation procedures for the sensory test analyses
were described by Bridi and Silva (2007). Several chops from
the loin of each birth weight group were cooked, without any
seasoning, in an oven until the internal chop temperature
reached 40°C. Then, the roasted side was turned down and
662
cooked again until an internal temperature of 71°C. They were
cut into 1.3-cm cubes (taken in the middle of each chop) and
were randomly assigned to the members of the taste panel.
A descriptive test was carried out by a selected and trained
sensory panel consisting of volunteers from the University
professional staff. Preliminary training sessions on pork cuts
(loin and ham), which did not belong to the experimental
animals, were performed by 40 volunteers. Six sessions were
performed per person, and tenderness was scored. Two
triangle tests were done using ham v. loin as follows: three
1.3 cm cubes were randomly assigned to the volunteers, and
the sessions covered the ability to identify, among the three
samples (two similar and one different), which one was the
different sample. Therefore, the panelists were trained to
distinguish loin from ham samples based on tenderness.
Panelists who got 80% of right answers were selected to
the Paired Comparison Test. The Paired Comparison Test
indicated if the loin samples from both experimental groups
were different for tenderness. All panel evaluations were
conducted in well-ventilated, partitioned booths, under
fluorescent red light. Water was provided to eliminate
residual flavor notes between samples (Larmond, 1977).
Statistical analysis
All variables measured were tested for normality before ana-
lyses, using the univariate procedure of the Statistical Analysis
System (SAS Institute, 2001). Data were analyzed as a
randomized design, and the statistical model included birth
weight class as fixed factor and piglet as random factor.
Treatment effects on meat quality traits, chemical analyses,
and FA profiles were analyzed using the GLM procedure of
SAS (v. 8.2; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Least square
means were compared using the Student’s t-test with P < 0.05
being considered significant. In the tables, data are reported
as least-square means and the residual standard deviation. For
the sensory tests, the table of Bicaudal Paired Test (Bridi and
Silva, 2007) was used for the comparison of the experimental
groups.
Results
Meat quality indicators
Our results show that birth weight affected BW at slaughter,
which was higher in HW compared with LW pigs (P < 0.01).
Even though BW was different, measures of backfat and loin
area were similar between both experimental groups (Table 1).
Birth weight had a minor impact on meat quality traits.
Temperature, pH, color, and water-holding capacity were not
affected by birth weight, as shown in Table 1. However, shear
force was higher in the low birth weight pigs (P < 0.01),
suggesting lower meat tenderness in this experimental group.
Chemical analyses, lipid oxidation (TBARs), FA profile, and
atherogenic index
The chemical analyses performed in the Longissimus dorsi
muscle showed that the contents of moisture, protein,
fat, and ash were similar in both HW and LW animals
 Pork quality and birth weight

Table 1 Meat quality indicators evaluated in the Longissimus dorsi Table 3 Fatty acids profiles, saturated, monounsaturated and poly-
muscle of high (HW) and low (LW) birth weights pigs at 150 days of age unsaturated fatty acids and relevant fatty acids ratios measured in the
intramuscular fat of the Longissimus dorsi muscle of HW (high) and
Treatment LW (low) pigs at 150 days of age
HW LW Treatment
Parameters (n = 20) (n = 20) r.s.d. P
HW LW
BW (kg) 106.94 99.20 5.23 <0.01 Parameters (n = 20) (n = 20) r.s.d. P
Hot carcass weight (kg) 88.30 78.56 7.25 <0.01
Backfat at P2 (mm) 13.23 12.25 3.09 ns Individual fatty acids
Loin area (cm2) 46.35 45.80 5.38 ns C14:0 0.66 0.63 0.08 ns
pH 45 min 6.22 6.26 0.36 ns C16:0 19.37 19.74 2.47 ns
Temperature 45 min 34.47 34.31 1.90 ns C18:0 8.84 8.48 1.19 ns
pH 24 h 5.80 5.72 0.16 ns C16:1n-7 4.26 4.38 0.87 ns
Color C18:1n-9 48.66 47.61 4.57 ns
L*(Lightness) 46.03 44.89 2.11 ns C20:1n-9 0.06 0.06 0.01 ns
a*(redness) 14.37 14.11 1.20 ns C18:3n-3 0.20 0.18 0.04 ns
b*(yellowness) 7.26 7.52 0.55 ns C18:2n-6 16.95 11.29 9.06 ns
Water-holding capacity (%) C18:3n-6 0.27 0.28 0.01 ns
Drip loss 4.93 5.22 3.11 ns C20:4n-6 0.24 0.20 0.17 ns
Thaw loss 4.91 5.07 2.22 ns Sums of fatty acids
Cook loss 38.79 37.47 4.37 ns SFAa 26.10 27.56 6.40 ns
Shear force (kg) 4.36 4.80 0.65 <0.05 MUFAb 60.02 53.57 18.26 ns
PUFAc 11.70 12.23 5.20 ns
ns = not significant.
n-3d 0.20 0.18 0.02 ns
n-6e 0.46 0.45 0.04 ns
Ratios
Table 2 Birth weight effects on meat chemical composition, choles- PUFA/SFAf 0.48 0.46 0.20 ns
terol levels and lipid oxidation measured in the Longissimus dorsi n-6/n-3g 2.25 2.80 1.38 ns
muscle of HW (high) and LW (low) birth weight pigs at 150 days of age Atherogenic indexh 0.31 0.27 0.04 <0.01
Treatment ns = not significant; SFA = saturated fatty acid; MUFA = monounsaturated
fatty acid; PUFA = polyunsaturated fatty acid.
HW LW
a
Sum of SFA (C14:0 + C16:0 + C18:0).
Parameters (n = 20) (n = 20) r.s.d. P
b
Sum of MUFA (C16:1n-7 + C18:1n-9 + C18:1n-7 + C20:1n-9).
c
Sum of PUFA (C18:2n-6 + C18:3n-6 + C18:3n-3 + C20:4n-6 + C20:5n-3 +
C22:4n-6 + C22:6n-3).
Chemical composition d
Sum of PUFA of the n-3 series (C18:3n-3 + C20:5n-3 + C22:6n-3).
Moisture (%) 66.27 65.47 4.74 ns e
Sum of PUFA of the n-6 series (C18:2n-6 + C18:3n-6 + C20:4n-6 + C22:4n-6)
Protein (% DM) 25.72 26.00 2.93 ns
f
Ratio PUFA/SFA (C18:2n-6 + C18:3n-3)/(C14:0 + C16:0 + C18:0).
g
Fat (% DM) 11.66 12.83 6.15 ns Ratio n-6/n-3 (∑ n-6/∑ n-3).
h
Atherogenic index = [4(C14:0) + C16:0]/(∑ SFA + ∑ PUFA).
Ash (% DM) 0.85 0.87 0.15 ns
Cholesterol sample (mg/100 g) 42.49 52.68 26.47 ns
TBARsa 0.63 0.65 0.36 ns
presented by the lower birth weight pigs, the panelists did
NS = not significant
a
Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance (mg of malonaldehyde/kg DM).
not observe any differences in the tenderness of pork from
HW and LW animals (Supplementary Table S1). Therefore,
the absence of significant effects of birth weight on meat
(P > 0.05; Table 2). Interestingly, cholesterol levels and the quality was confirmed by the sensory test.
extent of lipid oxidation, measured as TBARs values, were
also not affected by birth weight (P > 0.05), as shown in
Discussion
Table 2. Regarding FA profile analysis, it was shown that
birth weight had no effects on individual FA contents, sums Several studies have reported the impacts of either birth
of FAs groups and relevant FAs ratios of pork (Table 3). Even weight or litter size on postnatal development and meat
though the atherogenic index was higher in HW compared quality in pigs (Rehfeldt et al., 2008; Bérard et al., 2010).
with LW pigs, both values were still in the safe range of low Although birth weight has been related to the number of
risk of cardiovascular disease (P < 0.05 – Table 3). muscle fibers (Kuhn et al., 2002; Alvarenga et al., 2013),
muscle fiber diameter and density (Alvarenga et al., 2013) in
Sensory test analyses pigs, the relationship between birth weight and meat quality
Out of 36 panelists, 20 chose the meat from the HW group as is still controversial.
the tenderest, whereas 16 chose the meat from the LW group In the present study, birth weight had a minor impact on
as the tenderest. Notwithstanding the higher shear force meat quality indicators, as only shear force was affected by

663
Alvarenga, Sousa, Parreira, Chiarini-Garcia and Almeida
the experimental treatment. All the other parameters
analyzed, such as pH, temperature, color, and drip loss were
similar between experimental groups. In contrast, Rehfeldt
et al. (2008) observed a lower pH value at 45 min
postmortem, as well as a tendency for higher drip loss in
animals of low compared with animals of medium and high
birth weights. In relation to drip loss, a normal loss should be
<5% of water (Warner et al., 1997). In the present study, as
noted in Table 1, both experimental treatments were within
the normal value (4.8 for both HW and LW groups). Bérard
et al. (2008) reported that the effects of litter size and birth
weight on meat quality characteristics were minimal.
According to these authors, the differences observed among
studies may be attributed to differences between genders
and the genetic strains used. In addition, according to the
methodology used for the classification of meat, based on pH
(initial and final), color (parameter L* – brightness) and drip
loss, it can be seen in Table 1 that the animals of both
experimental treatments presented meat classified as
normal, because they showed initial pH above 5.8, final pH
below 6.0, L* value >43 and lower than 49, and drip loss
<5%. According to the classification described by Warner
et al. (1997), neither experimental treatments presented
pale, soft, exudative or dark, firm, dry carcasses.
Concerning shear force, values were lower in the HW
animals compared with the LW group. Thus, this result sug-
gests that meat of HW animals showed a better texture, or
tenderness, as less force was needed to break the meat
fibers, compared with the LW group (4.36 v. 4.80 kg,
respectively). In a similar way, Gondret et al. (2006) found
that meat from low birth weight animals (0.75 to 1.25 kg)
was classified with a low score for tenderness. These authors
suggested that low birth weight piglets, which have low
growth rates, would present lower turnover of muscle
proteins, which possibly resulted in a decreased amount
and activity of proteolytic enzymes such as calpain and
calpastatin (Kristensen et al., 2002), and in turn, would exert
negative effects on final meat tenderness.
As shown in Table 2, there was no effect of birth weight on
the cholesterol content of loin. According to the USDA
National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference (2011),
the cholesterol value for loin is 55 mg/100 g. Thus, it seems
that the levels of cholesterol in both experimental treatments
were within an appropriate range. Although no treatment
effect was observed, the cholesterol value found in the HW
group was numerically lower than the value found for the
samples from the LW group. In this sense, Bragagnolo and
Rodriguez-Amaya (2002) found cholesterol levels in samples
of pork loin similar (42 mg/100 g) to the one found in the
present study in samples from the HW group (42.49 mg/100 g).
On the other hand, the value found in the LW group
(52.68 mg/100 g) was equivalent to the levels of cholesterol
found in samples of pork fat (53 mg/100 g) (Bragagnolo and
Rodriguez-Amaya, 2002).
Table 2 also showed the levels of lipid peroxidation of the
samples stored at −20°C, through the analyses of the TBARs,
and no treatment effects were observed. This measure, which
664
is a product quality indicator, is very important for the eva-
luation of the so called ‘shelf life’ of the product (Warnants
et al., 2001). These authors also demonstrated that meat
containing increased levels of polyunsaturated FAs and their
derivatives, especially meat products cured or fermented,
suffered oxidative damage that resulted in serious defects in
their organoleptic characteristics. It is important to highlight
that the values obtained for both HW and LW animals were
within safe levels relative to rancidity detection (Sheard
et al., 2000). This may be due to the quality of the packaging
used (aluminum and plastic bags), which had low oxygen
permeability.
Among the 14 FAs that may be detected with standard
chromatographic procedures, 10 FAs were identified in the
present study (Table 3), and the FAs C18:1n9 (oleic acid),
C16:0 (palmitic acid) and C18:0 (stearic acid) were found in
greater proportions in both experimental groups. These
results are consistent with previous studies that also reported
the pattern of FA composition of pork (Bragagnolo and
Rodriguez-Amaya, 2002).
Given the considerations presented above, our results
provide evidence of the benefits of pork as a healthy protein
source, since nearly 50% of its FA profile were composed of
oleic acid, regardless of birth weight. Moreover, the FA
(C20:4) plays an important role in the development of meat
flavor (Mottram, 1998). In this study, the values found for the
FA C20:4n-6 were similar between the two experimental
groups, suggesting that birth weight may not have caused
changes in meat flavor.
Regarding the profile of intramuscular fat, the percentage
of SFA, MUFA, and PUFA did not differ between treatments
(Table 3). According to Associação Brasileira da Indústria
Produtora e Exportadora de Carne Suína (2011), pork FAs
consists of 40% saturated FAs, 46% to 49% mono-
unsaturated FAs, mainly oleic acid, and 8% to 12% poly-
unsaturated FAs, especially linoleic acid. These values are
close to those found in the present study, excluding the
percentage of saturated FAs, probably because the data
reported by ABIPECS (2011) refer to samples obtained from
different points of the carcass (different muscles) and not
only from the loin, which was the cut used in the present
study, and is certainly a leaner meat.
In respect to the atherogenic index, which is a measure of
the quality assessment and comparison of different foods
and is also related to the risk of cardiovascular disease, it was
higher in the HW animals. Studies have suggested that the
type, not the amount of FAs consumed, is related to the
concentration of cholesterol in the blood and the risk of
coronary diseases (Hu et al., 2001). However, it is still unclear
the real effect of FAs on human health, for example, satu-
rated FAs, which atherogenic action is questionable (German
and Dillard, 2004).
By observing the Bicaudal Paired Test (Supplementary
Table S1), it is clear that at least 25 people should have
chosen the meat of either HW or LW animals as the most
tender to obtain a significance level of 0.05. As this choice
was made by only 20 people, there was no statistical

difference between HW and LW groups. On the other
hand, Gondret et al. (2006) showed that low birth weight
animals had lower scores (4.0 points) for softness (range 1.0
to 10.0 points) compared with animals that were born
heavier (4.7 points). Thus, the sensory test did not confirm
the shear force results, as the panelists had classified both
experimental groups as having similar tenderness.
Overall, the experiment described herein was performed
under commercial conditions, where LW and HW pigs were
reared in separate pens, and the postnatal growth perfor-
mance of these animals was previously reported (Alvarenga
et al., 2013). Although birth weight generates a significant
impact over several important economic characteristics in
commercial swine production systems (Beaulieu et al., 2010;
Alvarenga et al., 2013), our results suggest that its effects on
important meat quality traits are minor. This raises the
hypothesis that segregating different birth weight animals
may be beneficial to LW animals. However, further studies
are necessary to address this question.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge CNPq and Fapemig for
funding this work, Fazenda São Paulo where the experiment
was conducted, and Dr Guilherme Barcellos Corrêa, for his great
assistance at the slaughter house.
Supplementary material
To view supplementary material for this article, please visit
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1751731114000093.
References
Alvarenga ALN, Chiarini-Garcia H, Cardeal PC, Moreira LP, Foxcroft GR, Fontes DO
and Almeida FR 2013. Intra-uterine growth retardation affects birth weight and
postnatal development in pigs, impairing muscle accretion, duodenal mucosa
morphology and carcass traits. Reproduction, Fertility and Development 25,
387–395.
Associação Brasileira da Indústria Produtora e Exportadora de Carne Suína
2011. Carne Suína e Ácidos Graxos. Retrieved March 4, 2011, from http://www.
carnesuinabrasileira.org.br/nutrientes2.html
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) 1995. Official methods of
analyses, 16th edition. AOAC, Washington, DC, USA.
Beaulieu AD, Aalhus JL, Williams NH and Patience JF 2010. Impact of birth
weight, birth order and litter size on subsequent growth performance, carcass
quality, muscle composition and eating quality of pork. Journal of Animal
Science 88, 2767–2778.
Bérard J, Kreuzer M and Bee G 2008. Effect of litter size and birth weight
on growth, carcass and pork quality, and their relationship to postmortem
proteolysis. Journal of Animal Science 86, 2357–2368.
Bérard J, Kreuzer M and Bee G 2010. In large litters birth weight and gender is
decisive for growth performance but less for carcass and pork quality traits.
Meat Science 86, 845–851.
Bragagnolo N and Rodriguez-Amaya DB 1995. Teores de colesterol em carne
suína e bovina e efeito de cozimento. Ciências e Tecnologia de Alimentos 15,
11–17.
Bragagnolo N and Rodriguez-Amaya DB 2002. Teores de colesterol, lipídeos
totais e ácidos graxos em cortes de carne suína. Ciências e Tecnologia de
Alimentos 22, 98–104.
Bridi AM and Silva CA 2007. Métodos de avaliação da carcaça e carne suína.
Midiograf, Londrina, PR, Brazil.
Pork quality and birth weight
Cardenia V, Rodriguez-Estrada MT, Cumella F, Sardi L, Casa GD and Lercker G
2011. Oxidative stability of pork meat lipids as related to high-oleic sunflower oil
and vitamin E diet supplementation and storage conditions. Meat Science 88,
271–279.
Corino C, Musella M and Mourot J 2008. Influence of extruded linseed on growth,
carcass composition, and meat quality of slaughtered pigs at one hundred ten and
one sixty kilograms of liveweight. Journal of Animal Science 86, 1–11.
Demeyer D, Honikel K and De Smet S 2008. The World Cancer Research Fund Report
2007: a challenge for the meat processing industry. Meat Science 80, 953–959.
Folch J, Less M and Stanley S 1957. A simple method for the isolation and purification
of total lipids from animal tissues. Journal of Biological Chemistry 226, 497–509.
German JB and Dillard CJ 2004. Saturated fats: what dietary intake? American
Journal of Clinical Nutrition 80, 550–559.
Gondret F, Lefaucheur L, Juin H, Louveau I and Lebret B 2006. Low birth weight
is associated with enlarged muscle fiber area and impaired meat tenderness of
the longissimus muscle in pigs. Journal of Animal Science 84, 93–103.
Guillevic M, Kouba M and Mourot J 2009. Effect of linseed diet on lipid com-
position, lipid peroxidation and consumer evaluation of French fresh and cooked
pork meats. Meat Science 81, 612–618.
Hartman NL and Lago RCA 1973. Rapid preparation of fatty acid methyl esters
from lipids. Laboratory Practice 22, 475–476.
Hu FB, Manson JE and Willet WC 2001. Types of dietary fat and risk of coronary
disease: a critical review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 20, 5–19.
Jiménez-Colmenarejo F, Ventanas J and Toldrá F 2010. Nutritional composition
of dry-cured ham and its role in a healthy diet. Meat Science 84, 585–593.
Kristensen MB, Hels O, Morberg C, Marving J, Bügel S and Tetens I 2005.
Pork meat increases iron absorption from a 5-day fully controlled diet when
compared to a vegetarian diet with similar vitamin C and phytic acid content.
British Journal of Nutrition 94, 78–83.
Kristensen L, Therkildsen M, Riis B, Sørensen MT, Oksbjerg N, Purslow PP and
Ertbjerg P 2002. Dietary-induced changes of muscle growth rate in pigs: effects
on in vivo and postmortem muscle proteolysis and meat quality. Journal of
Animal Science 80, 2862–2871.
Kuhn G, Rehfeldt C, Hartung M and Ender K 2002. Heavy new-born piglets
develop a high carcass quality. Fleichwirtsch 82, 128–129.
Larmond E 1977. Laboratory methods for sensory evaluation of foods.
Publ.1637. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
Mottram DS 1998. Flavour formation in meat and meat products: a review. Food
Chemistry 62, 415–424.
Milligan BN, Fraser D and Kramer DL 2002. Within-litter birth weight variation in
the domestic pig and its relation to pre-weaning survival, weight gain, and
variation in weaning weights. Livestock Production Science 76, 181–191.
National Research Council 1998. Nutrient requirements of swine, 10th edition.
National Academy Press, Washington, DC, USA.
Pardo CE, Bérard J, Kreuzer M and Bee G 2013. Intrauterine crowding impairs
formation and growth of secondary myofibers in pigs. Animal 7, 430–438.
Rehfeldt C and Kuhn G 2006. Consequences of birth weight for postnatal growth
performance and carcass quality in pigs as related to myogenesis. Journal of
Animal Science 84 (E. Suppl.), E113–E123.
Rehfeldt C, Tuchscherer A, Hartung M and Kuhn G 2008. A second look at the
influence of birth weight on carcass and meat quality in pigs. Meat Science 78,
170–175.
Rubio JA, Rubio MA, Cabrerizo L, Burdaspal P, Carretero R, Gomez-Gerique JA,
Montoya MT, Maestro ML, Sanz MT and Fernández C 2006. Effects of pork vs. veal
consumption on serum lipids in healthy subjects. Nutrición Hospitalaria 21, 75–83.
SAS Institute Inc 2001. SAS user’s guide: Statistics. SAS for Windows, Version
8.2. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC.
Sheard PR, Enser M, Wood JD, Nute GR, Gill BP and Richardson RI 2000. Shelf
life and quality of pork and pork products with raised n-3 PUFA. Meat Science
55, 213–221.
Simopoulus AP 2002. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune
diseases. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 21, 495–505.
Smit M 2007. Genetic background of prenatal programming in pigs. MSc Minor
Thesis, University of Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Town SC, Putman CT, Turchinsky NJ, Dixon WT and Foxcroft GR 2004. Number of
conceptuses in utero affects porcine fetal muscle development. Reproduction 128,
443–454.
665
Alvarenga, Sousa, Parreira, Chiarini-Garcia and Almeida
Ulbricht TLV and Southgate DAT 1991. Coronary heart disease: seven dietary
factors. Lancet 338, 985–992.
USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference 2011. Retrieved on
March 4, 2011, from http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show
Warnants N, van Oeckel MJ and de Paepe M 2001. Fat in pork: image, dietary
modification and pork quality. Pig News and Information 22, 107–113.
666
View publication stats
Warner RD, Kauffman RG and Greaser ML 1997. Muscle protein
changes post mortem in relation to pork quality traits. Meat Science 45,
339–352.
Wu G, Bazer FW, Datta S, Johnson GA, Li P, Satterfield MC and Spencer TE 2008.
Proline metabolism in the conceptus: implications for fetal growth and
development. Amino Acids 35, 691–702.