UNDERGROUND PIPELINE LEAKAGES

Submitted by

HAIFA (TJE17CE032)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING

THEJUS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Vellarakkad, Thrissur- 680584

DECEMBER 2020
 THEJUS ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
VELLARAKKAD, THRISSUR- 680584

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this seminar titled “UNDERGROUND PIPELINE LEAKAGES” is a

bonafide work of HAIFA (TJE17CE032) of final year B.Tech Civil Engineering in partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Technology Degree in Civil

Engineering awarded by the University of Calicut during the year 2018-2019 under my

guidance.

Seminar Guide Head of the Department

Ms. Lakshmi Mohan Dr. Vijayan

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering

Vellarakkad

Date…
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to thank God the almighty for the divine grace best owed on us to

complete this seminar successfully on time.

I express my sincere thanks to Dr.K.Vijayakumar, Principal, Thejus Engineering College and

Dr.VijayanP, Head of the Department, Civil Engineering, Thejus College for giving me the

opportunity to prepare this seminar and the facilities offered to me throughout this Endeavour.

I am deeply in debted and grate fully acknowledges the constant support and valuable patronage

of my seminar guide Mrs.LAKSHMIMOHAN Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering

Department. I am unboundedly grateful to her for the timely corrections and scholarly guidance,

which made me confident enough to come out successfully.

I extend my hearty thanks to the Seminar Coordinators Mrs.AyanaV.S, Assistant Professor,

Civil Engineering Department and Mrs.AngelinSavio, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering

Department for the enterprising gratitude, timely suggestions and support that made my seminar

fruitful. I express my sincere thanks to all the faculty members of the Civil Engineering

Department.

Haifa

i
 ABSTRACT

Pipe lines are widely used for the transportation of hydrocarbon fluids over millions of miles all
over the world. But today so many accidents are reported from all over the world. Leaks in pipe
line networks are one of the major causes of in numerable losses in pipe line operators and
nature. Incidents of pipe line failure an result in serious ecological disasters, human casualties
and financial loss. In order to avoid such accidents we should maintain safe and reliable pipeline
infrastructure. Today there are so many pipe line leak detection and localization methods using
different approaches. This seminar mainly focuses on different leakage detection and localization
in pipeline systems. Various techniques were reviewed and their strengths and weaknesses are
highlighted to compare their performance in order to find best technique.

ii
 CONTENTS

SI NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 PIPELINE 2
2.1 History 2
2.2 Types of Pipeline 3
2.3 Marine Pipeline 5
2.4. Loads Acting on Pipeline 6
3 PIPELINE LEAKAGES 8

3.1 Causes of leakages 8

3.2 Other Modes of Failures 10
4 PIPELINE RISK 10
5 LEAK DETECTION TECHNIQUES 12
5.1. Exterior Based Leak Detection Methods 13
5.2. Visual or Biological Leak Detection Methods 15
5.3. Interior or Computational Methods 16
6 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF LEAK 19
DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES
7 CASE STUDY-UNDERGROUND PIPELINE GAS 21
EXPLOSION IN ANDHRA PRADESH (2014)
7.1. Cause of the accident 21

7.2. Consequences 23

8 CONCLUSIONS 24

iii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table no. Name of Table Page no.

1 Two-level performance analysis comparison 21

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig no. Name of Figure Page no.

1 Types of pipeline 5
2 Marine pipeline 6
3 Internal corrosion 9
4 Impact of oil leakages in water 11
5 Impact of oil leakages in waterfowl 11
6 Flow chart of different pipeline leakages detection 12
7 Basic functions of an IR thermography camera 15
8 Digital signal proceesing 18
9 Three level performance analysis comparison 19
10 After effects of the accidents 24

v
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AUV Autonomous Underwater Vechiles

IRT Infrared Thermography
GPR Ground Penetration Radar
NPW Negative Pressure Waves
PPA Pressure Point Analysis
DSP Digital Signal Processing
GAIL Gas Authority of India Limited
ONGC Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited
CCOE Chief Controller of Explosives
GDU Gas Dehydration Unit

vi
 Seminar 2020

1.INTRODUCTION

Everything from water to crude oil even solid capsule is being transported through millions of
miles of pipelines all over the world. The use of Pipeline is considered as a major means of
conveying petroleum products such as fossil fuels, gases, chemicals and other essential
hydrocarbon fluids that serve as assets to the economy of the nation. It has been shown that oil
and gas pipeline networks are the most economical and safest means for transporting crude oils
and they fulfill a high demand for efficiency and reliability. Transporting and distribution in
network is very elaborate and continuously growing. This network is prone to many risks. The
pipelines are vulnerable to losing their functionality by internal and external corrosion, cracking,
third party damage and manufacturing flaws. However, pipelines are among safest means for
transportation.

Transporting hazardous substances using miles-long pipelines has become popular across the
globe in recent decades, the chance of the critical accidents due to pipeline failures increases.
The major threat that occurs in pipelines is leakage. There are many unexpected causes of
leakage in underground pipelines carrying hazardous materials, and can classify the causes of the
failures as either intentional or unintentional damages. This leads to pipeline failure and thus
resulting in irreversible damages which include financial losses and extreme environmental
pollution. Such leakages can have detrimental effects in densely populated cities, such as during
a structural collapse resulting from an explosion. The effects of leakage go beyond repair
expense and cost of lost oil or gas. It also significantly causes remarkable negative impacts on
regional organizations, economies, the living states of natives, alongside adverse impact for the
earth. When damage occurs to a Petrochemicals pipelines, it can cause considerable destruction
in fire accidents. Fires and explosions related to petrochemical pipelines have been responsible
for significant injury and loss of life, financial losses and extreme environmental pollution,
particularly when the leakage is not detected in a timely way.

However, in order to reduce the impacts of oil spillage on society it is very important to monitor
pipelines for the timely detection of leakage or even leak prediction, as early detection of leaks
will allow quick responses to stop oil discharge and proper pipeline maintenance. Hence, it is

Department of Civil Engineering 1 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

possible to reduce the loss rate, injuries and other serious societal and environmental
consequences due to the pipeline failures. So to avoid such accidents, designing are liable leak
detection technique is crucial. Several pipeline leak detection methods have been proposed
during the last decades using different working principles and approaches. However, more
information is required in order to achieve are liable system. Before deciding on any corrective
action the location and size of leakage should be known and for that many researchers have been
done during last years to find the location and size of the leakage with high accuracy.

2. PIPELINE

Pipeline transport is the long-distance transportation of a liquid or gas through a system of pipes.
Pipelines are widely used for the transportation of hydrocarbon fluids over millions of miles all
over the world. Liquids, gases and any chemically stable substance can be transported through a
pipeline. Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels such as oil,
natural gas and bio-fuels and other fluids including sewage, slurry, water, beer, hot water or
steam for shorter distances. Pipelines are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigation
over long distances when it needs to move over hills, or where canals or channels are poor
choices due to considerations of evaporation, pollution, or environmental impact.

Pipeline typically cost more than roads or open channels. It takes years and require many surveys
and studies and plans to be completed to develop a comprehensive plan that address the societal ,
developmental, environmental and safety considerations necessary to build the pipeline.
Pipelines are one of the safest ways of transporting materials as compared to road or rail, and
hence in war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks. The structures of the pipelines are
designed to withstand several environmental loading conditions to ensure safe and reliable
distribution from point of production to the shore or distribution depot.

2.1 HISTORY

Pipelines originated over 5,000 years ago by the Egyptians who used copper pipes to transport
clean water to their cities. The first use of pipelines for transportation of hydrocarbons dates back
to approximately 500 BC in China, where bamboo pipes were used to transport natural gas for

Department of Civil Engineering 2 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

use as a fuel from drill holes near the grounds surface. The natural gas was then used as fuel to
boil salt water, producing steam which was condensed into clean drinking water. It is said that as
early as 400 BC wax coated bamboo pipes were used to bring natural gas into cities, lighting up
China's capital, Peking.
Today's pipelines originated in the second half of the 19th century and since their adoption have
grown drastically in size and number. While drilling for water, crude oil was accidentally come
into existence. The oil was transported to these refineries in wooden vats that were even
transported across rivers via barges pulled by horses. One alternative method of transport was by
way of railway tanker cars. However, this meant that the oil supply was controlled by the large
railway owners. So, to make transport independent and more reasonably priced, pipelines were
adopted as a more economical means of transportation. The transported oil was boiled off in
refineries to discover in underground reservoirs. This crude oil was not very popular until simple
refineries obtain the by-products of naphtha, petroleum, heavy crude oil, coal tar and benzene.
The petroleum was used as a fuel for lighting and the benzene produced was initially considered
an unwanted byproduct and was disposed off.

This situation changed drastically with the invention of the automobile which instantly increased
the demand for consistent and reliable supplies of gasoline and resulted in the need for many
more pipelines. Pipelines today transport a wide variety of materials including oil, crude oil,
refined products, natural gases, condensate, process gases, as well as fresh and salt water. Today
there are some 1.2 million miles of transport pipelines around the world, with some well over
1,000 miles in length. The total length of these pipelines lined up end to end would encircle the
earth 50 times over.

2.2 TYPES OF PIPELINES

In general, pipelines can be classified in four categories depending on purpose: Gathering

pipelines, Feeder pipelines, Transportation pipelines and Distribution pipelines.

Department of Civil Engineering 3 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

2.2.1. Gathering pipelines

These are smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with the purpose of
bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment plant or processing
facility. In this group, pipelines are usually short, a couple of hundred meters and with small
diameters. Also sub-sea pipelines for collecting product from deep water production platforms
are considered gathering systems.

2.2.2 Feeder pipelines

Feeder pipelines are usually quite small and are used to move the product whether it is crude oil,
natural gas or liquefied natural gas from processing facilities and storage tanks to the long
distance transmission pipelines.

2.2.3. Transportation pipelines

Transportation pipes are mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas,
refined products) between cities, countries and even continents. These transportation networks
include several compressor stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and multi products
pipelines.

2.2.4. Distribution pipelines

They are composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the
products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses
downstream, also pipelines at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage facilities
are included in this group. Figure 1 shows various types of pipelines.

Department of Civil Engineering 4 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

Fig 1: Types of pipeline

2.3 MARNE PIPELINE

In some places, a pipeline may have to cross water expanses, such as small seas, straits and rivers.
In many instances, they lie entirely on the seabed. These pipelines are referred to as "marine"
pipelines as shown in figure 2 (also, "submarine" or "offshore" pipelines). They are used
primarily to carry oil or gas, but transportation of water is also important. The construction and
maintenance of marine pipelines imply logistical challenges that are different from those on land,
mainly because of wave and current dynamics, along with other geohazards.

Department of Civil Engineering 5 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

Fig 2: Marine pipeline

2.4. LOADS ACTING ON PIPELINE

Pipe that is buried underground must sustain other loads besides the internal fluid pressure. It
must support the soil overburden, groundwater, loads applied at the ground surface, such as
vehicular traffic, and forces induced by seismic motion. Buried pipe is, therefore, a structure as
well as a conduit for conveying fluid. The loads acting on pipeline can be classified as external
loads and internal loads.

2.4.1 External Loads

External loads include dead load or overburden pressure, live load and seismic load.

2.4.1.1 Overburden pressure

The vertical load that the pipe supports consists of a block of soil extending from the ground
surface to the top of the pipe plus (or minus) shear forces along the edges of the block. The shear
forces are developed when the soil prism above the pipe or the soil surrounding the prism settle
relative to each other. For example, the soil prism above the pipe in an excavated trench would
tend to settle relative to the surrounding soil. The shear forces between the backfill and the
undisturbed soil would resist the settlement, thus reducing the prism load to be carried by the
pipe. For a pipe placed on the ground and covered by a new fill, the effect may be the same or

Department of Civil Engineering 6 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

opposite, in which case the load to be supported by the pipe would be greater than the soil prism.
The difference in behavior depends on the difference in settlement between the pipe itself and
the fill material.

2.4.1.2 Live Load

Besides the direct loads imposed by the soil overburden, underground pipes must also sustain
loads applied on the ground surface. Typically, such loads occur as a result of wheeled traffic
highway trucks, railroad locomotives, and aircraft from passing over the route of the pipe.

2.4.1.3 Seismic Loads

In zones of high seismicity, buried conduits must be designed for the stresses imposed by
earthquake ground motions. As a general rule, the stresses in pipe walls due to seismic motion
induced strains are quite small and do not adversely affect the design. Since most design codes
allow for an increase in allowable stress, or a decrease in load factors, when seismic loads are
included in a load combination, buried pipes that are sized to sustain other design loads usually
have sufficient strength to resist seismic-imposed stresses.

2.4.2 Internal Loads

Internal load includes internal pressure and vacuum, Pipe and Contents

2.4.2.1 Internal Pressure and Vacuum

Underground pipe systems operate under varying levels of internal pressure. Gravity sewer lines
normally operate under fairly low internal pressure whereas water supply mains and industrial
process pipes may be subject to internal pressures of several hundred pounds per square inch.
High-pressure pipelines are often designed for a continuous operating pressure and for a short-
term transient pressure.
Certain operational events may cause a temporary vacuum in buried conduits. In most cases the
duration of application of vacuum loading is extremely short and its effects can usually be
examined separately from other live loads. For design, a hydraulic analysis of the system may be
used to predict the magnitude and time variation of transients in both the positive and negative
internal pressure.

Department of Civil Engineering 7 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

2.4.2.2 Pipe and Contents

The effects of dead weight of the pipe wall and the fluid carried must be resisted by the structural
capacity of the pipe. Neither of these loads contributes significantly to the overall stress state in
most circumstances. In practice, loads from these two sources are often neglected in design of
steel or plastic pipe, but they are usually included in design of prestressed and reinforced
concrete pressure pipe and can be included in design of concrete non-pressure pipe as well

3. PIPELINE LEAKAGES

As the transporting hazardous substances using miles-long pipelines has become popular across
the globe in recent decades, the chance of the critical accidents due to pipeline failures increases.
The major threat that occurs in pipelines is leakage. And the leakages lead to pipeline failure and
thus resulting in irreversible damages which include financial losses and extreme environmental
pollution, particularly when the leakage is not detected in a timely way. The average economic
loss due to incidents of pipeline leakages is enormous. Causes of pipeline damage may vary.
3.1 Causes of leakages

Based on assessments of the transmission pipeline failures over the last 20 years, the main causes
and contributing factors to pipeline rupture are given below.

3.1.1 Corrosion

Corrosion is the deterioration of a material that results from a reaction with its environment. In
the most common use of the word, this refers to the electrochemical oxidation of metals. Rusting,
the formation of iron oxides is a well known example of electrochemical corrosion. Failure
statistics indicate that approximately 24% of hazardous liquid pipeline incidents are caused by
corrosion. The buried external surface of the proposed pipeline would be exposed to a wide
variety of environmental conditions; from dry soils (considered to be less corrosive) to wet soils
containing salts and byproducts from fertilizers, agricultural chemicals, or animal wastes
(considered to be more corrosive).

Department of Civil Engineering 8 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

Corrosion of the pipe wall can occur either internally or externally. External corrosion may be
caused by damage to coatings, manufacturing defects within the metal, or through loss of the
cathode protection. Internal corrosion as shown in figure 4 occurs when corrosive liquids or
condensates are transported through the pipelines. Causes of internal corrosion include: chloride,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, oxygen, and microbiological activity that produces corrosive
conditions. Depending on the nature of the corrosive liquid and the transport velocity, different
forms of corrosion may occur, including uniform corrosion, sweet (carbon dioxide) corrosion,
sour (hydrogen sulfide) corrosion, oxygen corrosion, galvanic corrosion, pitting or crevice
corrosion, and erosion-corrosion.

Fig 3: Internal corrosion

3.1.1 Equipment and material defects and weld failures

It includes Gasket o-ring failure, seal or pump packing failure, control or relief equipment
malfunction, girth weld failures due to misalignment, incomplete fusion, weld cracks, improper
repair welds, defective fabrication weld, defective pipe seam, defective pipe, wrinkle, bend or
buckle, and other reasons) – about 36 percent of the incidents occurs due to this defects.

3.1.3 Other minor causes of leakages

I. Physical (mechanical) damage (gouges and dents, plain dents, wrinkles, etc) normally
created by handling during transportation, construction or maintenance activities or
by excavation by utility owners or operators or tenants near the pipelines).

Department of Civil Engineering 9 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

II. Wrinkle Bends- they are associated with the bending or buckling of pipe that result in
creating local indentations along the length of the failed area.

III. Constrained dents – these are the type of dents that are held in place during the process of
pressure cycling. The fatigue life for constrained dents is significantly lower than the fatigue
life for unconstrained dents

IV. Incorrect or negligent operation or inspection.

V. Damage due to natural forces (lightning, cold or freezing weather, earthquakes, heavy
rain or floods, earth movement, etc.)

VI. Other outside force damage (vandalism, terrorism).

VII. All other causes (SCADA breakdown, programming errors).

3.2 Other Modes of Failures

The occurrence of defects on the pipe body can compromise the structural integrity of the
pipeline. These defects can be caused by various situations, including: impact of components
that fall or otherwise damaged during rail or marine transportation or handling, excessive
bending at the installation phase, superficial cracks formed during the pipeline transportation to
the job site, and so on. Transportation-induced metal fatigue is a failure mechanism for pipe
transported primarily by railroad and has also been associated with marine transportation. This
type of fatigue is found along the longitudinal seam weld of the pipe and is caused by the cyclic
stresses imposed during transportation as the pipe is subjected to frequent motion.

4. PIPELINE RISK

Releases of products carried through pipelines can impact the environment and may result in
injuries or fatalities as well as property damage. The risk associated with pipelines varies
depending on a number of factors such as the product being transported in the pipeline, size and
operating pressure of the pipeline, as well as the population and natural resources near the
pipeline.

Department of Civil Engineering 10 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

The risks associated with hazardous liquid pipelines depend primarily on the commodity and the
characteristics of the surrounding area. Some hazardous liquids, such as propane, pose a near-
term hazard of fire or explosion. Other releases, such as crude oil, have greater risks for the
environment in both the short and long term. Crude oil spills can result in harm to human health
and the environment, including injuries or fatalities to fish and wildlife, and contamination of
drinking water supplies.

Waterfowl populations often experience direct mortality or significant injury from oil
spills. For example, oil coats bird feathers reducing their buoyancy, and when birds
groom themselves, they ingest the oil which will wreak havoc on their internal organs.
Additionally, oil on the surface of water blocks sunlight, damages fish eggs, and impacts
plankton, a primary food source for numerous fish and wildlife species. Oil can linger in
the environment for many years, even after a cleanup, continuing to affect fish, wildlife,
and humans. In addition to the environmental impacts of a spill, the potential economic
impact of an oil spill in the region leads to the property damage to a decrease in
tourism.

Fig 4: Impact of oil leakages in water Fig 5: Impact of oil leakages in waterfowl

For natural gas pipelines, the greatest risk is associated with fires or explosions caused
by ignition of the natural gas; This can cause significant property damage and injuries or
death. Additionally, the release of natural gas, primarily methane which is a very potent
greenhouse gas, contributes to climate change. Reduction of air quality as a result of
dust production during construction and emissions due to the combustion of fossil fuels

Department of Civil Engineering 11 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

used for construction equipment. And it Increased noise pollution as a result of

construction and pumping stations

5. LEAK DETECTION TECHINQUES

Several pipeline leak detection methods have been proposed during the last decades using
different working principles and approaches. Existing leakage detection methods are: acoustic
emission, fibre optic sensor, ground penetration radar, negative pressure wave, pressure point
analysis, dynamic modeling, vapour sampling, infrared thermography, digital signal processing
and mass-volume balance. These methods have been classified using various frameworks. In an
attempt to group these methods based on technical nature further research efforts have been
made which has led to the classification of available leakage detection systems into three major
groups, namely internal, non-technical or non-continuous and external methods.

The different methods are grouped into the following categories: exterior, visual or biological,
and interior or computational methods.

Pipeline Leakage Detection Methods

Exterior methods Visual/ Biological Interior/Computational

Methods based methods

Fig 6: Flow chart of different pipeline leakages detection approaches

The exterior approach utilizes various man-made sensing systems to achieve the detection task
outside pipelines. Moreover, the biological approach utilizes visual, auditory and olfactory
senses of trained dogs or experienced personnel to detect leakage. In addition, the interior
approach consists of software based methods that make use of smart computational algorithms
with the help of sensors monitoring the internal pipeline environment for detection task. Remote
monitoring can be achieved by carrying camera or sensing systems to designated locations by

Department of Civil Engineering 12 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

smart pigging, helicopter or Autonomous Underwater Vechiles (AUVs) or drones or using

sensor networks.

5.1. Exterior Based Leak Detection Methods

Exterior methods mainly involve the use of specific sensing devices to monitor the external part
of the pipelines. These methods can be used to determine abnormalities in the pipeline
surrounding and also detect the occurrence of leakages. Irrespective of the working principles
these sensing methods require some form of physical contact between the sensor probes and the
infrastructure under monitoring. Examples of these devices include acoustic sensing, fibre optic
sensing, vapour sampling, infrared thermography and ground penetration radar.

5.1.1Acoustic Emission Sensors

Acoustic emission is defined as “the class of phenomena where by transient elastic waves are
generated by the rapid release of energy from localised sources within a material, or the transient
waves so generated”. Acoustic emission employs noise or vibration generated as a result of a
sudden drop in pressure to detect the occurrence of pipeline leakage. When a pipeline leak occurs,
it generates elastic waves in the frequency range up to 1 MHz .Due to high-pressure fluid
escaping from the perforated point that allows one to detect pipeline leakage incidents. The time
lag between the acoustic signals sensed by two sensors is employed to identify the leakage
position and this method is applicable for the leak detection in all types of hydrocarbon fluid
pipelines-including oil and gas and water.

5.1.3. Fibre Optic Method

This method involves installation of fibre optic sensors along the exterior of the pipeline. The
sensors can be installed as a distributed or point sensor to extensively detect the variety of
physical and chemical properties of hydrocarbon spillage along the pipelines. The operation
principle of this method is that cable temperature will change when pipeline leakage occurs and
hydrocarbon fluid engross into the coating cable. By measuring the temperature variations in
fibre optic cable anomalies along the pipeline can be detected and this method is applicable for
the leak detection in all types of hydrocarbon fluid pipelines-including oil and gas and water.

Department of Civil Engineering 13 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

5.1.4. Vapour Sampling Method

Vapour sampling is generally used to determine the degree of hydrocarbon vapour in the
pipeline environment. Though, it is applicable in gas storage tank systems, it is also suitable to
determine gas discharges into the environment surrounding the pipeline. The tube is pressure
dependent and filled with air at atmospheric pressure. Oil spillage can be determined by
measuring the recorded gas concentration as a function of the pumping time for thus the degree
of absorption. In the events of pipelines leakages, vapour or gas diffuses into the tube as a result
of concentration gradient which, after a certain period, will generate an accumulated signal
indicating hydrocarbon flit in the tube environment. As the gas concentration increases the leak
peak also increases. The higher the gas concentration in the tube surrounding, the more the leak
peak increases and this method is applicable for the leak detection in all types of hydrocarbon
fluid pipelines-including oil and gas and water.

5.15. Infrared Thermography

Infrared Thermography( IRT) is an infrared image-based technique that can detect temperature
changes in the pipeline environment using infrared cameras which shows the infrared range of
900–1400nm .The image captured using an IR thermography camera is referred to as a
thermogram. The basic function of thermography cameras is illustrated in Figure 7. Since
changes in temperature measurements are one of the common indications of gas discharge in the
pipelines surrounding as gas leaks usually cause abnormal temperature distribution, therefore,
using IRT for pipeline monitoring become widely accepted due to its capability to measure
temperature changes in real-time and in a non-contact manner. Infrared Thermography technique
is only used to detect the leakages in oil and gas pipeline.

Department of Civil Engineering 14 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

Fig 7 : Basic functions of an IR thermography camera

5.1.6. Ground Penetration Radar

The emergence of ground penetration radar (GPR) is considered as an environmental tool which
is valuable to detect and identify physical structures such as buried pipelines, water
concentrations and landfill debris in the ground. GPR is a non-invasive high resolution
instrument which utilises electromagnetic wave propagation and scattering techniques to detect
alterations in the magnetic and electrical properties of soil in the pipeline surrounding. Detection
of subsurface objects using then radar approach was first proposed by Cook in 1960. Readers are
referred to for the basic working principles of GPR. It can only be applied to underground
pipeline networks and this technique is only used to detect the leakages in water and gas pipeline.

5.2. Visual or Biological Leak Detection Methods

Visual or biological methods of detecting leakages refer to the traditional process of detecting oil
spillage in pipeline surroundings using trained dogs, experienced personnel, smart pigging or
helicopters or drones. This method usually utilizes trained personnel who walk along the
pipelines and search for anomalous conditions in the pipelines environment. Trained observers
can recognize the leaks through visual observation or smelling the odour coming out from crack
point. Similarly, the noise or vibrations generated as oil escapes from rupture point also
applicable in this method to detect and locate pipeline failures. Both dogs and smart pigging

Department of Civil Engineering 15 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

function in a similar way to the experienced personnel. The pig is sometimes equipped with
sensors and data recording devices such as fluorescent, optical camera or video sensors with
great sensing range if the visibility level is high. A trained dog is more sensitive to the odour of
certain gases than human beings or pigging in some cases. Conversely, dogs are not effective for
prolonged operation for more than 30–120 min of continuous searching due to fatigue. These on-
site inspection methods can only be applied to onshore or shallow offshore pipeline networks.
Besides, the detection time is also based on the frequency of inspections which normally takes
place in some countries such as the USA for at least once every three weeks.

5.3. Interior or Computational Methods

Interior or computational methods utilize internal fluid measurement instruments to monitor

parameters associated with fluid flow in pipelines. These systems are used to continuously
monitor the status of petroleum products inside the pipeline such as pressure, flow rate,
temperature, density, volume and other parameters which quantitatively characterise the released
products. By fusing the information conveyed from internal pipeline states, the discrepancy
between two different sections of the pipeline can be used to determine the occurrence of leakage
based on various methods, namely mass-volume balance, negative pressure waves, pressure
point analysis, digital signal processing and dynamic modeling. Table 2 gives a brief description
about the various interior pipe leak detection methods.

5.3.1. Mass-Volume Balance

The mass-volume balance approach for leak detection is straight forward. Its operation is based
on the principle of mass conservation. The principle states that a fluid that enters the pipe section
remains inside the pipe until it exits from the pipeline section. In a normal cylindrical pipeline
network, the inflow and outflow fluid can be metered. In the absence of leakage, the assumption
is that the inflow and outflow measured at the two ends of the pipeline section must be balanced,
so a discrepancy between the measured mass-volume flows at the two ends of the pipeline
indicates the presence of a leakage.

Department of Civil Engineering 16 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

5.3.2. Negative Pressure

Wave Leak detection techniques using negative pressure waves (NPWs) are based on the
principle that when a leakage occurs, it causes a pressure alteration as well as a decrease in flow
speed which results in an instantaneous pressure drop and speed variation along the pipeline. As
the instantaneous pressure drop occurs, it generates a negative pressure wave at the leak position
and propagates the wave with a certain speed towards the upstream and downstream ends of the
pipe. The wave contains leakage information which can be estimated through visual inspection
and signal analysis to determine the leakage location by virtue of the time difference with which
the waves reach the pipeline ends. A NPW-based leakage detection technique is cost-effective as
it requires little in the way of hardware in the whole pipeline network to detect and locate leaks.

5.3.3. Pressure Point Analysis

The pressure point analysis (PPA) method is a leak detection technique based upon the
statistical properties of measured pressures at different points along the pipeline. The leakage is
determined through the comparison of the measured values against the running statistical trend
of the previous measurements. If the statistical pressure of the new incoming data is considerably
smaller than the previous value or smaller than a predefined threshold, it indicates a leakage
event. This method is considered as one of the fastest ways of detecting the presence of leakage
in a pipeline based on the fact that existence of leak always results in an immediate pressure drop
at the leakage point.

5.3.4. Digital Signal Processing

In digital signal processing approaches, the extracted information such as amplitudes, wavelet
transform coefficients and others frequency response is employed to determine leakage events.
Generally, pipeline leak detection using digital signal processing involves five steps as follows:

(1) Initially internal sensors measure in-pipe pressure or flow

(2) After data acquisition, the acquired data is pre-processed to filter the background noise for
efficient feature extraction.

Department of Civil Engineering 17 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

(3) In the feature extraction step, various statistical, spectral and signal transform techniques are
employed to extract relevant features to monitor the state of hydrocarbon fluid transport in the
pipeline.

(4) The pattern of the extracted feature is compared with the known pre-set signal or previous
features for decision making.

(5) Leakage detection is achieved through the comparison of the pattern with the threshold.
Figure 8 shows the architecture of pipeline leaks detection based on digital signal processing.

Fig 8 : The architecture of pipeline leaks detection based on digital signal proceesing

5.3.5. Dynamic Modelling

Dynamic modelling-based pipeline leak systems are gaining considerable attention as they
appear to be a promising technique for the detection of anomalies in both surface and subsea
pipeline networks. In this approach, mathematical models are formulated to represent the
operation of a pipeline system based on physics principles.

The detection of leakages using this method is performed from two different points of views:
Statistical point of view and Transient point of view. From the statistical point of view, the
system utilises decision theory based on the assumption that parameters associated with fluid
flowing remain constant except in the presence of anomalies along the pipeline. Hypothesis

Department of Civil Engineering 18 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

testing involved for detecting leakage is based on the uncompensated mass balance through the
utilisation of either single or multiple measurements carried out at different time instants.

6. PERFORMANCE COMPARISON OF LEAK DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES

Mutiu Adesina Adegboye,Wai-Keung Fung and Aditya Karnik (2019) conducted a comparative
study on “Recent advances in pipeline monitoring and oil leakage detection technologies:
principles and approaches”. They analysed the performance of various pipeline leak detection
techniques considering: system operational cost, sensitivity, accuracy, leak localisation, system
mode of operation, ease of usage, leak size estimation, ease of retrofitting and false alarm rate.
The analysis was performed using two and three-level performance comparison. In three-level
analysis comparison, the operational cost, sensitivity and false alarm rate were compared in the
range of low, medium and high. Figure 7 shows the bar chart representing the three-level
analysis of the reviewed methods based on their unique strengths and weaknesses.

4
Operational cost
3 Sensitivity
2 Detection

1 False alarm

Figure 9: Three level performance analysis comparison

Department of Civil Engineering 19 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

As shown in Figure 7, most of the techniques have high operational cost except NPW and vapour
sampling. However, the high rate of false alarms is the major weakness of these two methods. In
general, all methods perform well in terms of sensitivity, except IRT, GPR and NPW. The rates
of false alarms in most of the techniques such as acoustic emission, NPW, vapour sampling,
dynamic modelling and DSP is high. Though many researchers have been working on alleviating
these drawbacks, reducing false alarms in acoustic emission and DSP appears to be a challenging
task as acoustic emissions are highly sensitive to random ambient noise and the DSP approach
mainly depends on instrument calibration accuracy. Besides, different circumstances such as
pipeline corrosion, bending and blockage can easily lead to false alarms in DSP. Among all the
reviewed methods, the dynamic modelling method shows high sensitivity in detecting the
presence of pipeline leakages. However, the high complexity of the mathematical models
involved and strict experienced personnel requirements are the key challenges of this method.
With the help of recent advances in high performance computing and cloud computing
technologies, the dynamic modelling approach will become more and more popular in the oil and
gas industry.

The performances of various pipeline leakage detection methods are next compared using two-
level performance analysis. System accuracy, system mode of operation, leak localisation, leak
size estimation, ease of usage and ease of retrofitting are the criteria employed to evaluate the
performance of the reviewed methods using a yes or no, high or low, and steady or transient state
or not applicable. Table 3 shows a summary of the comparison. The study shows that none of the
methods satisfies all attributes as they all vary in merits and critical shortcomings.

Department of Civil Engineering 20 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

Table 1. Two-level performance analysis comparison

Performance Comparison Metric

Methods System Leak Leak Size Ease Ease of Operatio
Accuracy Localisation Estimation of Retrofitti nal Mode
Usage ng
Acoustic High, but Yes No Yes Yes -
Emission sensitive to
random noise

Fibre Optic High Yes Yes Yes Yes -

Sensing

Vapour Depends on No No Yes Yes -

Sampling sensing tube
closeness to
spilled gas
Infrared High Yes No Yes Yes -
Thermograph
y
Ground Low Yes No Yes Yes -
Penetration
Radar
Mass-volume Low, depends No Yes Yes Yes Steady
Balance on instrument state
calibration and
leak size
Negative Low Yes No Yes Yes Steady
Pressure state
Wave
Pressure Low Yes Yes Yes Yes Steady
Point state
Analysis
Digital Depends on Yes No Yes Yes Stead
Signal leakage size state
Processing and sensor
used

Dynamic High, depends Yes Yes No Yes Both

Modelling on pipeline steady
stability and and
mathematical transient
model state

Department of Civil Engineering 21 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

7: CASE STUDY-UNDERGROUND PIPELINE GAS EXPLOSION IN ANDHRA

PRADESH (2014)

Nagaram GAIL blast that which had occurred in the early morning hours of June 27 th 2014 took
the lives of 23 people in which 6 children were burned alive in the sleep and 16 others got severe
burns at Nagaram village of Mamidikuduru mandal of East Godavari District in the state of
Andhra Pradesh. The leaking GAIL gas pipeline spread over 1kmradius, and villagers woke up
to deafening noise and huge flames after the pipeline belonging to Gas Authority of India
Limited (GAIL) suddenly caught fire near an ONGC connecting station. Flames rose to as high
as 250m and 150m away from GAIL station. The district administration rushed to the spot and
started immediate rescue operations with the help of fire engine department and utilized the other
medical logistics.

7.1. Cause of the accident

The major reasons for this man made hazard are, lack of surveillance, GAIL officials negligence,
improper checking and maintenance of repairing of gas pipe rusting and leaking and hovered
GAIL administration. In the application submitted to Chief Controller of Explosives (CCOE) on
July 24, 2001, GAIL committed to set up a gas dehydration unit (GDU) at the start of the
pipeline at Tatipaka to strip water and condensate from “wet” natural gas so as to prevent
pipeline corrosion and leakage of inflammable condensate and gas in the open. But they didn’t
set up GDU at Tatipaka, as committed while seeking CCOE permission under Manufacture,
Storage & Transportation of Hazardous Chemical Rules of 1989. GAIL has apparently flouted
the declaration to the statutory authority as well as the declared design basis by not providing
GDU at Tatipaka and Mori. Absence of GDU contributed to increasing the internal corrosion
rate in the pipeline, says the Enquiry report. Pipeline was designed on the basis of handling dry
natural gas. However, it was being regularly used for transportation of wet gas without taking
any additional precautionary measures. Wet gas contains free water, carbon dioxide, sulphur etc
which induced internal corrosion in the pipeline. The enquiry committee’s finding is that the
explosion, followed by a major fire, was due to leakage of condensate and gas which was
probably continuing from the night before the incident. The 200km gas pipeline, 18 inches in

Department of Civil Engineering 22 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

diameter, stretches from Tatipaka refinery that produces seven lakh cubic meters of natural gas
per day. The leak probably occurred overnight and was undetected due to cloudy conditions, and
the gas settled at a lower height. The condensate formed vapour cloud with gas pockets, and
triggered a major fire when a tea vendor lighted the stove.

The probe ordered to investigate by petroleum and natural gas and the probe team comprising
Oil Industry Safety Directorate, National Disaster Management Authority among other agencies.
The probe report reflects the fire flashed back to the source of leak i.e. at pipe near to the canal,
resulting in the bursting and ripping away of the pipe and leading to leakage of huge quantity of
hydrocarbon from the pipeline, thereby increasing the intensity of the fire. Corrosion and leaks
were a regular affair and the section between Tatipaka and chain age 5.8km experienced seven
leaks in last two years. But GAIL persisted in operating this line with wet gas, despite being
aware of the leaks, and resorted to makeshift repairs by small contractors who would weld
clamps, sleeves or pads to cover the leaks. No inspection was carried out in spite of repeated
leaks. The ‘lapses observed’ section says the “inadequate systems or approach of GAIL in
undertaking repeated repair of these high pressure lines by following temporary measures with
the help of clamps or sleeves or pads was a factor in this accident.

7.2. Consequences:

This massive GAIL pipeline blaze took the lives of 23 people in which 6 children were also
burned alive in the sleep and 16 others got severe burns. The huge flames engulfed an entire
village trapping about 30 people, and burning hundreds of tall coconut trees and about 50 houses,
shops and 16 vehicles to ashes. After effects of this accident is picturised in figure 8.

Department of Civil Engineering 23 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

Fig 10: After effects of the accidents

8. CONCLUSIONS

Pipelines play a vital role in the world for the transportation of water to hazardous chemicals.
Even though pipelines are the safest means of transportation compared to other modes, so many
accidents are reported from all over the world. So it is important to monitor the pipeline and
detect the pipeline frequently. Various studies reveal that most of the accidents are anthropogenic
hazard and it lies in human hands. So in order to avoid such tragedies, efficient and reliable
equipment and well educated and trained officials are the best options for anthropogenic hazard
prevention and to avoid environmental damages. Today scientist had invented many techniques
to detect the leakages, using it effectively we can avoid most of the tragedies due to pipeline
accidents. Various techniques include: Acoustic emission, fibre optic sensing, vapour sampling,
infrared thermography, ground penetration radar, mass-volume balance, negative pressure wave,
pressure point analysis, digital signal processing and dynamic modelling. All the above
mentioned techniques were compared on the basis of its performance and it was found that each
technique have its own merits and defects but dynamic modeling is considered as the one of the
best techniques among that.

Department of Civil Engineering 24 Thejus Engineering College

 Seminar 2020

REFERENCES

Mutiu Adesina Adegboye ,Wai-Keung Fung and Aditya Karnik,” Recent Advances in Pipeline
Monitoring and Oil Leakage Detection Technologies: Principles and Approaches”, June 2019.

Jonathan Fiedler,” An Overview of Pipeline Leak Detection Technologies.

Xingmeng G and Chunyan D,”Accidents Investigation and Cause Analysis of Urban

Underground Pipelines in Beijing”, Octaber 2017.

Dharma Wijewickreme and Lalinda Weerasekara,” Pipeline Geotechnical Engineering”.

M. Roja Lakshmia, V.Dileep kumarb, “Anthropogenic hazard and disaster relief operations: A
case study of GAIL pipeline blaze in east Godavari of A.P”,2015.

Oil and Gas Pipeline fundamentals by John L.Kennedy.

Department of Civil Engineering 25 Thejus Engineering College