Control System Theory

Sourav Choubey
Asst. Professor,
Electrical Engineering
SRICT, Ankleshwar
Mob:- +919726785727
Email id: Sourav.choubey@srict.in

Shroff S.R. Rotary Institute of Chemical Technology CST Sourav Choubey 1

Module 3
Frequency-response analysis
Frequency-response analysis Relationship between time and frequency response,
Polar plots, Bode plots. Nyquist stability criterion. Relative stability using Nyquist
criterion – gain and phase margin. Closed-loop frequency response
 Introduction
 Time-Domain analysis:
Impulse, unit step, ramp, etc. are
used as input to the system
 Frequency-Domain Analysis:
Frequency Response of a system is the
response of the system for sinusoidal
input signal of various frequencies
 Frequency Response

Linear Y(t)=βXsin(ωt+φ)
X(t)=
Xsin(ωt) System
 Need
• Extraction of Transfer function from Time
domain is difficult using differential equations
• Using Frequency Response, Transfer Function
can be easily obtained from the experimental
data
• A system may be designed, so that effects of
noise are negligible
• Analysis & Design are extended to certain non-
linear control systems
• The design of controller can be easily done
in the frequency domain method, as
compared to time- domain method
FrequencyResponse
 For a stable, linear, time-invariant (LTI) system, the steady state
response to a sinusoidal input is a sinusoid of the same frequency but
possibly different magnitude and different phase.

 Sinusoids are the Eigenfunctions of convolution.

 If input is 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑜𝑡 + 𝜃) and steady-state output is 𝐵 cos(𝜔𝑜𝑡+ 𝜑),

𝐵 𝑗(𝜑−𝜃)
then the complex number 𝑒 is called the frequency response of
𝐴
the system at frequency 𝜔 𝑜 .

𝑅(𝑠) T (s) 𝐶(𝑠)

𝑅(𝑗𝜔 ) T ( j) 𝐶(𝑗𝜔 )

6
r(t)  Asin  t y(t)  B sin(t   )
L.T.I system
B Phase:
Magnitude:
r (t ) y (t )
A 
G(s)
＋
- Steady state
H(s)
response
Y (s) G(s)

R(s) 1 G(s)H (s)
s    j  s  j

G( j) G( j)

Magnitud Phas
e: 1 G( j )H ( j) e: [1 G( j )H ( j)]
7
 Frequency
response
Remember the definition of the transfer function: the steady-state
response of a linear, time-invariant systems to a complex exponential
input of the form u(t) = est is yss(t) = G(s)est .

In particular, if we choose s = jω (i.e., the real part of the input is

Re[ejωt ] = cos(ωt)), and we assume that the system is stable, then
8 / 40
J. Tani, E. Frazzoli (ETH)
the steady-state output will be given by
09/11/2018

yss(t) = G(jω)ejωt = |G(jω)|ejωt+∠G(jω).

The real part of the output is now

Re[yss(t)] = |G(jω)| cos(ωt + ∠G(jω)).

Lecture 8: Control Systems I

 Frequency
response
In other words, the steady-state response to a sinusoidal input of
frequency ω
the amplitude
is 1a sinusoidal of the
output of output is |Gfrequency
the same (jω)| times the amplitude
such that: of the input;
2 the phase of the output lags the phase of the input by ∠G(jω)|.

Linear Simulation Results

1

0.8

9 / 40
J. Tani, E. Frazzoli (ETH) 0.6 09/11/2018

0.4

0.2
Amplitude

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Lecture 8: Control Systems I
Time (seconds)
 Frequency
response plots
The frequency response G (jω) ∈ C is a complex function of a single
real argument ω∈ R.

We basically have two options to plot the frequency response:

10 / 40
J. Tani, E. Frazzoli (ETH) 09/11/2018

1 A parametric curve showing G (jω) in the complex plane, in which ωis

implicit. This leads to the polar plot and eventually to the Nyquist plot.

2 Two separate plots for, e.g., real and imaginary part of G (jω) or — better —
the magnitude and phase of G (jω) as a function of ω. The latter choice leads
to the Bode plot.

Lecture 8: Control Systems I

 Specifications
1. Resonant Frequency (ωr):
The frequency at which the system
has maximum magnitude is known
as the resonant frequency. At this,
the slope of magnitude curve is
zero
2. Resonant Peak (Mr):
Maximum value of
magnitude. Mr= 1- 1.5
3. Cut-off Frequency:
The frequency at which the magnitude G(jω)
is 0.707 times less than its, maximum value
is known as cut-off frequency.
4. Bandwidth: For feedback control systems,
the range of frequencies over which M is
equal to or greater than 0.707Mr is defined
as bandwidth ωb
When Mr=1, Bandwidth = Cut-off
frequency The bandwidth of a control
system indicates the noise-filtering
characteristics of the system.
5. Cut off Rate:
Rate of change of slope of magnitude at cut-off
frequency

6. Gain Margin:
Amount of gain in decibels that can be added to the
loop before the closed loop system becomes unstable
Gain Crossover: The Point at which the
magnitude plot crossover 0dB

7. Phase Margin:
Amount of phase shift in degrees that can be added to
the loop before the closed loop system becomes
unstable
Phase Crossover: The Point at which the
phase plot crosses is 180°
 BODE PLOT
• Purpose:
1. To draw the frequency response of
OLTF
2. To find the closed loop system stability
3. To find the relative stability by using
GM & PM
 BODE PLOT
• The Bode Plot consists of two
parts:
1. Magnitude Plot
2. Phase Plot
Semilog paper
 Basic Procedure
1. Replace s jω, to convert it into
frequency domain
2. Write the magnitude & Convert it into
dB Magnitude = 20log G(j ω)
3. Find the φ angle
4. Vary ‘ω’ from min to max value & draw
the approximate magnitude & Phase
plot
Basic Factors
Constant Gain K (Shift K)
Pole at Origin
Pole at Origin
Zero at Origin
Zero at Origin
Simple pole at origin
Simple Zero at origin
 Gain & Phase
• Gain Margin Phase Margin
• Additional phase lag required to
• Factor by which system gain is
ass system at ωgc to bring system
increased to bring the system to
to stability
the verge of stability
• Phase cross over : ωpc
• Gain crossover: ωgc
• The frequency at which
• The frequency at which the
angle is -180 degre
magnitude=1 in linear and 0 in
dB.
• Gain Margin
• The gain margin (GM) is the factor by which the gain is less than the
neutral stability value. We can usually read the gain margin directly
from the bode plot. This is done by calculating the vertical distance
between the curve and the at the frequency.
• Phase Margin
• Another quantity related to determining stability margin is the phase
margin (PM). This is a different way to measure how well stability
conditions are met in a given system. Phase margin is determined by
how much the phase of exceeds.
• The above figure shows that, for a system to be stable, a positive
PM is required. From the figures, we can also see that the GM
indicates the amount that the gain can increase before a
system becomes unstable. The PM is calculated by measuring the
difference between the and when crosses the circle . The stable
case receives the phase margin’s positive value.
Steps for Bode Plot
Magnitude Plot
• Convert the transfer function in Time constant Form i.e (1+sT) form
• Put s=jw
• Form the following table in the increasing order of the corner frequency
Term Corner Frequency (rad/sec) Slop (db/dec) Change in Slop (db/dec)

• Find the value of constant term in db and initial curve will start from that db
• Magnitude will terminate at every corner frequency.
Steps for Bode Plot
Phase Plot
• Put s=jw
• Convert the whole equation in terms of G(jw)H(jw)
• Form the following table by putting random values of w
w(rad/sec) 1 2 5 10 15 20 25 50 75
Angle G(jw)H(jw)
 Steps to sketch Bode Plot
1. Express given G(s)H(s) in time constant form
2. Draw a line of 20LogK dB
3. Draw a line of appropriate slope representing poles or zeros at the
origin, passing through intersection point of ω=1 and 0 dB
4. Shift this intersection point on 20LogK line and draw parallel line
to the line drawn in step 3
5. Change the slope of this line at various corner frequencies by
appropriate value. For a pole, slope must be changed by -
20dB/Decade, For a simple zero slope changed by
+20dB/Decade .
• Continue this slope line, till it intersects last
corner frequency
6. Prepare the phase angle plot and table & obtain the table of ω and
resultant phase angle φR by actual calculation.
7. Plot these points , & Draw a smooth curve obtaining necessary
phase angle plot
Example
A unity feedback control system shown in Fig.
Draw it’s Phase and Magnitude plot
Steps for Bode Plot
Magnitude Plot
• Convert the transfer function in Time constant Form i.e (1+sT) form
• Put s=jw
• Form the following table in the increasing order of the corner frequency
Term Corner Frequency (rad/sec) Slop (db/dec) Change in Slop (db/dec)

• Find the value of constant term in db and initial curve will start from that db
• Magnitude will terminate at every corner frequency.
Steps for Bode Plot
Phase Plot
• Put s=jw
• Convert the whole equation in terms of G(jw)H(jw)
• Form the following table by putting random values of w
w(rad/sec) 1 2 5 10 15 20 25 50 75
Angle G(jw)H(jw)
 Gain Margin
The gain margin is defined as the reciprocal of the magnitude |G(jω)| at the frequency at which the phase
angle is −180°. Defining the phase crossover frequency ω1 to be the frequency at which the phase angle
of the open-loop transfer function equals −180° gives the gain margin Kg:
The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater the stability of the system. The gain margin refers to the
amount of gain, which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually
expressed as a magnitude in dB.
We can usually read the gain margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in the diagram above). This is
done by calculating the vertical distance between the magnitude curve (on the Bode magnitude plot) and
the x-axis at the frequency where the Bode phase plot = 180°. This point is known as the phase crossover
frequency.
It is important to realize that the Gain and the Gain Margin are not the same things. In fact, the Gain
Margin is the negative of the gain (in decibels, dB). This will make sense when we look at the Gain
margin formula.
 Gain Margin Formula
The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be expressed as:

Where G is the gain. This is the magnitude (in dB) as read from the vertical axis of the magnitude
plot at the phase crossover frequency.
In our example shown in the graph above, the Gain (G) is 20. Hence using our formula for gain
margin, the gain margin is equal to 0 – 20 dB = -20 dB (unstable).
Phase Margin
The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the stability of the system. The phase margin
refers to the amount of phase, which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable.
It is usually expressed as a phase in degrees.
We can usually read the phase margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in the diagram above). This
is done by calculating the vertical distance between the phase curve (on the Bode phase plot) and the x-
axis at the frequency where the Bode magnitude plot = 0 dB. This point is known as the gain crossover
frequency.
It is important to realize that the phase lag and the Phase Margin are not the same things. This will
make sense when we look at the phase margin formula.
 Phase Margin Formula
The formula for Phase Margin (PM) can be expressed as:

Where is the phase lag (a number less than 0). This is the phase as read from the vertical axis of the
phase plot at the gain crossover frequency.
In our example shown in the graph above, the phase lag is -189°. Hence using our formula for phase margin,
the phase margin is equal to -189° – (-180°) = -9° (unstable).
As another example, if an amplifier’s open-loop gain crosses 0 dB at a frequency where the phase lag is -120°,
then the phase lag -120°. Hence the phase margin of this feedback system is -120° – (-180°) = 60° (stable).
 Bode Plot Stability
Below is a summarized list of criterion relevant to drawing Bode plots (and calculating their stability):
1.Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the system. It refers to the amount of
gain, which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in dB.
2.Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of the system. It refers to the phase
which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in phase.
3.Gain Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which the magnitude curve cuts the zero dB axis in
the bode plot.
4.Phase Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve cuts the negative times the 180o
axis in this plot.
5.Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes cuts or meet each other is known as break
frequency or corner frequency.
6.Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus of G (jω) has a peak value is known as the
resonant frequency.
7.Factors: Every loop transfer function {i.e. G(s) × H(s)} product of various factors like constant term K, Integral
factors (jω), first-order factors ( 1 + jωT)(± n) where n is an integer, second-order or quadratic factors.
8.Slope: There is a slope corresponding to each factor and slope for each factor is expressed in the dB per
decade.
9.Angle: There is an angle corresponding to each factor and angle for each factor is expressed in the degrees.
Example
Determine the Value of K for a unity feedback system having open loop transfer function

 Find the Value of K for Gain Margin 20db

 Find the Value of K for Phase Margin 60 degree
=

Assuming K1 = K/8

If K=1 ,
• What is a Nyquist Plot?
Nyquist plot is a plot used mostly in control and signal processing
and can be used to predict the stability and performance of a closed-
loop system.
 Nyquist Plot or Polar Plot
• Nyquist Plots were invented by Nyquist - who worked at Bell Laboratories, the premiere
technical organization in the U.S. at the time.

• Nyquist Plots are a way of showing frequency responses of linear systems.

• There are several ways of displaying frequency response data, including Bode' plots and
Nyquist plots.

• Bode' plots use frequency as the horizontal axis and use two separate plots to display
amplitude and phase of the frequency response.

• Nyquist plots display both amplitude and phase angle on a single plot, using frequency as
a parameter in the plot.

• Nyquist plots have properties that allow you to see whether a system is stable or
unstable.
 Nyquist Plot

• A Nyquist plot is a polar plot of the frequency response function of a linear system.

• That means a Nyquist plot is a plot of the transfer function, G(s) with s = jω. That means
you want to plot G(j ω).

• G(j ω) is a complex number for any angular frequency, ω, so the plot is a plot of complex
numbers.

• The complex number, G(j ω), depends upon frequency, so frequency will be a parameter
if you plot the imaginary part of G(j ω) against the real part of G(j ω).
 Sketch the Polar plot of Frequency Response

To sketch the polar plot of G(jω) for the entire range of frequency ω, i.e., from 0 to
infinity, there are four key points that usually need to be known:

1) The start of plot where ω = 0,

2) The end of plot where ω = ∞,
3) Where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0, and
4) Where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e., Re(G(jω)) = 0.
 Problem-1: Polar Plot of Integrator
Consider a first order system,

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ), i.e., | G( jω) |, is obtained as;

The phase of G( jω ), denoted by, φ , is obtained as;

Bode Plot Polar Plot

Magnitude

Phase
 Problem-2: Polar Plot of First Order System
Consider a first order system where T is the time constant.

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ), i.e., | G( jω) |, is obtained as;

The phase of G( jω ), denoted by, φ , is obtained as;

The start of plot where ω = 0

The end of plot where ω = ∞

The mid part of plot where ω = 1/T

 Bode Plot Polar Plot

Magnitude

Phase
 Problem-3: Polar Plot of Second Order System
Consider a second order system where T is the time constant.

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ), i.e., | G( jω) |, is obtained as;

The phase of G( jω ), denoted by, φ , is obtained as;

 The start of plot where ω = 0
1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = =1 ∠𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = − tan−1 0 − tan−1 0 = 0°
1+0 1+0

The end of plot where ω = ∞

1
𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = =0 ∠𝐺 𝑗𝜔 = − tan−1 ∞ − tan−1 ∞ = −90° − 90° = −180°
∞ ∞

Polar Plot
1. Change Transfer Function From “s” Domain To “jw”
Domain
• First, If the transfer function G(s) is given in “s”
domain, transfer it to “jω” domain.
• Example:
k ( s  2)
G ( s) 
• Change it to: ( s  1)( s  3)

k ( j  2 )
G ( j ) 
( j  1)( j  3)
2. Find The Magnitude & Phase Angle Equations
• Write an equation explaining the Magnitude and
Phase Angle of the transfer function (now in “jω”
form) that would look like:

• For example the transfer function given above can be

represented in the following form:

G( j ) G( j )

k 2  4        
 tan 1    tan 1     180  tan 1   
  2  1   2  9  2 1   3 
  
  
3. Evaluate At Point “0+” and “+∞” points
• Evaluate the magnitude and phase angle equations
found above, at ω (omega) values of “0+” and “+∞”
points.
• In the above example:

At   0 
2k
G ( j ) G ( j )    180  
3
At   
G ( j ) G ( j )  0  90
• Note 1: The ω (Omega) value of “0+” means an angle
very close to zero but slightly larger. The ε (epsilon) in
the phase angle is due to ω being slightly larger than
zero. This will be later used in drawing the nyquist
plot.

• Note 2: In above example, evaluating the phase angle

(ω), at “0+” yields a phase angle of “-180 – ε”. The
reason is that a slightly greater angle than zero would
produce slightly greater “tangent” than zero.
4. Find The Positions of “0+” & “+∞” On The Plot, And
Connect Them
• Using the values found from the above section, find the
positions of “0+” and “+∞” on the Real and Imaginary
axis: In the above example, the point at “0+” is located at
“-180 - ε” degrees which is slightly more negative than “-
180″.
• Connect the points together. The second point is at “0″ on
real axis with “-90″ degrees. Therefore the nyquist path
coming from the “ω=0+” should approach the “ω=+∞” at
a “-90″ degrees. The curvy path is not exact as we are only
drawing the plot by hand.
• Mirror the nyquist path plotted in part 2 across the real
axis.
• Connect the “ω=0-” to “ω=0+”. This should be done clock-
wise. While in this example’s case the clock-wise path is
the closest, that is not the case all the time.
Nyquist Stability Criterion
The Nyquist stability criterion works on the principle of argument. It states that if there are P poles and Z zeros are
enclosed by the ‘s’ plane closed path, then the corresponding G(s)H(s) plane must encircle the origin P−Z times. So, we
can write the number of encirclements N as,

N=P−Z
•If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only poles, then the direction of the encirclement in
the G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be opposite to the direction of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

•If the enclosed ‘s’ plane closed path contains only zeros, then the direction of the encirclement in
the G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) plane will be in the same direction as that of the enclosed closed path in the ‘s’ plane.

Let us now apply the principle of argument to the entire

right half of the ‘s’ plane by selecting it as a closed path.
This selected path is called the Nyquist contour.
We know that the closed loop control system is stable if all the poles of the closed loop transfer function are in the left
half of the ‘s’ plane. So, the poles of the closed loop transfer function are nothing but the roots of the characteristic
equation. As the order of the characteristic equation increases, it is difficult to find the roots. So, let us correlate these
roots of the characteristic equation as follows.

•The Poles of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the open loop transfer function.
•The zeros of the characteristic equation are same as that of the poles of the closed loop transfer function.

We know that the open loop control system is stable if there is no open loop pole in the the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e.,P=0⇒N=−Z

We know that the closed loop control system is stable if there is no closed loop pole in the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
i.e.,Z=0⇒N=P
Statement
Nyquist stability criterion states the number of encirclements about
the critical point (-1+j0) must be equal to the poles of characteristic
equation, which is nothing but the poles of the open loop transfer
function in the right half of the ‘s’ plane. The shift in origin to (-1+j0)
gives the characteristic equation plane
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots
Follow these rules for plotting the Nyquist plots
.
•Locate the poles and zeros of open loop transfer function G(s)H(s)G(s)H(s) in ‘s’ plane.

•Draw the polar plot by varying ω from zero to infinity. If pole or zero present at s = 0, then
varying ω from 0+ to infinity for drawing polar plot.
Rules for Drawing Nyquist Plots

•Draw the mirror image of above polar plot for values of ωω ranging from −∞ to zero
(0− if any pole or zero present at s=0).

•The number of infinite radius half circles will be equal to the number of poles or zeros
at origin. The infinite radius half circle will start at the point where the mirror image of
the polar plot ends. And this infinite radius half circle will end at the point where the
polar plot starts.

After drawing the Nyquist plot, we can find the stability of

the closed loop control system using the Nyquist stability
criterion. If the critical point (-1+j0) lies outside the
encirclement, then the closed loop control system is
absolutely stable.
Stability Analysis using Nyquist Plots
• From the Nyquist plots, we can identify whether the control system is
stable, marginally stable or unstable based on the values of these
parameters.
• Gain cross over frequency and phase cross over frequency
• Gain margin and phase margin
Definitions
Phase Cross over Frequency
The frequency at which the Nyquist plot intersects the negative real axis
(phase angle is 1800) is known as the phase cross over frequency. It is
denoted by ωpc.

Gain Cross over Frequency

The frequency at which the Nyquist plot is having the magnitude of one is
known as the gain cross over frequency. It is denoted by ωgc.
Stability CRITERION
The stability of the control system based on the relation between phase cross
over frequency and gain cross over frequency is listed below.
•If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is greater than the gain cross over
frequency ωgc, then the control system is stable.
•If the phase cross over frequency ωpc is equal to the gain cross over
frequency ωgc, then the control system is marginally stable.
•If phase cross over frequency ωpc is less than gain cross over frequency ωgc,
then the control system is unstable.
GM & PM
Gain Margin
The gain margin GM is equal to the reciprocal of the magnitude of the Nyquist
plot at the phase cross over frequency.
GM=1 / Mpc
Where, Mpc is the magnitude in normal scale at the phase cross over
frequency.
Phase Margin
The phase margin PM is equal to the sum of 1800 and the phase angle at the
gain cross over frequency.
PM=180+ϕgc
Where, ϕgc is the phase angle at the gain cross over frequency.
Stability Criterion
The stability of the control system based on the relation between the gain
margin and the phase margin is listed below.
•If the gain margin GM is greater than one and the phase margin PM is
positive, then the control system is stable.
•If the gain margin GM is equal to one and the phase margin PM is zero
degrees, then the control system is marginally stable.
•If the gain margin GM is less than one and / or the phase margin PM is
negative, then the control system is unstable.
Example 01
A unity feedback control system has open loop transfer function
G(s) = 50 / (S+1) (S+2)
Use Nyquist Criterion to determine the stability of the system
*********END OF MODULE 3************