Ernst Friedrich "Fritz" Schumacher (16 August 1911 – 4 September 1977) was an

internationally influential economic thinker, statistician and economist in Britain, serving as

Chief Economic Advisor to the UK National Coal Board for two decades.[1] His ideas became
popularized in much of the English-speaking world during the 1970s. He is best known for his
critique of Western economies and his proposals for human-scale, decentralized and appropriate
technologies. According to The Times Literary Supplement, his 1973 book Small Is Beautiful is
among the 100 most influential books published since World War II.[2] and was soon translated
into many languages, bringing him international fame. Schumacher's basic development theories
have been summed up in the catch-phrases Intermediate Size and Intermediate Technology. In
1977 he published A Guide For The Perplexed as a critique of materialist scientism and as an
exploration of the nature and organization of knowledge. Together with long-time friends and
associates like Professor Mansur Hoda, Schumacher founded the Intermediate Technology
Development Group (now Practical Action) in 1966.

It is generally thought that his farsighted planning contributed to Britain's post-war economic recovery.
Schumacher predicted the rise of OPEC and many of the problems of nuclear power.

Appropriate technology is an ideological movement (and its manifestations) originally

articulated as "intermediate technology" by the economist Dr. Ernst Friedrich "Fritz"
Schumacher in his influential work, Small is Beautiful. Though the nuances of appropriate
technology vary between fields and applications, it is generally recognized as encompassing
technological choice and application that is small scale, labor intensive, energy efficient,
environmentally sound and locally controlled.[1] Both Schumacher and many modern-day
proponents of appropriate technology also emphasize the technology as people centered.[2]

Appropriate technology is most commonly discussed in its relationship to economic

development and as an alternative to transfers of capital-intensive technology from industrialized
nations to developing countries.[3] [2] However, appropriate technology movements can be found
in both developing and developed countries. In developed countries, the appropriate technology
movement grew out of the energy crisis of the 1970s and focuses mainly on environmental and
sustainability issues.[4]

Appropriate technology has been used to address issues in a wide range of fields. Well-known
examples of appropriate technology applications include: the One Laptop Per Child XO laptop,
bike- and hand-powered water pumps (and other self-powered equipment), the universal nut
sheller, self-contained solar-powered lightbulbs and streetlights, and passive solar building
designs. He served as adviser to the India Planning Commission, as well as to the governments
of Zambia and Burma — an experience that led to his much-read essay on "Buddhist
Economics."

The 1973 publication of Small is Beautiful, a collection of essays, brought his ideas to a wider
audience. One of his main arguments in Small is Beautiful is that we cannot consider the
problem of technological production solved if it requires that we recklessly erode our finite
natural capital and deprive future generations of its benefits. Schumacher's work coincided with
the growth of ecological concerns and with the birth of environmentalism and he became a hero
to many in the environmental movement and community movement.
In 1976, he received the prestigious award Prix Européen de l'Essai Charles Veillon for Small is
Beautiful

His 1977 work A Guide For The Perplexed is both a critique of materialistic scientism and an
exploration of the nature and organization of knowledge.

For Schumacher there were three main culprits, that had all been corrosive agents in a world
which had lost sight of individual responsibility and a world bound to the parameters of realism
and science. These were Freud, Marx and Einstein. Freud had made perception subjective
through his teaching that perception was subject to the complex interplay of the ego and the id,
literally rendering it self-centered. This led inevitably to a change of attitude in human relations
where self-fulfillment took precedence over the needs of others. Marx, by seeking a scapegoat in
the bourgeoisie, had replaced personal responsibility with a hatred for others. His fault lay in his
blaming of others for problems with society. Einstein had supposedly undermined belief in
absolutes with his insistence on the relativity of everything. The application of 'relativity' in all
other fields including morality, led to rejection of moral codes and responsibility (2). (Of course,
Einstein's actual theory of relativity was strictly limited to physics, and its correctness has been
thoroughly verified by experiment.)

[edit] Three Planes of Thought

In May 1957, in a talk he called 'The Insufficiency of Liberalism' he gave an exposition of what
he termed the “three stages of development”. The first great leap, he said, was made when man
moved from stage one of primitive religion to stage two of scientific realism. This is the stage
most modern men tend to be in. A few move to the third stage in which one can find, in the
lapses and deficiencies in science and realism, that there is something beyond fact and science.
He called this stage three. The problem, he explained, was that stage one and stage three appear
to be exactly the same to people stuck in stage two. Consequently, those in stage three are seen
as having had some sort of a relapse into childish nonsense. Only those in stage three can
understand the differences between the three stages and between stage one and stage three in
particular.

[edit] Labour

In 1955 Schumacher traveled to Burma as an economic consultant. While there, he developed the
principles of what he called "Buddhist economics", based on the belief that good work was
essential for proper human development and that "production from local resources for local
needs is the most rational way of economic life." (1)

The following four quotes from Schumacher are said to exemplify his ideas:
First Five-Year Plan, 1951–1956
The first Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru presented the first five-year plan to the
Parliament of India on 8 December 1951. The plan addressed, mainly, the agrarian sector,
including investments in dams and irrigation. The agricultural sector was hit hardest by the
partition of India and needed urgent attention.[3] The total planned budget of 206.8 billion
(US$23.6 billion in the 1950 exchange rate) was allocated to seven broad areas: irrigation and
energy (27.2 percent), agriculture and community development (17.4 percent), transport and he
net domestic product went up by 15%. The monsoon was good and there were relatively high
crop yields, boosting exchange reserves and the per capita income, which increased by 8%.
National income increased more than the per capita income due to rapid population growth.
Many irrigation projects were initiated during this period, including the Bhakra Dam and
Hirakud Dam. The World Health Organization, with the Indian government, addressed children's
health and reduced infant mortality, indirectly contributing to population growth.

At the end of the plan period in 1956, five Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) were started as
major technical institutions. The University Grant Commission was set up to take care of funding
and take measures to strengthen the higher education in the country.[4] Contracts were signed to
start five steel plants, which came into existence in the middle of the second five-year plan.

Second Five-Year Plan, 1956–1961

This plan functioned on the basis of a new model. The Mahalanobis model was propounded by
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in the year 1953. The second five-year plan focused on industry,
especially heavy industry. Unlike the First plan, which focused mainly on agriculture, domestic
production of industrial products was encouraged in the Second plan, particularly in the
development of the public sector. The plan followed the Mahalanobis model, an economic
development model developed by the Indian statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis in 1953.
The plan attempted to determine the optimal allocation of investment between productive sectors
in order to maximise long-run economic growth . It used the prevalent state of art techniques of
operations research and optimization as well as the novel applications of statistical models
developed at the Indian Statiatical Institute. The plan assumed a closed economy in which the
main trading activity would be centered on importing capital goods.[5][6]

Hydroelectric power projects and five steel mills at Bhilai, Durgapur, and Rourkela were
established. Coal production was increased. More railway lines were added in the north east.

The Atomic Energy Commission was formed in 1948 with Homi J. Bhabha as the first chairman.
The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was established as a research institute. In 1957 a
talent search and scholarship program was begun to find talented young students to train for
work in nuclear power.

The total amount allocated under the second five year plan in India was Rs. 4,800 crore. This
amount was allocated among various sectors:
  Mining and industry
 Community and agriculture development
 Power and irrigation
 Social services
 Communications and transport
 Miscellaneous

Target Growth: 4.5% Actual Growth: 4.27%

Third Five-Year Plan, 1961–1966

The third plan stressed on agriculture and improving production of rice, but the brief Sino-Indian
War of 1962 exposed weaknesses in the economy and shifted the focus towards the Defence
industry. In 1965-1966, India fought a war with Pakistan. The war led to inflation and the
priority was shifted to price stabilisation. The construction of dams continued. Many cement and
fertilizer plants were also built. Punjab began producing an abundance of wheat.

Many primary schools were started in rural areas. In an effort to bring democracy to the
grassroot level, Panchayat elections were started and the states were given more development
responsibilities.

State electricity boards and state secondary education boards were formed. States were made
responsible for secondary and higher education. State road transportation corporations were
formed and local road building became a state responsibility. The target growth rate of
GDP(gross domestic product)was 5.6 percent.The achieved growth rate was 2.84 percent.[citation
needed]

Fourth Five-Year Plan, 1969–1974

At this time Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister. The Indira Gandhi government nationalised
14 major Indian banks and the Green Revolution in India advanced agriculture. In addition, the
situation in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) was becoming dire as the Indo-Pakistani War of
1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War took place.

Funds earmarked for the industrial development had to be diverted for the war effort. India also
performed the Smiling Buddha underground nuclear test in 1974, partially in response to the
United States deployment of the Seventh Fleet in the Bay of Bengal. The fleet had been deployed
to warn India against attacking West Pakistan and extending the war.

Target Growth: 5.7% Actual Growth: 3.30%

Fifth Five-Year Plan, 1974–1979

Stress was laid on employment, poverty alleviation, and justice. The plan also focused on self-
reliance in agricultural production and defence. In 1978 the newly elected Morarji Desai
government rejected the plan. Electricity Supply Act was enacted in 1975, which enabled the
Central Government to enter into power generation and transmission.[citation needed] leaders.

The Indian national highway system was introduced for the first time and many roads were
widened to accommodate the increasing traffic. Tourism also expanded.

Target Growth: 4.4% Actual Growth: 4.8%

Sixth Five-Year Plan, 1980–1985

The sixth plan also marked the beginning of economic liberalization. Price controls were
eliminated and ration shops were closed. This led to an increase in food prices and an increase in
the cost of living. This was the end of Nehruvian Plan and Rajiv Gandhi was prime minister
during this period.

Family planning was also expanded in order to prevent overpopulation. In contrast to China's
strict and binding one-child policy, Indian policy did not rely on the threat of force. More
prosperous areas of India adopted family planning more rapidly than less prosperous areas,
which continued to have a high birth rate.

Target Growth: 5.2% Actual Growth: 5.66%

Seventh Five-Year Plan, 1985–1990

The Seventh Plan marked the comeback of the Congress Party to power. The plan laid stress on
improving the productivity level of industries by upgrading of technology.

The main objectives of the 7th five year plans were to establish growth in areas of increasing
economic productivity, production of food grains, and generating employment opportunities.

As an outcome of the sixth five year plan, there had been steady growth in agriculture, control on
rate of Inflation, and favourable balance of payments which had provided a strong base for the
seventh five Year plan to build on the need for further economic growth. The 7th Plan had
strived towards socialism and energy production at large. The thrust areas of the 7th Five year
plan have been enlisted below:

 Social Justice
 Removal of oppression of the weak
 Using modern technology
 Agricultural development
 Anti-poverty programs
 Full supply of food, clothing, and shelter
 Increasing productivity of small and large scale farmers
  Making India an Independent Economy

Based on a 15-year period of striving towards steady growth, the 7th Plan was focused on
achieving the pre-requisites of self-sustaining growth by the year 2000. The Plan expected a
growth in labour force of 39 million people and employment was expected to grow at the rate of
4 percent per year.

Some of the expected outcomes of the Seventh Five Year Plan India are given below:

 Balance of Payments (estimates): Export - 33,000 crore (US$7.3 billion), Imports - (-)
54,000 crore (US$12 billion), Trade Balance - (-) 21,000 crore (US$4.7 billion)
 Merchandise exports (estimates): 60,653 crore (US$13.5 billion)
 Merchandise imports (estimates): 95,437 crore (US$21.2 billion)
 Projections for Balance of Payments: Export - 60,700 crore (US$13.5 billion), Imports -
(-) 95,400 crore (US$21.2 billion), Trade Balance- (-) 34,700 crore (US$7.7 billion)

Seventh Five Year Plan India strove to bring about a self-sustained economy in the country with
valuable contributions from voluntary agencies and the general populace.

Target Growth: 5.0% Actual Growth: 6.01%

Period between 1989–1991

1989-91 was a period of political instability in India and hence no five year plan was
implemented. Between 1990 and 1992, there were only Annual Plans. In 1991, India faced a
crisis in Foreign Exchange (Forex) reserves, left with reserves of only about US$1 billion. Thus,
under pressure, the country took the risk of reforming the socialist economy. P.V. Narasimha
Rao)was the twelfth Prime Minister of the Republic of India and head of Congress Party, and led
one of the most important administrations in India's modern history overseeing a major economic
transformation and several incidents affecting national security. At that time Dr. Manmohan
Singh (currently, Prime Minister of India) launched India's free market reforms that brought the
nearly bankrupt nation back from the edge. It was the beginning of privatisation and
liberalisation in India.

Eighth Five-Year Plan, 1992–1997

Modernization of industries was a major highlight of the Eighth Plan. Under this plan, the
gradual opening of the Indian economy was undertaken to correct the burgeoning deficit and
foreign debt. Meanwhile India became a member of the World Trade Organization on 1 January
1995.This plan can be termed as Rao and Manmohan model of Economic development. The
major objectives included, controlling population growth, poverty reduction, employment
generation, strengthening the infrastructure, Institutional building,tourism management, Human
Resource development, Involvement of Panchayat raj, Nagarapalikas, N.G.O'S and
Decentralisation and people's participation. Energy was given prority with 26.6% of the outlay.
An average annual growth rate of 6.78% against the target 5.6% was achieved.
Ninth Five-Year Plan, 1997–2002
Ninth Five Year Plan India runs through the period from 1997 to 2002 with the main aim of
attaining objectives like speedy industrialization, human development, full-scale employment,
poverty reduction, and self-reliance on domestic resources.

Background of Ninth Five Year Plan India: Ninth Five Year Plan was formulated amidst the
backdrop of India's Golden jubilee of Independence.

The main objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan of India are:

 to prioritize agricultural sector and emphasize on the rural development

 to generate adequate employment opportunities and promote poverty reduction
 to stabilize the prices in order to accelerate the growth rate of the economy
 to ensure food and nutritional security
 to provide for the basic infrastructural facilities like education for all, safe drinking water,
primary health care, transport, energy
 to check the growing population increase
 to encourage social issues like women empowerment, conservation of certain benefits for
the Special Groups of the society
 to create a liberal market for increase in private investments

During the Ninth Plan period, the growth rate was 5.35 per cent, a percentage point lower than
the target GDP growth of 6.5 per cent. [7]

Tenth Five-Year Plan, 2002–2007

 Target GDP growth was 8% and attained 8%.
 Reduction of poverty ratio by 5 percentage points by 2007.
 Providing gainful and high-quality employment at least to the addition to the labour
force;*All children in India in school by 2003; all children to complete 5 years of
schooling by 2007.
 Reduction in gender gaps in literacy and wage rates by at least 50% by 2007;*Reduction
in the decadal rate of population growth between 2001 and 2011 to 16.2%;*Increase in
Literacy Rates to 75 per cent within the Tenth Plan period (2002 to 2007).

Eleventh Five-Year Plan, 2007–2012

The eleventh plan has the following objectives:

1. Income & Poverty

o Accelerate GDP growth from 8% to 10% and then maintain at 10% in the 12th
Plan in order to double per capita income by 2016-17
 o Increase agricultural GDP growth rate to 4% per year to ensure a broader spread
of benefits
o Create 70 million new work opportunities.
o Reduce educated unemployment to below 5%.
o Raise real wage rate of unskilled workers by 20 percent.
o Reduce the headcount ratio of consumption poverty by 10 percentage points.
2. Education
o Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52.2% in 2003-04
to 20% by 2011-12
o Develop minimum standards of educational attainment in elementary school, and
by regular testing monitor effectiveness of education to ensure quality
o Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or above to 85%
o Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage point
o Increase the percentage of each cohort going to higher education from the present
10% to 15% by the end of the plan
3. Health
o Reduce infant mortality rate to 28 and maternal mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live
births
o Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1
o Provide clean drinking water for all by 2009 and ensure that there are no slip-
backs
o Reduce malnutrition among children of age group 0-3 to half its present level
o Reduce anaemia among women and girls by 50% by the end of the plan
4. Women and Children
o Raise the sex ratio for age group 0-6 to 935 by 2011-12 and to 950 by 2016-17
o Ensure that at least 33 percent of the direct and indirect beneficiaries of all
government schemes are women and girl children
o Ensure that all children enjoy a safe childhood, without any compulsion to work
5. Infrastructure
o Ensure electricity connection to all villages and BPL households by 2009 and
round-the-clock power.
o Ensure all-weather road connection to all habitation with population 1000 and
above (500 in hilly and tribal areas) by 2009, and ensure coverage of all
significant habitation by 2015
o Connect every village by telephone by November 2007 and provide broadband
connectivity to all villages by 2012
o Provide homestead sites to all by 2012 and step up the pace of house construction
for rural poor to cover all the poor by 2016-17
6. Environment
o Increase forest and tree cover by 5 percentage points.
o Attain WHO standards of air quality in all major cities by 2011-12.
o Treat all urban waste water by 2011-12 to clean river waters.
o Increase energy efficiency by 20 percentage points by 2016-17.
Twelfth Five-Year Plan, 2012–2017
 Target GDP growth 9% - 9.5%.
 Increase in Literacy Rates to 100 per cent within the 12th Plan period (2012 to 2017).
 Increase expenditure on health from 1.3% to at least 2.0-2.5% of GDP.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank established on 22 August 1966 to
facilitate economic development of countries in Asia. [2] The bank admits the members of the United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, formerly known as the
United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East) and non-regional developed countries.[2]
From 31 members at its establishment, ADB now has 67 members - of which 48 are from within Asia and
the Pacific and 19 outside. ADB was modeled closely on the World Bank, and has a similar weighted
voting system where votes are distributed in proportion with member's capital subscriptions. At
present, both the United States and Japan hold 552,210 shares, the largest proportion of shares at
12.756% each.[3]

HeadquThe International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is one of five institutions
that comprise the World Bank Group. The IBRD is an international organization whose original mission
was to finance the reconstruction of nations devastated by World War II. Now, its mission has expanded
to fight poverty by means of financing states. Its operation is maintained through payments as regulated
by member states. It came into existence on December 27, 1945 following international ratification of
the agreements reached at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference of July 1 to July 22,
1944 in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire.arters Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila, Philippines

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is the intergovernmental organization that oversees
the global financial system by following the macroeconomic policies of its member countries, in
particular those with an impact on exchange rate and the balance of payments. Its objectives are
to stabilize international exchange rates and facilitate development through the encouragement of
liberalising economic policies[1] in other countries as a condition of loans, debt relief, and aid.[2] It
also offers loans with varying levels of conditionality, mainly to poorer countries. Its
headquarters are in Washington, D.C., United States. The IMF's relatively high influence in
world affairs and development has drawn heavy criticism from some sources.[3][4]

The International Monetary Fund was conceived in July 1944 originally with 45 members
and came into existence in December 1945 when 29 countries signed the agreement,[5] with a
goal to stabilize exchange rates and assist the reconstruction of the world's international payment
system. Countries contributed to a pool which could be borrowed from, on a temporary basis, by
countries with payment imbalances. The IMF was important when it was first created because it
helped the world stabilize the economic system. The IMF works to improve the economies of its
member countries.[6] The IMF describes itself as "an organization of 187 countries (as of July
2010), working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate
international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce
poverty".

The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) is a member organization of the

World Bank Group that offers political risk insurance. It was established to promote foreign
direct investment into developing countries. MIGA was founded in 1988 with a capital base of
$1 billion and is headquartered in Washington, DC. 175 member countries comprise MIGA's
shareholders.[1]

MIGA promotes foreign direct investment into developing countries by insuring investors
against political risk, advising governments on attracting investment, sharing information
through on-line investment information services, and mediating disputes between investors and
governments. MIGA's membership in the World Bank Group enables the organization to
intervene with host governments to resolve claims before they are filed.[2]

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, French:

Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, OCDE) is an international
economic organisation of 34 countries founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and
world trade. It defines itself as a forum of countries committed to democracy and the market
economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seeking answers to common
problems, identifying good practices, and co-ordinating domestic and international policies of its
members.

The OECD originated in 1948 as the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation
(OEEC), led by Robert Marjolin of France, to help administer the Marshall Plan for the
reconstruction of Europe after World War II. Later, its membership was extended to non-
European states. In 1961, it was reformed into the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development by the Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development. Most OECD members are high-income economies with a high Human
Development Index (HDI) and are regarded as developed countries.

The OECD's headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris, France.

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating
cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress,
human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II
to replace the League of Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform for
dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions.

There are currently 192 member states, including every internationally recognised sovereign
state in the world but the Vatican City. From its offices around the world, the UN and its
specialized agencies decide on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held
throughout the year. The organization has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main
deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and
security); the Economic and Social Council (for assisting in promoting international economic
and social cooperation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and
facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and
the United Nations Trusteeship Council (which is currently inactive). Other prominent UN
System agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Food Programme
(WFP) and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). The UN's most visible public figure is
the Secretary-General, currently Ban Ki-moon of South Korea, who attained the post in 2007.
The organization is financed from assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states,
and has six official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish.[2]

United Nations Children's Fund (or UNICEF; pronounced /ˈjuːnɨsɛf/ EW-ni-sef[1]) was created by the
United Nations General Assembly on December 11, 1946, to provide emergency food and healthcare to
children in countries that had been devastated by World War II. In 1953, UNICEF became a permanent
part of the United Nations System and its name was shortened from the original United Nations
International Children's Emergency Fund but it has continued to be known by the popular acronym
based on this old name. Headquartered in New York City, UNICEF provides long-term humanitarian and
developmental assistance to children and mothers in developing countries.

Headquarters New York, USA

The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was established in
1964 as a permanent intergovernmental body. It is the principal organ of the United Nations
General Assembly dealing with trade, investment, and development issuesCurrently, UNCTAD
has 193 member States and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. UNCTAD produces a
number of topical reports, including:

 The Trade and Development Report

 The Trade and Environment Review
 The World Investment Report
 The Economic Development in Africa Report
 The Least Developed Countries Report
 UNCTAD Statistics
 The Information Economy Report
 The Review of Maritime Transport
 The International Accounting and Reporting Issues Annual Review
 The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the United Nations' global
development network. It advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge,
experience and resources to help people build a better life. UNDP operates in 166 countries,
working with nations on their own solutions to global and national development challenges. As
they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP and its wide range of
partnersHeadquartered in New York City, the UNDP is funded entirely by voluntary
contributions from member nations. The organization has country offices in 166 countries,
where it works with local governments to meet development challenges and develop local
capacity. Additionally, the UNDP works internationally to help countries achieve the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs).

Furthermore, UNDP publishes an annual Human Development Report to measure and analyze
developmental progress. In addition to a global Report, UNDP publishes regional, national, and
local Human Development Reports.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) coordinates United Nations

environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound
policies and practices. It was founded as a result of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment in June 1972 and has its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six
regional offices and various country offices.

The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), also known as The
UN Refugee Agency is a United Nations agency mandated to protect and support refugees at
the request of a government or the UN itself and assists in their voluntary repatriation, local
integration or resettlement to a third country. Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland. The
UNHCR has won two Nobel Peace Prizes, once in 1954 and again in 1981.

The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), French/Spanish acronym

ONUDI, is a specialized agency in the United Nations system, headquartered in Vienna, Austria.
The Organization's primary objective is the promotion and acceleration of industrial
development in developing countries and countries with economies in transition and the
promotion of international industrial cooperation.

The World Bank Group (WBG) is a family of five international organizations that makes
leveraged loans, generally to poor countries. The Bank came into formal existence on 27
December 1945 following international ratification of the Bretton Woods agreements, which
emerged from the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference (1–22 July 1944). It also
provided the foundation of the Osiander-Committee in 1951, responsible for the preparation and
evaluation of the World Development Report. Commencing operations on 25 June 1946, it
approved its first loan on 9 May 1947 ($250M to France for postwar reconstruction, in real terms
the largest loan issued by the Bank to date). Its five agencies are:

 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)

  International Development Association (IDA)
 International Finance Corporation (IFC)
 Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
 International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)

The term "World Bank" generally refers to the IBRD and IDA, whereas the World Bank Group
is used to refer to the institutions collectively.[2]

The World Food Programme (WFP) is the food aid branch of the United Nations, and the world's largest
humanitarian organization addressing hunger worldwide.[1] WFP provides food, on average, to 90 million
people per year, 58 million of whom are children. [2] From its headquarters in Rome and more than 80
country offices around the world, WFP works to help people who are unable to produce or obtain
enough food for themselves and their families.

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) that acts as a
coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in
Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health
Organization, which was an agency of the League of Nations.[1]

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and
liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under
the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
which commenced in 1948. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating
countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a
dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements which
are signed by representatives of member governments and ratified by their parliaments.[4][5] Most
of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from
the Uruguay Round (1986–1994).

The organization is currently endeavoring to persist with a trade negotiation called the Doha
Development Agenda (or Doha Round), which was launched in 2001 to enhance equitable
participation of poorer countries which represent a majority of the world's population. However,
the negotiation has been dogged by "disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk
commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a
'special safeguard measure' to protect farmers from surges in imports. At this time, the future of
the Doha Round is uncertain."[6]

The WTO has 153 members,[7] representing more than 97% of total world trade[8] and 30
observers, most seeking membership. The WTO is governed by a ministerial conference,
meeting every two years; a general council, which implements the conference's policy
decisionsand is responsible for day-to-day administration; and a director-general, who is
appointed by the ministerial conference. The WTO's headquarters is at the Centre William
Rappard, Geneva, Switzerland.
The digital divide refers to the gap between individuals, households, businesses and geographic
areas at different socio-economic levels with regard both to their opportunities to access
information and communications technologies (ICTs) and to their use of the Internet for a wide
variety of activities.[1]It includes the imbalance both in physical access to technology and the
resources and skills needed to effectively participate as a digital citizen. Knowledge divide
reflects the access of various social groupings to information and knowledge, typically gender,
income, race, and by location.[2] The term global digital divide refers to differences in access
between countries in regards to the internet and its' means of information flow.