CST 02

Control System Theory
Sourav Choubey
Asst. Professor,
Electrical Engineering
SRICT, Ankleshwar
Mob:- +919726785727
Email id: Sourav.choubey@srict.in
Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology CST Sourav Choubey 1

Module 2 • Time Response Analysis
Time Response Analysis Standard test signals. Time

response of first and second order systems for
standard test inputs. Application of initial and final
value theorem. Design specifications for second-
order systems based on the time response. Concept
of Stability. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria. Relative Stability
analysis. Root-Locus technique. Construction of Root-
loci.
Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

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Time Response
• The mathematical representation of a system (Transfer function or State space) is used to
analyze its transient and steady-state responses to see if these characteristics yield the desired
behavior.
• Performance of controlled systems can be tested and compared by their responses to

certain test signals (Step functions, impulse functions, ramp functions, sinusoidal
functions, etc.).
• A response of a dynamic system can be analyzed in two parts:

o Steady-state response: The behavior of the output as 𝑡 → ∞
o Transient response: The behavior of the output as it goes from an initial state to a final state.

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Transient response
The transient response is defined as that part of the
time response that goes to zero as time tends to
infinity.
Lt ct (t)  0
t 
Steady state response

The steady state response is the part of the total
response that remains after the transient has died out.

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So that the total time response, Ct(t) followed by the
steady state response Css(t).
C(t) = transient + steady stateresponse
C(t) = Ct(t) + Css(t)

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INPUT SUPPLIED TO SYSTEM
For time response analysis of control systems, we need
to subject the system to various test inputs.
Test input signals are used for testing how well a
system responds to known input.
Some of standards test signals that are usedare:
Impulse
Step
Ramp
Parabola
Sinusoidal

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IMPULSE INPUT
•It is sudden change input. An impulse is
infinite at t=0 and everywhere else.
• r(t)= δ(t)= 1 t =0
=0 t ≠o
In laplase domain we have,
• L[r(t)]= 1
STEP INPUT
•It represents a constant command such
as position. Like elevator is a step input.
•r(t)= u(t)= A t ≥0
=0 otherwise
L[r(t)]= A/s
RAMP INPUT
• this represents a linearly increasing
input command.
•r(t) = At t ≥0,Aslope
=0 t <0
L[r(t)]= A/s² Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology
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A= 1then unitCSTramp Sourav Choubey
PARABOLIC INPUT
•Rate of change of velocity is
acceleration. Acceleration is a parabolic
function.
• p(t) = At ²/2 t ≥0
=0 t <0
L[p(t)]= A/s³
SINUSOIDAL INPUT
•It input of varying and study the system
frequently response.
• r(t) = A sin(wt) t ≥0

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Relation between standard Test Signals
A t0
• Impuls  (t )  
0 t 0
d
e  dt
A t0
• Ste u(t)  
0 t0 d
p  dt
 At t0
• Ram r(t)  
t0
0 d
p
  At 2
dt
t0
• Paraboli p(t )  2
0 t 0
c 
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What are Poles and Zeros

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Poles, zeros, and System response
• Poles of a Transfer Function
• Values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to
become infinite
• Any roots of the denominator of the transfer function that are common to
roots of the numerator
• Zeros of a Transfer Function
• Values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause the transfer function to
become zero
• Any roots of the numerator of the transfer function that are common to roots
of denominator

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Influence of Poles on Time Response
• The output response of a system is a sum of
i. Forced response
ii. Natural response
a) System showing an input and an output

b) Pole-zero plot of the system
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Poles, zeros, and System response
• Output response of a system = the forced response + natural
response
• Solving a differential equation
• Taking the inverse Laplace transform
• Laborious and time-consuming
• Using the attribute qualitative to describe the method
Using poles and zeros, and their relationship to the time response of a
system

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Order and Type of a System
Generally, the order and type of the system is determined only from the denominator( the poles ) and not the
numerator (the zeros )
Order of the system can be defined as the value of the highest exponent that appears in the
denominator of the transfer function. (Total number of poles)
Type of the system can be defined as the number of poles located exactly at s=0
Both Order and Type of system are independent to number of zeros of transfer function.
Example The order of the system is 4
The type of the system is 2
The order of the system is 2

The order of the system is 1


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First-Order System
• General form:
C ( s) K
G( s)  
R( s) s  1
• Problem: Derive the transfer function for the following circuit
1
G (s) 
RCs  1
First-Order System
• Transient Response: Gradual change of output from initial to the
desired condition.
• Block diagram representation:
Where,
K
R(s) C(s) K : Gain
s  1  : Time constant
• By definition itself, the input to the system should be a step

function which is given by the following:
1
R(s) 
s
First-Order System
• General form:
C ( s) K
G( s)   C(s)  G(s) R(s)
R( s) s  1
• Output response:
 1  K 
C ( s)    
 s  s  1 
A B
 
s s  1
B
c(t )  A  e t 

Ramp Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system
K
R(s ) C (s )
Ts  1
1
R( s ) 
s2
K
C( s ) 
s 2 Ts  1
• The ramp response is given as

c(t )  K t  T  Tet / T 
Parabolic Response of 1st Order System
• Consider the following 1st order system
K
R(s ) C (s )
Ts  1
1 K
R( s )  Therefore, C( s ) 
s 3
s 3 Ts  1
Practical Determination of Transfer Function
st
of 1 Order Systems
• Often it is not possible or practical to obtain a system's transfer function
analytically.
• Perhaps the system is closed, and the component parts are not easily identifiable.
• The system's step response can lead to a representation even though the inner
construction is not known.
• With a step input, we can measure the time constant and the steady-state value,
from which the transfer function can be calculated.
Second Order System
• We have already discussed the affect of location of poles and zeros on the
transient response of 1st order systems.
• Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order system

exhibits a wide range of responses that must be analyzed and described.
• Varying a first-order system's parameter (T, K) simply changes the speed

and offset of the response
• Whereas, changes in the parameters of a second-order system can change

the form of the response.
• A second-order system can display characteristics much like a first-order

system or, depending on component values, display damped or pure
oscillations for its transient response. 28
Introduction
• A general second-order system is characterized by the following
transfer function.
C( s ) n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2
n un-damped natural frequency of the second order system,

which is the frequency of oscillation of the system without
damping.
 damping ratio of the second order system, which is a measure

of the degree of resistance to change in the system output. 29
Damping Ratio
• The damping ratio is a parameter, usually denoted by ζ (zeta), that characterizes the frequency response of
a second-order ordinary differential equation. It is particularly important in the study of control theory. It is
also important in the harmonic oscillator.
• The damping ratio provides a mathematical means of expressing the level of damping in a system relative to
critical damping. For a damped harmonic oscillator with mass m, damping coefficient c, and spring
constant k, it can be defined as the ratio of the damping coefficient in the system's differential equation to
the critical damping coefficient:
where the system's equation of motion is
and the corresponding critical damping coefficient is
or
Where is the natural frequency of the system.
The damping ratio is dimensionless, being the ratio of two coefficients of identical units.

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Characteristics Equation
=0
corresponds to the undamped simple harmonic oscillator, and
Undamped Is the case where
in that case the solution looks like , , as expected
Underdamped Is the case where If s is a pair of complex values, then each complex solution
term is a decaying exponential combined with an oscillatory
portion that looks like
Overdamped Is the case where If s is a pair of real values, then the solution is simply a sum of
two decaying exponentials with no oscillation.
Critically damped Is the case where is the border between the overdamped and underdamped
cases, and is referred to as critically damped. This turns out to
be a desirable outcome in many cases where engineering
design of a damped oscillator is required (e.g., a door closing
mechanism).
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Example
• Determine the un-damped natural frequency and damping ratio
of the following second order system.
C( s ) 4
 2
R( s ) s  2s  4
• Compare the numerator and denominator of the given transfer

function with the general 2nd order transfer function.
C( s ) n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2
 n2  4  n  2
 2 n s  2s
  n  1
s 2  2 n s  n2  s 2  2s  4
   0.5 32
C( s ) n2
 2
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2
• Two poles of the system are
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
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Introduction
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
• According the value of  , a second-order system can be set into
one of the four categories
1. Overdamped - when the system has two real distinct poles (  >1).
jω
δ
-c -b -a
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Introduction
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
one of the four categories (page 169 in the textbook):
2. Underdamped - when the system has two complex conjugate poles (0 < <1)
jω
δ
-c -b -a
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Introduction
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
3. Undamped - when the system has two imaginary poles (  = 0).

jω
δ
-c -b -a
36
Introduction
  n   n  2  1
  n   n  2  1
4. Critically damped - when the system has two real but equal poles ( = 1).
jω
δ
-c -b -a
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Underdamped System
For 0<  <1 and ωn > 0, the 2nd order system’s response due to a
unit step input is as follows.
Important timing characteristics: delay time, rise time, peak
time, maximum overshoot, and settling time.
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Delay Time
• The delay (td) time is the time required for the response to
reach half the final value the very first time.
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Rise Time
• The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from 10%
to 90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value.
• For underdamped second order systems, the 0% to 100% rise time is
normally used. For overdamped systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is
commonly used.
Peak Time
• The peak time is the time required for the response to reach
the first peak of the overshoot.
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Maximum Overshoot
The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from unity. If the final steady-state
value of the response differs from unity, then it is common to
use the maximum percent overshoot. It is defined by
The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly

indicates the relative stability of the system.
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Settling Time
• The settling time is the time required for the response curve
to reach and stay within a range about the final value of size
specified by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 2%
or 5%).
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Step Response of underdamped System
C( s ) n2 Step Response n2
 2 C( s ) 
R( s ) s  2 n s  n2 
s s 2  2 n s  n2 
• The partial fraction expansion of above equation is given as
1 s  2 n
C( s )   2
s s  2 n s   n2

n2 1   2 
1 s  2 n
C( s )   2
s  2 n 2 s s  2 n s   2 n2   n2   2 n2
1 s  2 n
C( s )  

s s   n 2  n2 1   2  44
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1 s  2 n
C( s )  

s s   n 2  n2 1   2 
• Above equation can be written as
1 s  2 n
C( s )  
s s   n 2  d2
• Where d  n 1   2 , is the frequency of transient oscillations
and is called damped natural frequency.
• The inverse Laplace transform of above equation can be obtained

easily if C(s) is written in the following form:
1 s   n  n
C( s )   
s s   n   d s   n 2  d2
2 2
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 n t 
c(t )  1  e cos  d t  e  nt sind t
1 2
  
c(t )  1  e  nt cos  d t  sin d t 
 1   2 
 
• When  0
d  n 1   2
 n
c(t )  1  cos nt

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  
 1   2 
 
if   0.1 and n  3
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
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0
0 2 4 6 8 10
  
 1   2 
 
if   0.5 and n  3
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
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0
0 2 4 6 8 10
S-Plane (Underdamped System)
Since 𝜔2 𝜁 2 − 𝜔2 𝜁 2 − 1 = 𝜔2 , the distance
  n   n  2  1 from the pole to the origin is 𝜔 and 𝜁 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
  n   n  2  1
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Error
The error of the signal of the response is given by e(t) = r (t) – c(t), and
hence.

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Rise Time Formula
Rise time (tr) is the time required to reach at final value by a under damped time response signal during its first
cycle of oscillation. If the signal is over damped, then rise time is counted as the time required by the response
to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.
The expression of under damped second-order control system with unit step input function,
Again, as per definition, the magnitude of output

signal at Rise times is 1. That is c(t) = 1, hence

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Peak Time Formula

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Maximum Overshoot Formula

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Settling Time Formula

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Analytical Solution
  
• Output Response c(t )  1  e  n t 

cos  d t 
1 2
sin d t 

 
𝜋−𝛽
• Rise time: set c(t)=1, we have 𝑡𝑟 = d  n 1   2
𝜔𝑑
𝑑𝑐(𝑡) 𝜋
• Peak time: set = 0, we have 𝑡𝑝 =
𝑑𝑡 𝜔𝑑
• Maximum overshoot: M𝑝 = 𝑐 𝑡𝑝 − 1 = 𝑒 −(𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑑 )𝜋
(for unity output)
• Settling time: the time for the outputs always within
4
2% of the final value is approximately
𝜁𝜔
Steady State Error
• If the output of a control system at steady state does not
exactly match with the input, the system is said to have
steady state error
• Any physical control system inherently suffers steady-state

error in response to certain types of inputs.
• Page 219 in the textbook
• A system may have no steady-state error to a step input,

but the same system may exhibit nonzero steady-state
error to a ramp input.
Classification of Control Systems
• Control systems may be classified according to their
ability to follow step inputs, ramp inputs, parabolic
inputs, and so on.
• The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due to these

individual inputs are indicative of the goodness of the
system.
• Consider the unity-feedback control system with the
following open-loop transfer function
• It involves the term sN in the denominator,

representing N poles at the origin.
• A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, ... , if

N=0, N=1, N=2, ... , respectively.
• As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved.
• However, increasing the type number aggravates the

stability problem.
• A compromise between steady-state accuracy and

relative stability is always necessary.
Steady State Error of Unity Feedback Systems
• Consider the system shown in following figure.
• The closed-loop transfer function is

• Steady state error is defined as the error between the
input signal and the output signal when 𝑡 → ∞.
• The transfer function between the error signal E(s) and the
input signal R(s) is E( s ) 1

R( s ) 1  G( s )
• The final-value theorem provides a convenient way to find
the steady-state performance of a stable system.
• Since E(s) is
• The steady state error is
Static Error Constants
• The static error constants are figures of merit of control
systems. The higher the constants, the smaller the
steady-state error.
• In a given system, the output may be the position,

velocity, pressure, temperature, or the like.
• Therefore, in what follows, we shall call the output

“position,” the rate of change of the output “velocity,”
and so on.
• This means that in a temperature control system

“position” represents the output temperature, “velocity”
represents the rate of change of the output temperature,
and so on.
Static Position Error Constant (Kp)
• The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step input is
• The static position error constant Kp is defined by
• Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static position

error constant Kp is given by
• For a Type 0 system
• For Type 1 or higher order systems
• For a unit step input the steady state error ess is

Static Velocity Error Constant (Kv)
• The steady-state error of the system for a unit-ramp input is
• The static velocity error constant Kv is defined by
• Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity

error constant Kv is given by
• For Type 1 systems
• For type 2 or higher order systems

• For a ramp input the steady state error ess is
Static Acceleration Error Constant (Ka)
• The steady-state error of the system for parabolic input is
• The static acceleration error constant Ka is defined by
• Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static acceleration

error constant Ka is given by
• For type 2 systems

• For a parabolic input the steady state error ess is
Summary
Example 2
• For the system shown in figure below evaluate the static
error constants and find the expected steady state errors
for the standard step, ramp and parabolic inputs.
100( s  2 )( s  5)
R(S) C(S)
2
s ( s  8)( s  12)
-
Example 2
100( s  2)( s  5)
G( s ) 
s 2 ( s  8)( s  12)
K p  limG( s )
s 0 K v  lim sG( s )
s 0
 100( s  2 )( s  5) 
K p  lim  2   100s( s  2 )( s  5) 
s  0  s ( s  8 )( s  12 )  K v  lim  2 
s  0  s ( s  8)( s  12 ) 
Kp  
Kv  
K a  lim s 2G( s )  100s 2 ( s  2)( s  5) 

K a  lim  2 
s 0  
s 0
 s ( s  8 )( s  12 ) 
 100( 0  2 )(0  5) 
K a     10.4
 ( 0  8)(0  12) 
Example 2
Kp   Kv   K a  10.4
0
0
 0.09
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Assignment
For the Transfer function shown below
Find the followings:

i) Type of the system
ii) Order of the system
iii) Partial Fraction of the Transfer function
iv) Inverse Laplace transform the system

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Analytical Solution
  
• Output c(t )  1  e  n t 

cos  d t 
1 2
sin d t 

 
𝜋−𝛽
• Rise time: set c(t)=1, we have 𝑡𝑟 = d  n 1   2
𝜔𝑑
𝑑𝑐(𝑡) 𝜋
• Peak time: set = 0, we have 𝑡𝑝 =
𝑑𝑡 𝜔𝑑
• Maximum overshoot: M𝑝 = 𝑐 𝑡𝑝 − 1 = 𝑒 −(𝜁𝜔/𝜔𝑑 )𝜋
(for unity output)
• Settling time: the time for the outputs always within
4
2% of the final value is approximately
𝜁𝜔
Steady State Errors
Steady-state error is defined as the difference between the desired value and the actual value of a system
output in the limit as time goes to infinity (i.e. when the response of the control system has reached steady-
state)
Steady-state error is a property of the

input/output response for a linear system. In
general, a good control system will be one that
has a low steady-state error.
First, we will discuss the steady-state error in a
first-order transfer function by analyzing its
steady state response. Let’s consider the transfer
function below:

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Steady State Error

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Find Steady state Error

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Steady State Error
• If the output of a control system at steady state does
not exactly match with the input, the system is said to
have steady state error
• Any physical control system inherently suffers steady-

state error in response to certain types of inputs.
• A system may have no steady-state error to a step

input, but the same system may exhibit nonzero
steady-state error to a ramp input.
• Control systems may be classified according to their
ability to follow step inputs, ramp inputs, parabolic
inputs, and so on.
• The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due to these

individual inputs are indicative of the goodness of the
system.
• As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved.
• However, increasing the type number aggravates the

stability problem.
• A compromise between steady-state accuracy and

relative stability is always necessary.
• The closed-loop transfer function is

• Steady state error is defined as the error between the
input signal and the output signal when 𝑡 → ∞.
• The transfer function between the error signal E(s) and the
input signal R(s) is E( s ) 1

R( s ) 1  G( s )
• The final-value theorem provides a convenient way to find
the steady-state performance of a stable system.
• Since E(s) is
• The steady state error is
steady-state error.


and so on.

and so on.






Summary
Example 2
100( s  2 )( s  5)
R(S) C(S)
2
s ( s  8)( s  12)
-
Example 2
100( s  2)( s  5)
G( s ) 
s 2 ( s  8)( s  12)
K p  limG( s )
s 0
 100( s  2 )( s  5) 
K p  lim  2   100s( s  2 )( s  5) 
s  0  s ( s  8 )( s  12 )  K v  lim  2 
s  0  s ( s  8)( s  12 ) 
Kp  
Kv  
K a  lim s 2G( s )  100s 2 ( s  2)( s  5) 

K a  lim  2 
s 0  
s 0
 s ( s  8 )( s  12 ) 
 100( 0  2 )(0  5) 
K a     10.4
 ( 0  8)(0  12) 
Example 2
Kp   Kv   K a  10.4
0
0
 0.09
steady-state error.


and so on.

and so on.
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Type 0 System

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Type 1 System

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Summary
Example 2
100( s  2 )( s  5)
R(S) C(S)
2
s ( s  8)( s  12)
-
Example 2
100( s  2)( s  5)
G( s ) 
s 2 ( s  8)( s  12)
K p  limG( s )
s 0
 100( s  2 )( s  5) 
K p  lim  2   100s( s  2 )( s  5) 
s  0  s ( s  8 )( s  12 )  K v  lim  2 
s  0  s ( s  8)( s  12 ) 
Kp  
Kv  
K a  lim s 2G( s )  100s 2 ( s  2)( s  5) 

K a  lim  2 
s 0  
s 0
 s ( s  8 )( s  12 ) 
 100( 0  2 )(0  5) 
K a     10.4
 ( 0  8)(0  12) 
Example 2
Kp   Kv   K a  10.4
0
0
 0.09
Summary
Example 1
100( s  2 )( s  5)
R(S) C(S)
2
s ( s  8)( s  12)
-
Solution
100( s  2)( s  5)
G( s ) 
s 2 ( s  8)( s  12)
K p  limG( s )
s 0
 100( s  2 )( s  5) 
K p  lim  2   100s( s  2 )( s  5) 
s  0  s ( s  8 )( s  12 )  K v  lim  2 
s  0  s ( s  8)( s  12 ) 
Kp  
Kv  
K a  lim s 2G( s )  100s 2 ( s  2)( s  5) 

K a  lim  2 
s 0  
s 0
 s ( s  8 )( s  12 ) 
 100( 0  2 )(0  5) 
K a     10.4
 ( 0  8)(0  12) 
Answer
Kp   Kv   K a  10.4
0
0
 0.09
The forward path transfer function of
a unity feedback control system is
given by
Example
Obtain an expression for unit step
response of the system.

Solution
Transfer function of the system
or
Unit Step Input

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Partial Fraction

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Example

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Solution
Transfer Function

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Example
A closed-loop control system is shown in Fig
The system is to have a damping ratio of 0.7. Determine the value of K to satisfy this condition and
calculate the settling time, peak time and maximum overshoot for the value of K thus determined.

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The overall transfer function relating C (s) and R (s) is
The characteristics equation is

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Example

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Example

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Example
Fig. represents a control system. Obtain an expression relating the output and time. The input being unit
step.

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From the block diagram of the transfer function of the system is determined below :

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STABILITY
A process to find out if a system is stable or
not.
1.A system is stable if every bounded input
yields a bounded output.
2.A system is unstable if any bounded input
yields an unbounded output.
Why investigate stability?
• Most important issue to design a

control system.
• An unstable feedback system is of no
practical value.
• A stable system should exhibit a bounded
output if the corresponding input is
bounded.
One famous example
of an unstable system:
Dramatic photographs showing the

collapse of the Tacoma Narrows
suspension bridge on November 7, 1940.
(a) Photograph showing the twisting

motion
of the bridge’s center span just before
failure.
(b)A few minutes after the first piece of

concrete fell, this second photograph
shows a 600-ft section of the bridge
breaking out of the suspension span and
turning upside down as it crashed in
Puget Sound, Washington.
5
stability region:
according to the
roots obtained
by the
characteristic
equation.
6
• Using these concepts, we can say:-
1. stable system: if the natural
response approaches zero as
time approaches infinity.
2. unstable system: if the natural
response grows without bound as
3. marginally stable: if the natural
response neither decays nor grows
but remains constant or oscillates as
Contributions of
characteristic
equation roots to
closed-loop
response.
8
Stability of Higher Order
Systems
C 1 (s) 10(s 1)

 Un-
R1(s) s 5  3s3  2s  5 Stable
C2 (s) 10(s 1)

 Stabl
R2 (s) s(s 4  s3  3s2  s  2) e
Routh-Hurwitz Stability
Criterion
• It is a method for determining continuous system
stability
The Routh-Hurwitz criterion states that “the number of
roots of the characteristic equation with positive real parts is
equal to the number of changes in sign of the first column of
the Routh array”.
Criterion
This method yields stability information without the need to
solve for the closed-loop system poles.
Using this method, we can tell how many closed-loop system
poles are in the left half-plane, in the right half-plane, and on
the jw-axis. (Notice that we say how many, not where.)
The method requires two steps:

1. Generate a data table called a Routh table.
2. interpret the Routh table to tell how many closed-loop system
poles are in the LHP, the RHP, and on the jw-axis.
Routh’s Stability
Condition
• If the closed-loop transfer function has all poles in the left half of the s-
plane, the system is stable. Thus, a system is stable if there are no sign
changes in the first column of the Routh table.
• The Routh-Hurwitz criterion declares that the number of roots of the

polynomial that are lies in the right half-plane is equal to the number of
sign changes in the first column. Hence the system is unstable if the poles
lies on the right hand side of the s-plane.
ROUTH’S STABILITY CRITERION
Consider a closed-loop transfer function
where the ai’s and bi’s are real constants and m ≤ n. An alternative to factoring the
denominator polynomial, Routh’s stability criterion, determines the number of closed- loop
poles in the right-half s plane.
Algorithm for applying Routh’s stability criterion
The algorithm described below, like the stability criterion, requires the order of A(s) to be
finite.
1. Factor out any roots at the origin to obtain the polynomial, and multiply by −1 if
necessary, to obtain
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a0sn + a1sn−1 + ···+ an−1s + an = 0 where a0 ƒ= 0 and an > 0.
2. If the order of the resulting polynomial is at least two and any coefficient ai is zero or negative, the
polynomial has at least one root with nonnegative real part. To obtain the precise number of roots with
nonnegative real part, proceed as follows. Arrange the coefficients of the polynomial, and values
subsequently calculated from them as shown below:

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generated until all subsequent coefficients are zero. Similarly, cross multiply the coefficients of the two
previous rows to obtain the ci, di, etc.
until the nth row of the array has been completed 1 Missing coefficients are replaced by zeros. The resulting
array is called the Routh array. The powers of s are not considered to be part of the array. We can think of
them as labels. The column beginning with a0 is considered to be the first column of the array

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The Routh array is seen to be triangular. It can be shown that multiplying a row by a positive number
to simplify the calculation of the next row does not affect the outcome of the application of the Routh
criterion.
3. Count the number of sign changes in the first column of the array. It can be shown that a necessary and
sufficient condition for all roots of (2) to be located in the left-half plane is that all the ai are positive
and all of the coefficients in the first column be positive.

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Criterion
• The characteristic equation of the nth order continuous system can be
write as:
• The stability criterion is applied using a Routh table which is

defined as;
• Wher are coefficients of the characteristic

e equation.
{𝑡aken from:3}
Routh-Hurwitz
Criterion
RULES
• There should be no missing
term. 3 𝑠4+ 4𝑠3 + 5𝑠 + 1 = 0
𝑠2 missin
• All variables
g. should be of same
sign. 5𝑠3 − 3𝑠2 + 5𝑠+ 1 = 0
-ve sign before the variable
3
EXAMPLE:
Closed-loop control system with

T(s) = Y(s)/R(s) = 1/(s3 + s2+
2s+24).
Routh array for the closed-loop control
system with T(s) = Y(s)/R(s) = 1/(s3+
s2 +2s+24)
Example
Find the Stability of the system using R-H Criterion

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Solution
The Closed-Loop Transfer Function is
• We divide the second row by 10
• There are two sign changes: 1 → −72 and −72 → 103 Two poles in the RHP.
System is Unstable

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Routh-stability Criterion: Special
cases
• Two special cases can occur:
• – Routh table has zero only in the first column of a row

s3 1 3 0
s2 3 4 0
s1 0 1 2
– Routh table has an entire row that

consists
s
of zeros.
1 3 0
3
3 4 0
s
2 0 0 0
Example of special
case:1
Example of Special
case:2
Determine the number of right-half-lane
poles in the closed-loop transfer function
10
T s  5
s  7s 4  6s3  42s2  8s  56
𝒔𝟓 1 6 8
𝑠4 7 42 56
𝑠3 0 0 0
𝑠1
𝑠0
Special
case:2
• To solve it we will form
polynomial
• P=7𝑠4+42𝑠2+56
• Then take its derivative
𝒔𝟓 1 6 8
𝑠4 7 42 56
𝑠3 0 0 0
𝑠1
𝑠0
• Solving for the remainder of the Routh
table
• There are no sign changes, so there

are no poles on the right half plane.
The system is stable.
Definitions of stability (review)
• BIBO (Bounded-Input-Bounded-Output) stability
Any bounded input generates a bounded output.
ICs=0
u(t) y(t)
BIBO stable
system
• Asymptotic stability
Any ICs generates y(t) converging to zero.
ICs
y(t)
Asymp. stable
u(t)=0 system
17
2
Stability summary (review)
Let si be poles of G(s).
• Then, G(s) is …
• (BIBO, asymptotically) stable if
• Re(si)<0 for all i.
• marginally stable if
• Re(si)<=0 for all i, and
• simple pole for Re(si)=0
• unstable if it is neither stable nor marginally stable.
17
3
Routh-Hurwitz criterion (review)
• This is for LTI systems with a polynomial
denominator (without sin, cos, exponential etc.)
• It determines if all the roots of a polynomial
• lie in the open LHP (left half-plane),
• or equivalently, have negative real parts.
• It also determines the number of roots of a
polynomial in the open RHP (right half-plane).
• It does NOT explicitly compute the roots.
• No proof is provided in any control textbook.
17
4
Routh-Hurwitz criterion
The number of roots

in the open right half-plane
is equal to
the number of sign changes
in the first column of Routh array.
17
5
Example 1
Routh array
If 0 appears in the first column of a
nonzero row in Routh array, replace it
with a small positive number. In this
case, Q has some roots in RHP.
Two sign changes Two roots

in the first column in RHP
17
6
Example 2
Routh array
If zero row appears in Routh array, Q
has roots either on the imaginary axis
or in RHP.
No sign changes No roots

in the first column in RHP
But some
Take derivative of an auxiliary polynomial roots are on
(which is a factor of Q(s)) imag. axis.
17
7
Example 3
Routh array
Derivative of auxiliary poly.
2
(Auxiliary poly. is a factor of Q(s).)
No sign changes
in the first column No root in OPEN(!) RHP
17
8
Example 4
Routh array
Derivative of auxiliary poly.
4 4
2
No sign changes
in the first column
No root in OPEN(!) RHP
17
9
Notes on Routh-Hurwitz criterion
• Advantages
• No need to explicitly compute roots of the polynomial.
• High order Q(s) can be handled by hand calculations.
• Polynomials including undetermined parameters (plant
and/or controller parameters in feedback systems) can
be dealt with.
• Root computation does not work in such cases!
• Disadvantage
• Exponential functions (delay) cannot be dealt with.
• Example:
18
0
Stability
Absolute Stability : The term is used in relation to qualitative analysis
of stability.
 It can be determined from the location of roots of Characteristic
equation in s-plane.
Relative Stability : The term is used in relation to comparative
analysis of Stability.
 The Maximum Overshoot, damping ratio, Gain Margin and Phase
Margin required to describe these stabilities.
Root Locus
Introduction
• Consider a unity feedback control system shown below.
K
R(s ) C (s )
s 1
• The open loop transfer function G(s) of the system is
• And the closed transfer function is

K
G (s) 
s 1
C (s) G (s) K
 
R( s) 1  G ( s) s  1  K
Introduction
• Location of closed loop Pole for different values of K
(remember K>0).
C (s) K

R( s ) s  1Pole-Zero
 K Map
K Pole 1
0.5 -1.5
1 -2 0.5
2 -3 Imaginary Axis
0
3 -4
5 -6
-0.5
10 -11
15 -16
-16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2
How to Sketch root locus?
• One way is to compute the roots of the characteristic equation for all
possible values of K.
K Pole
0.5 -1.5
C (s) K 1 -2
 2 -3
R( s) s  1  K
3 -4
5 -6
10 -11
15 -16
How to Sketch root locus?
• Computing the roots for all values of K might be tedious for higher
order systems.
K Pole
0.5 ?
1 ?
C (s) K
 2 ?
R( s ) s ( s  1)( s  10)( s  20)  K
3 ?
5 ?
10 ?
15 ?
Construction of Root Loci
• Finding the roots of the characteristic equation of degree
higher than 3 is laborious and will need computer solution.
• A simple method for finding the roots of the characteristic

equation has been developed by W. R. Evans and used
extensively in control engineering.
• This method, called the root-locus method, is one in which

the roots of the characteristic equation are plotted for all
values of a system parameter.
• The roots corresponding to a particular value of this
parameter can then be located on the resulting graph.
• By using the root-locus method the designer can

predict the effects on the location of the closed-loop
poles of varying the gain value or adding open-loop
poles and/or open-loop zeros.
Angle & Magnitude Conditions
• In constructing the root loci angle and magnitude
conditions are important.
• The closed loop transfer function is

C (s) G (s)

R( s) 1  G ( s) H ( s)
• The characteristic equation is obtained by setting the
denominator polynomial equal to zero.
1  G ( s) H ( s)  0
• Or
G ( s ) H ( s )  1
• Since G(s)H(s) is a complex quantity it can be split into

angle and magnitude part.
• The angle of G(s)H(s)=-1 is
G ( s ) H ( s )    1
G ( s ) H ( s )  180 (2k  1)
• Where k=1,2,3…
• The magnitude of G(s)H(s)=-1 is
G (s) H (s)   1
G (s) H (s)  1
• Angle Condition
G ( s ) H ( s )  180 (2k  1) (k  1,2,3...)
• Magnitude Condition
G (s) H (s)  1
• The values of s that fulfill both the angle and
magnitude conditions are the roots of the
characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles.
Root Locus Designing Steps
Step 1
Starting Point:
The Root Locus starts (K=0) from the open loop poles.
Step 2
Ending Point:
The Root Locus terminates (K=infinity) either on open loop Zeroes or Infinity.
Step 3
Number of Branches
Here, P=2 & Z=1
So, N=2
The Number of Branches of the Root Locus are
N = P, if P > Z
= Z, if Z > P
Usually, P > Z, therefore, N=P
Step 4
Existence on real axis:
The existence of Root Locus on real a section of real axis is confirmed if
Sum of the open loop poles and Zeros to the right of the section is odd
Step 5
Break away Points
Break-away and break-in points exist only on the real axis root
Find Break-away and Break-in points.
locus branches.
•If there exists a real axis root locus
Follow these steps to find break-away and break-in points.
branch between two open loop poles,
Write K in terms of s from the characteristic
then there will be a break-away
equation 1+G(s)H(s)=0.
point in between these two open loop
Differentiate K with respect to s and make it equal to zero.
poles.
dK/ds = 0
•If there exists a real axis root locus
Substitute these values of s in the above equation.
branch between two open loop zeros,
The values of s for which the K value is positive are the break
then there will be a break-in point in
points.
between these two open loop zeros.
Step 6
The Angle of Asymptotes
Asymptotes makes some angle with the real axis and this
angle can be calculated from the given formula,
Step 7
Intersection of Asymptotes on real axis
Centre of Gravity/ Centroid : It is also known centroid and is defined as the point on the plot
from where all the asymptotes start. Mathematically, it is calculated by the difference of
summation of poles and zeros in the transfer function when divided by the difference of total
number of poles and total number of zeros. Centre of gravity is always real and it is denoted by
σA.
Step 8
Intersection points with imaginary axis
The value of K and the point at which the root locus branch crosses the imaginary axis is
determined by applying Routh Criterion to the Characteristic equation.
The roots at the intersection points are imaginary.

Step 9
The Angle of Departure from complex Pole
The angle of departure of the root locus from a complex pole is given by
Step 10
The Angle of Arrival at complex Zeros
The angle of arrival of the root locus from a complex zero is given by
Example
A Unity Feedback Control system has an open loop transfer function.
Draw the root locus and determine the value of K, if the damping ratio is to be 0.707.
Step 1
Starting Point:
The Root Locus starts (K=0) from S=0 & S=-4
Step 2
Ending Point:
As there is no open loop Zero so the Root Locus terminates (K=infinity) at Infinity.
Step 3
Number of Branches
N = P, if P > Z
= Z, if Z > P
As here Number of Poles are 2 so N=2
Step 4
The root locus on real axis exists between s=0 and s=-4
Step 5 (Break Away Point)
The Characteristic equation is
Step 6 (Angle of Asymptotes)
Step 7 (Centroid)
Example
Sketch the root locus for the open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback
control system given below and determine
(i) The value of K for Damping Ratio= 0.5
(ii) The value of K for marginal stability
(iii) The value of K at s=-4
Step 1
Starting Point:
The Root Locus starts (K=0) from S=0, S= -1 & S=-3
Step 2
Ending Point:
As there is no open loop Zero so the Root Locus terminates (K=infinity) at Infinity.
Step 3
Number of Branches
N = P, if P > Z
= Z, if Z > P
As here P=3 & Z=0, So N=3
Step 4
The root locus on real axis exists between s=0 and s=-1 and beyond S=-3
Step 5 (Break Away Point)
The Characteristic equation is
Put
s =1.33 ± 0.88
S1= — 0.45 and S1= — 2.21
As the break away point has to lie between s = 0 and s = —l, the break away point is s= -0.45.
Step 6 (Angle of Asymptotes)
The angle of asymptotes is given by where k = 0, 1 and 2
'The three asymptotes are at any angle of

Step 7 (Centroid)
The three asymptotes intersect on the real axis at
Step 8
Intersection points with imaginary axis
The value of K and the point at which the root locus branch crosses the imaginary axis is
determined by applying Routh Criterion to the Characteristic equation.
The roots at the intersection points are imaginary.
The value of K for marginal stability is determined by applying Routh criterion to the characteristic
equation.
The Routh array is tabulated below
The value of K at which the root locus plot crosses the imaginary axis is determined by equating the first
term in s1 row to zero, therefore,
For K > 12 the roots lie in the R.H.S. of s-plane, hence K = 12 is the value for marginal stability.
At K = 12 the root locus plot intersects the imaginary axis and the value of s at the intersection point is
determined by solving auxiliary equation formed from the s2 terms in Routh array, therefore,
At K = 12 the system exhibits

sustained oscillations, the frequency of
these oscillations is given by the
intersection point of the root locus plot
with the imaginary axis, therefore, at K
= 12, the frequency of sustained
oscillations is (w= 1.73 rad/sec).
From the origin a line at an angle e = 600 is drawn as shown in
Fig. which intersects the root locus plot at s = (—0 .35 +j0.6).
As the point s = 0.35 +j0.6 lies on the root locus.
The following equation is satisfied.
Put
The value of K at s = —4 is calculated by substituting s = —4 in the equation given below
Example
The transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
Determine
(a) The value of K to have 40% over shoot for unit step input.
(b) The value of K for sustained oscillations in output
(c) The value of Kv corresponding to value of K as obtained in (a).
(d) The value of settling time
*********END OF MODULE 02***********

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Control System Theory

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology CST Sourav Choubey 1

Time Response Analysis Standard test signals. Time

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

• Performance of controlled systems can be tested and compared by their responses to

• A response of a dynamic system can be analyzed in two parts:

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Steady state response

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

a) System showing an input and an output

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

The order of the system is 2

The order of the system is 1

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

• Problem: Derive the transfer function for the following circuit

• By definition itself, the input to the system should be a step

• Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order system

• Varying a first-order system's parameter (T, K) simply changes the speed

• Whereas, changes in the parameters of a second-order system can change

• A second-order system can display characteristics much like a first-order

n un-damped natural frequency of the second order system,

 damping ratio of the second order system, which is a measure

where the system's equation of motion is

and the corresponding critical damping coefficient is

Where is the natural frequency of the system.

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

• Compare the numerator and denominator of the given transfer

• Two poles of the system are

3. Undamped - when the system has two imaginary poles (  = 0).

The amount of the maximum (percent) overshoot directly

• The inverse Laplace transform of above equation can be obtained

c(t )  1  cos nt

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Again, as per definition, the magnitude of output

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology

• Any physical control system inherently suffers steady-state

• Page 219 in the textbook

• A system may have no steady-state error to a step input,

• The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due to these

• It involves the term sN in the denominator,

• A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, ... , if

• However, increasing the type number aggravates the

• A compromise between steady-state accuracy and

• Consider the system shown in following figure.

• The closed-loop transfer function is

• In a given system, the output may be the position,

• Therefore, in what follows, we shall call the output

• This means that in a temperature control system

• The static position error constant Kp is defined by

• Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static position

• For Type 1 or higher order systems

• For a unit step input the steady state error ess is

• The static velocity error constant Kv is defined by

• Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity