Principles of Travel & Tourism Operations & Aviation Safety

Principles of Travel and Tourism Operations
and Aviation Safety
BBA
Airline & Airport Management
(Annual Pattern)
IIIrd Year
Paper No. 13
School of Distance Education

Bharathiar University, Coimbatore - 641 046
Author: V V Prasad
Copyright © 2014, Bharathiar University

All Rights Reserved
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CONTENTS
Page No.
UNIT I
Lesson 1 Travel and Tourism 7
Lesson 2 Scope of the Travel and Tourism 25
UNIT II
Lesson 3 World Tourism 47
Lesson 4 IATA 65
UNIT III
Lesson 5 Hotel and their Rating 87
Lesson 6 Types of Rooms and Bedding 104
UNIT IV
Lesson 7 Aviation – A National Security Asset 125
Lesson 8 Conferences on Air Law 141
UNIT V
Lesson 9 Hijacking 153
Lesson 10 Terrorism 168
Model Question Paper 187
PRINCIPLES OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM OPERATIONS AND AVIATION SAFETY
SYLLABUS
UNIT I
Travel and Tourism: Principles – Scope and Operations – Perception of Travel worldwide – Perception of
Tourism worldwide – India a tourist destination – Indian States, Capitals, Public holidays, Banks – Important
Festivals and Tourist attractions – State Tourist Organisations – Important Travel Agents & Tour Operators.
UNIT II
World Tourism: Important Countries/Capitals/Currencies/Exchange – World Tourism Attractions – Indian
Tourism – Types – Transportation Commercial Aviation – Air Taxi Operations – Private Operation – Airport
Handling Functions of IATA-ICAO – Aims and Objectives – IATA Geography and Global indicators – Travel
Agent Management – Travel Partners.
UNIT III
Hotels and Star Ratings: Resorts, Boarding and Lodging houses – Rating Systems and Classifications – Hotel
Products, Facilities, Services, Room types, Bedding Types, Meal Plans Cancellations, Currency – Fluctuations
and Commission Policies IATA Approved Travel Agency Appointment and Control – Bank guarantee – IATA
Billing and Settlement Plan – Credit Period – Customer Service – Service Provider – Training and Development
of Travel agent – GDS.
UNIT IV
Aviation – A National security asset: Importance of Air transportation – Airways – Development of the
Aviation industry – Deregulation – Consequences of 9/11 to the industry – Emergency Funding – Protecting
Public Air transportation – Hijacking – Security Measures – International Prospective – Trend begins – Diplomatic
Conference on Air Law – Ministerial Conference on Terrorism – Financing of Terrorism – United Nations –
ICAO/ECAC
UNIT V
Aircraft as Missiles: Early Hijackings – Terrorist Hijackings Spread – Initial Public response – Cockpit Doors
– Profile of a Hijacker – Sky Marshal Program/Federal Air Marshal Program – History of Significant Air
hijackings since 1972 – Terrorism – Middle East – Rival Claims – Palestinian Liberation Organisation – Abu
Nidal – Hamas – Iranian Support of Terrorism – Hezbollah – Afghanistan: Osama Bin Laden – Europe – Japan
– Peru – Russia – US – Domestic Terrorism – Nuclear Terrorism.
5
Travel and Tourism
UNIT 1
UNIT I
6
Principles of Travel and Tourism
Operations and Aviation Safety
LESSON 7
Travel and Tourism
1
TRAVEL AND TOURISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Aims and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Principles of Travel and Tourism
1.3 India a Tourist Destination
1.3.1 Tourist Attractions
1.4 Indian States, Capitals, Public Holidays Banks that attract Tourist
1.4.1 Top States
1.4.2 Top Cities
1.4.3 Top Monuments
1.4.4 Top Religious Attractions
1.4.5 Top Wild Attractions
1.4.6 Top Hill Stations
1.4.7 Natural Attractions
1.5 Public Holidays and Banks in India
1.5.1 Public Holidays
1.5.2 Banks in India
1.6 Top Festivals and Tourist Attraction
1.7 Important Travel Agents and Tour Operator
1.7.1 Travel Agents
1.8 Let us Sum up
1.9 Lesson End Activity
1.10 Keywords
1.11 Questions for Discussion
1.12 Suggested Readings
1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
z Discuss the principle of the tour and travel
z Describe scope of the tour and travel
z Explain India as the tourist destination
8
Principles of Travel and Tourism 1.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the largest industries in India is the travel and tourism industry. It provides
cultural, medical, heritage, business and sports tourism. The most important goal of
this sector is to increase and promote tourism, to give other tourist countries a tough
competition, improve and expand present tourism products to make sure that there is a
wide scope of the employment for the local people and to grow the economy of India.
In this lesson, we give valuable information about a variety of tourist spots in India,
modes of transportation, accommodation and approved travel agents.
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM

The Basic principles of the tourism are as follows:
z Collaborate: We can achieve more by working in a group than working alone.
Working in a group is very important as it not only helps to develop local support,
but also tourism requires resources that one organisation cannot provide. The
success of the industry depends on the contribution of the government business
class people tour operator craftsmen artists and many people in order to enhance
the tourism in the country.
Regional groups are also helps to enhance tourism. Cooperating in a local
arrangement help us to increase pool resources, regional themes, save money and
expand our marketing potential. These resources incorporate not only money for
advertising campaigns, but also facilities or expertise in tourism, maintenance, the
arts or another area.
z Find the Fit: To take care of the needs of the local people and the tourist is
significant to make sure that tourism provides benefits to everybody. It is
necessary to realize the kind and amount of tourism that your society can handle.
It is very true that the local priorities fluctuate. So do local capabilities. In simple
words we can say that, local circumstances decide that what is the need of the area
and the tourism. Programs that succeed have wide confined recognition and meet
local needs. They are practical, depends on the talents of particular people in
addition to particular attractions, accommodations, and sources of support and
interest.
One of the reasons that why tourism is growing in India is that travellers are
looking for experiences that are distinct and not homogenized. They want to
experience the beauty of the particular place. You can form your tourism program
on the basis of what is suitable and good for area.
Are there certain times of year or certain places they do not want to share?
Can you accommodate group tours? Do sites accommodate at least forty
people at once with amenities such as restrooms, snacks, and a seating area?
Can you accommodate visitors with disabilities or special needs?
Do the residents of your area want tourism?
How will tourism revenues improve life in your area and affect services such
as fire and police protection?
What is the maximum number of cars or buses your area can handle? On
roads? In parking lots?
Why do they want it?
z Make Sites and Programs Come Alive: Interpreting sites is very significant, and
so as to make the meaning innovative and exciting. Find methods to take the
attention of the visitor’s five senses as you can, because the more they are
involved, the more they will hold.
On average, visitors will remember: 9
Travel and Tourism
10% of that tourist HEAR
30% of that tourist READ
50% of that they SEE
90% of that tourist DO
z Focus on Quality and Authenticity: Quality is an important element for all
tourism, and authenticity is important whenever we talk about the heritage or
history.
The true and the exciting stories place is the worth telling. The story of the prior
generation’s authentic contribution to the history and culture of the place is the
one that will interest tourist, as it distinguishes the place from other places on
earth. Its authenticity adds real value and appeal. By doing the job right and by
focusing on the quality and the authenticity you can give your area the
competitive edge.
z Preserve and Protect: A community’s historic, cultural, and natural resources are
important and often unique.
1.3 INDIA A TOURIST DESTINATION

Development in the Tourism industry in India has seen many phases. At the level of
the Government the development of tourist services was taken up in a designed
manner in 1956 coinciding with the Second Five Year Plan. The Sixth Plan has started
a new era for tourism that has started to be taken as a main instrument for the
integration of the social and economic development.
But the tourist activities have gained momentum in 80’s. The Government takes
numerous important steps. A National Policy on travel and tourism was announced in
1982. Afterwards in 1988, the National Committee on Tourism form a plan to achieve
a sustainable growth in tourism. In 1992, a National Action Plan was made and in
1996 the National Strategy for Promotion of Tourism was formulated. In 1997, a draft
new tourism policy along with the economic policies of the Government and the
trends in tourism development was published for public discussion. But now it is
under the process of revision. The projected policy recognizes the roles of public
sector undertaking, Central and State governments and the private sector in the
development of tourism. The involvement of Local youth, local bodies, Panchayati
Raj institutions, non-governmental organisations in the formation of tourism services
has also been recognised.
The most important development occurred were the formation of the India Tourism
Development Corporation in 1966 for the promotion of India as a tourist destination
and the Tourism Finance Corporation in 1989 to finance tourism projects.
1.3.1 Tourist Attractions
India is a country which is famous for its generous management to all tourists that
does not matter from where they are coming. Its tourist-friendly traditions, diverse life
styles and cultural heritage and colourful festivals and fairs attracts for the tourists.
Many other tourist attractions consist of forest, beautiful beaches, wild life and
landscapes for eco-tourism, mountains, snow and river for adventure tourism, heritage
trains and hotels for heritage tourism, science museums and technological parks for
science tourism; centres of pilgrimage for spiritual tourism. Health resorts, Ayurveda,
and Indian yoga are the main attractions for the tourists.
The Indian handicrafts mainly ivory, jewellery, brass work, carpets, leather goods, are
the main shopping stuff of foreigners. The surveys indicate that nearly 40% of the
tourist expenses on shopping is spent on these stuff.
10 Growth
Operations and Aviation Safety Domestic tourism is the oldest tourism in India. According to surveys, domestic
tourism has grown mainly during the previous one decade. It raised from 64 million in
1990 to 167 million in 1998, thus registering an annual growth of 12.8%.
The tourism growth since independence is very remarkable. It was just 17000 in 1951.
From this level it went to 2.36 million in 1998. Tourism receipts on the other hand
have grown at a phenomenal rate of 17 per cent to ` 11,540 crore in 1998 from
` 7.7 crore in 1951.
Economic Impact
Tourism has generated a lot of employment, poverty alleviation and sustainable
human development. During 1998-99, employment generation through tourism was
estimated at 14.79 million.
Foreign exchange earnings from the tourism sector during 1998-99 were estimated at
` 12,011 crore. Tourism has thus become the second largest net foreign exchange
earner for the country.
Tourism also contributed ` 24,241 crore during 1998-99 towards the country’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP).
Thrust Areas
In order to increase the expansion of tourism in the country numerous important areas
have been recognized for accomplishment during the Ninth Five Year Plan
(1997-2002). The most important is the beach resort, trekking, development of
infrastructure, products, trekking, winter sports and wildlife streamlining of
facilitation methods at airports, human resource development and facilitating private
sector contribution in the infrastructural growth.
Organisation
In India the organisations that are participating in the development of tourism are
Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management, the Ministry of Tourism with its
21 field offices within the country and 18 abroad, India Tourism Development
Corporation, National Council for Hotel Management and Catering Technology,
National Institute of Water Sports and Indian Institute of Skiing and Mountaineering.
Boosting Tourism
Some of the current steps taken by the Government to enhance tourism incorporate
grant of export house status to the tourism industry and incentives for enhancing
private investment in the form of exemption of the Income Tax, interest subsidy and
less import duty. The hotel and tourism industry has been announced a high priority
sector for foreign investment which entails routine approval of direct investment up to
51% of foreign equity and allowing 100% per cent non-resident Indian investment and
simplifying set of laws concerning the sanction of support to tour operators, travel
agents, and tourist transport operators.
Celebrations
At the time of the Golden Jubilee celebrations of India as a Republic, the Tourism
Ministry has made extraordinary efforts to publicize the tourism potential of India.
The Tourism Day was celebrated on January 25, 1998 for the first time. Buddha
Mahotsav was organised from 24th October to 8th November 1998. The Wong La
Millennium was held from April 1999 to January 2001. A special calendar of events
has been formed for highlighting contributions to Millennium events by various places
in all the States. An official website of the Tourism Ministry has also been formed for 11
facilitating propagation of information on tourism. Travel and Tourism
Constraints
The main constraint in the growth of international tourisms in India is poor
infrastructure that includes accessibility to tourist destinations, inadequate air seat
capacity, accommodation and skilled manpower in plenty number.
Poor experience of the visitor mainly due to poor hygienic conditions, inadequate
infrastructural amenities, and incidents of touting and annoyance of tourists in few
places are prime reasons that add to poor visitor experience.
Indian tourism has huge potential for employment generation and earning a good
amount of the foreign exchange further giving a boost to the country’s overall social
and economic development. Much has been accomplished by way of increasing trains
and railway connectivity to important tourist destinations, growing air seat capacity,
widening of roads that connect important tourist centres and growing accessibility of
somewhere to live by adding up legacy hotels to the hotel sector and cheering paying
guest somewhere to stay. But much more has to be done. As tourism is a multi-
dimensional commotion, and essentially a service sector, it would be necessary that all
parts of the Central and State governments, private sector and charitable organisations
develop into lively associates in the endeavour to accomplish sustainable development
in tourism if India is to turn into a world player in the tourist sector.
1.4 INDIAN STATES, CAPITALS, PUBLIC HOLIDAYS,

BANKS THAT ATTRACT TOURIST
1.4.1 Top States
Rajasthan: Rajasthan is one of the most famous and most visited states in India.
Rajasthan is the residence of the previous royal Indian Maharajas (kings) and
Maharanis (queens). A large number of glorious palaces, havelis, forts, monuments,
museums, and other legacies of royalty are present here. The most attractive place of
the Rajasthan is the Thar Desert. Travelling through the sandy desert on the camel’s
back or on aboard a jeep is an exclusive experience. Camping on the sand under the
moonlit twinkling night is a huge attraction for the visitors.
Kerala: Rajasthan is famous for its royal heritage. On the other hand, Kerala is more
of nature lover's enjoyment. The state is also known as the 'God's own country’.
The natural attractiveness of Kerala is revitalizing, be it the tea gardens of Munnar or
the backwaters of Allepey and Kumarakom. The wildlife sanctuaries – Kumarakom,
Periyar, and Wayanad – are abode to both ferocious and beautiful plants and animals.
Also, festivals, people of Kerala and their way of life, cuisine, are very diverse from
what you will come crossways in Rajasthan.
Goa: Goa is the place that has fun loving spirit. The churches because of their
architectural style attract the tourist. Because they stand reminder to the centuries of
Portuguese rule that Goa has seen in the past most of the tourist came just to
acknowledge its beauty. The beaches are the main attraction here where one can get
pleasure from both leisurely walks and adventurous water sports. The New Year
celebration and the Goa Carnival in February is the time when most of the tourists
visit this state.
Uttaranchal: Uttaranchal is a tourist spot picked up by those who wants adventurous
and religious holiday. The snowy peaks, mighty hills and rushing rivers, are very good
for an adventure activity like rafting, trekking, and skiing. Chardham, a pilgrimage
spot offer one’s soul a peace that one has been wanting for a long time. Its wildlife
sanctuaries and ayurvedic therapies gives Uttaranchal a competitive edge.
12 Himachal Pradesh: Nestling in the arms of the strong Himalayas, the state has a lot
Operations and Aviation Safety of valleys and has a charming beauty. An option of adventure in Himachal is as vivid
as it is in Uttaranchal. You can opt for rafting, trekking, skating, skiing, gliding, or
any other form of adventure activities. Himachal is famous pilgrimage destination for
Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs.
1.4.2 Top Cities

Jaipur: The pink city of India and the capital of Rajasthan is Jaipur was founded by
Maharaja Jai Singh. The main attractions of the tourist are the Jantar Mantar, City
Palace, Hawa Mahal, and Amber Fort. The city is also a spot in the royal voyage of
the comfort train and Palace on Wheels.
Agra: One of the wonders of the world is in India i.e. in Agra named Taj Mahal which
is the main point of attraction for tourist towards Agra. Although, this city is in Uttar
Pradesh has many other attraction also to charm visitors after they have visited Taj.
The most prominent amongst them is the Agra Red Fort and Itmad-Ud-Daulah's
Tomb. The remains of Fatehpur Sikri are definitely the point of attraction for the
tourist. Shopping is also high on the list of visitors here.
Khajuraho: Khajuraho is a small place that is situated in Madhya Pradesh and is
known all over the for its cave temples. There were firstly 85 temples, yet, today you
can see the remains of only 20 temples. Those of you concerned in exploring the
educational heritage of India must visit the Khajuraho.
Varanasi: The holiest destinations for the Hindus is Varanasi which is situated in
Uttar Pradesh. A number of tourists are coming to Varanasi to worship river Ganges
and famous Hindu deities at the ghats and at the temples of Varanasi. A trip to
Varanasi is significant for those eager of knowing more about Hindu religion.
1.4.3 Top Monuments

Taj Mahal: Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan's utmost contribution to the world – a
magnificent mausoleum built in the remembrance of his dearly loved wife Mumtaaz
Mahal. A symbol of eternal love in white marble, the Taj, appears among the seven
architectural Wonders of the World and accounts for over 3 million tourists every
year.
Red Fort: This red-sandstone building was on one time is the fort of the Mughal
Kings who ruled India for a long time. A surplus of other palaces in its site and the
traditional Meena Bazaar wherever the royalty once purchased make it a day-long
tourist trip. Indian Prime Ministers till date gives speech for the nation from the Red
Fort on Independence Day.
Jaisalmer Fort: It is the oldest fort since 10th century that witness various generations
of Rajas, Traders, Merchants etc. The temples, intricately imprinted havelis and a
sense of the existence in the dry arid region make Jaisalmer a must-visit for visitors.
Camel and jeep safaris add to the enthusiasm all the more.
Hawa Mahal: Jaipur's Hawa Mahal is an architectural wonder, be applicable the
appellation well with its great amount of windows that flow tranquil gentle wind and
its seem, that resembles more a cascading screen than a building.
1.4.4 Top Religious Attractions

The Golden Temple: Sikh religion does not need any introduction to their holy
pilgrimage seat. Sri Harmandir Sahib or the Golden Temple, named so because of the
typical golden hue that the tombstone is bathed in, is laced by the equally sacred
waters of the Amrit Sarovar or the Pond of Nectar.
Meenakshi Temple: Lord Shiva and his wife Meenakshi are the reigning deities here 13
in this classic, yet traditional representative of Dravidian place of worship structural Travel and Tourism
design with its gopurams (large sculpted gateways) and mandapams (multi-pillared
halls).
Akshardham Temple: Along with the banks of the Yamuna river banks is this 2
billion architectural grandeur – an initiative of the Bochasanvasi Aksharpurushottam
Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS). It is a fine blend of technology and faith.
Akshardham Temple complex is complete with a majestic 11 ft. statue of Lord
Swaminarayan, 20,000 other statues, an IMAX theatre, artificial lakes and a complex
musical fountain.
Lotus Temple: The Lotus Temple is the meditative safe haven that draws tourist from
across the world irrespective of caste and community.
1.4.5 Top Wild Attractions

Ranthambore National Park: One of Rajasthan's leading wildlife sanctuary,
Ranthambore National Park is famous Tigers and also for a wide range of the floral
variety. The Ranthambore Fort is present in this park.
Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary: The well-known sanctuary of Kerala, Periyar is which
has a large herd of elephants and more than 300 species of birds and more than 120
species of butterflies greet visitors. The park also has tigers which you can be seen
during your trip.
Jim Corbett National Park: It is the first National Park and Tiger Reserve of India,
Corbett National Park in Uttaranchal provides visitors many chances to spot wild
animals and birds. Spotting tigers, yet, needs patience as the king of the forest doesn't
gives regular look.
Gir Wildlife Sanctuary: Gir Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat is the last natural habitat of
Lions of Asia that attracts tourist. Other than Lions, the park is also a home to three
hundred species of birds.
Kaziranga National Park: The Kaziranga National Park in the Jorhat district of
Assam is the only place if you want to see the one horned rhino. The park also has a
vigorous population of wild buffaloes, tiger, and elephants. Rare class of birds for
example hornbill is also a main drawer of tourists.
Top Luxury Trains Palace on Wheels: This is possibly the most comfortable and
famous of all the lavishing trains in India. The Palace on Wheels starts its royal trip
from the capital of India, Delhi and takes its travellers on an unforgettable trip to
Jaipur, Ranthambore, Jaisalmer, Udaipur and Agra, Jodhpur, before returning to
Delhi. On the train, for 8 following days, it is the royalty of the previous Rajasthani
rulers that replaces the tedious lifestyle of the passengers.
Deccan Odyssey: The Deccan Odyssey is no way at the back in unfurling before you
the magnificent history of Maharashtra. For 7 days, the Deccan Odyssey takes its
tourist on a tour to the inheritance spots of Maharashtra. Starting from Mumbai, the
train proceeds to Ratnagiri, Pune, Sindhudurg, Goa, Aurangabad (Ellora), Kolhapur,
Nasik (Ajanta) and Mumbai. At the end of the trip, the experience is incredible.
1.4.6 Top Hill Stations

Munnar: This is the attractive and peaceful hill station and is situated in the south
Indian state of Kerala. Main attractions here are the Ervikulam National Park, the
green tea gardens and wonderful waterfalls. Shopping is Munnar includes picking up
items like strawberries, tea and spices.
Shimla: The most well-known hill stations in India that attract tourists is Shimla
which is the capital city of Himachal Pradesh. The hill station has been generously set
14 apart by nature and gives its tourist a visual pleasure in form of beautiful valleys, pine
Operations and Aviation Safety clad hills and waterfalls. The Mall is the main attraction of Shimla.
1.4.7 Natural Attractions

Dal Lake, Kashmir: A perfect lake nestled in the charming Kashmir Valley amidst
the green Mughal gardens having antique monuments, multi-coloured flowers and
avian metropolis, and plummetted orchards. The best tourist attraction is the quiet
boat travel in one of the thousand odd extended and stylish shikaras or houseboats that
hover on the Dal.
Kerala Backwaters: The Backwaters of Kerala are the region destined for those who
want calm moments among normal beauty. The most important backwater spot in
Kerala are Cochin, Kumarakom, Trivandrum and Allepey, Kollam. Cruising all along
these backwaters on the ship or the houseboats or Kettuvallom is one experience that
is eternally appreciated by tourist to the state.
Check Your Progress 1
State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. The Backwaters of Kerala are the place meant for those who want calm
moments amidst natural beauty.
2. A perfect lake nestled in the charming Kashmir Valley amidst the green
Mughal gardens having multi-coloured flowers and avian metropolis,
antique monuments and plummetted orchards.
3. The Deccan Odyssey is no way at the back in unfurling before you the
magnificent history of Maharashtra.
4. It is the oldest fort since 10th century that witness various generations of
Rajas, Traders, Merchants, etc.
5. A number of tourists coming to in Varanasi do not to worship river Ganges
and prominent Hindu deities at the ghats and at the temples of Varanasi.
1.5 PUBLIC HOLIDAYS AND BANKS IN INDIA

India is a traditionally diverse and enthusiastic society, make merry numerous
holidays and festivals. The annual holidays are widely observed by state and local
governments; however, they may alter the dates of observance or add or subtract
holidays according to local custom.
1.5.1 Public Holidays

National holidays
z Soldiers of the Madras Regiment during the annual Republic Day Parade in 2004.
z National holidays are observed in all states and union territories.
z India has three national days. They are:
15
Date English name
Travel and Tourism
26-January Republic Day
15-August Independence Day
2-October Mahatma Gandhi's birthday.
Hindu Holidays
Hindus celebrate a lot of festivals all over the year. Hindu festivals has many
religious, mythological and seasonal significance. The observation of the festival, the
representations used and attached, and the grace and strength of festivity varies from
region to region in the country. A list of the more popular festivals is given below:
Holiday Observed in
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra (as Bhogi), Punjab (as

Bhogi/Lohri
Lohri)
Andaman & Nicobar, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam (as Magh Bihu),

Makar Gujarat (as Uttarayan), Karnataka, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh,
Sankranti/Pongal/Maghi/Magh Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal (as Makar
Bihu Sankranti), Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu (as Pongal), Punjab, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh (as Maghi)
Thiruvalluvar Day Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu
Uzhavar Thirunal
Tamil Nadu
(Farmers' Day)
Vasant Panchami (Aka,

Orissa, Tripura, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra
Saraswati Puja)
Ratha Saptami Maharashtra, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chandigarh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,

Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala,
Maha Shivaratri
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Rajasthan,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal
All states and territories except Kerala, Nagaland, Mizoram, Goa,

Holi (Aka, Dol)
Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu
Maharashtra, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Pondicherry, Tamil

Gudi Padwa/Ugadi/Puthandu
Nadu
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,

Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Ram Navami
Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
Contd…
16
Principles of Travel and Tourism Hanuman Jayanti Maharashtra, Orissa, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh (as Bada Mangal)
Akshaya Tritiya/Maharishi Maharashtra, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Parashurama Jayanti Uttar Pradesh
Rath Jatra Orissa
Nag Panchami or Guga-Navami All states and territories except Goa
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan,

Raksha Bandhan (Aka, Rákhi
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Haryana, Orissa,
Púrńimá)
Punjab, Maharashtra
Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat,

Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka,
Krishna Janmashtami
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West Bengal
Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Ganesh Chaturthi
Orissa, Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
Onam Kerala, Pondicherry
Raja Parba Orissa
Mahalaya Karnataka, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa
all states
holiday for 2 days in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Nagaland,
Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttarakhand and
Dussehra (Aka, Durgá Pujá) Uttar Pradesh
holiday for 3 days in Orissa, Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Tamil Nadu, and Tripura
holiday for 6 days in West Bengal
11th day Bhashani Utchhav in Orissa
Kumara Purnima (aka Kojaagari Maharashtra (as Kojaagari Pornima), Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Pornima) Uttar Pradesh, Chhatisgarh, West Bengal.
all states and territories observed for 2 days in Assam, West Bengal,
Karnataka, Orissa, observed for 5 days in Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh,Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh observed for 6 days in
Maharashtra
Vasu Baras (aka Govatsa
Maharashtra
Dwadashi)
Dhan Teras (aka Dhan

Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh
Trayodashi)
Diwali (Aka, Káli Puja and
Diipávali) Naraka Chaturdashi all states
Maharashtra, Orissa, Assam,

Lakshmi Puja Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, West
Bengal and Tripura
Goverdhan Pooja all states
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,

Bhai Duj (Aka, Bhau-beej,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West
Yama Dwitiya, Bhai Phota)
Bengal, Madhya Pradesh
Uttarakhand,Uttar Pradesh,Bihar,and some parts of Rajasthan and

Devotthan Ekadashi
Madhya Pradesh
Contd…
Hartalika Teej Maharashtra, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh 17
Travel and Tourism
Jagaddhatri Puja West Bengal
Visvakarma Puja Orissa, West Bengal
Nuakhai Orissa
Chhath Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh
Bathukamma Andhra Pradesh
Bonalu Andhra Pradesh
Islamic Holidays
Mawlid or Eid-e-Milād-un-Nabī being celebrated in a town in Uttar Pradesh.

Holiday Observed in
Eid ul-Fitr
Eid/Ramazan Id all states and territories
End of Ramazan
Eid al-Adha
Bakr-Id all states and territories
Feast of the Sacrifice
1.5.2 Banks in India

This is a partial list of corporations engaged in banking business within the territory
of India. There are currently nationalised banks in India.
Nationalised Banks/Public-sector Banks

z Vijaya Bank
z United Bank of India
z Union Bank of India
z UCO Bank
z Syndicate Bank
z Punjab & Sind Bank
z Punjab National Bank
z Oriental Bank of Commerce
z Indian Overseas Bank
z Indian Bank
z IDBI Bank
18 z Dena Bank
Operations and Aviation Safety z Corporation bank
z Central Bank of India
z Canara Bank
z Bhartiya Mahila Bank
z Bank of Maharashtra
z Bank of India
z Bank of Baroda
z Andhra Bank
z Allahabad Bank
SBI and Associate Banks

z State Bank of India
z State Bank of Bikaner & Jaipur
z State Bank of Hyderabad
z State Bank of Mysore
z State Bank of Patiala
z State Bank of Travancore
z State Bank of Saurashtra (merged into SBI in 2008)
z State bank of Indore (merged into SBI in 2010)
z Regional Rural Banks ( Third Level Heading)
z Allahabad UP Gramin Bank
z Andhra Pradesh Grameena Vikas Bank
z Andhra Pragathi Grameena Bank
z Arunachal Pradesh Rural Bank
z Aryavart Gramin Bank
z Assam Gramin Vikash Bank
z Baitarani Gramya Bank
z Balageria Central Co-operative Bank
z Ballia –Etawah Gramin Bank
z Bangiya Gramin Vikash Bank
Private-sector Banks
z Axis Bank
z Catholic Syrian Bank
z City Union Bank
z Development Credit Bank
z Dhanlaxmi Bank
z Federal Bank
z HDFC Bank 19
Travel and Tourism
z ICICI Bank
z IndusInd Bank
z ING Vysya Ban
1.6 TOP FESTIVALS AND TOURIST ATTRACTION

1. Diwali
Source: http://0.tqn.com/d/goindia/1/0/m/0/-/-/diwali.jpg
The very famous festival of India is Diwali which is a 5 day celebration that marks the
beginning of the Hindu New Year. It's famous as the "Festival of Lights" for all the
small clay lamps, fireworks, and candles that are lit throughout the celebrations. These
lights are said to symbolize the success of brightness over darkness and good over
evil. The candlelight makes Diwali a festival of joy and happiness.
2. Ganesh Chaturthi
Source:http://0.tqn.com/d/goindia/1/0/w/0/-/-/ganeshfestival.jpg
The magnificent eleven day Ganesh Chaturthi festival is celebrated as the birthday of
beloved Hindu elephant-headed god, Lord Ganesha. The beginning of the festival
witnesses vast, highly crafted statutes of Ganesha brought at homes and podiums,
which have been particularly prepared and marvellously bejewelled.
3. Holi
Source: http://0.tqn.com/d/goindia/1/0/l/0/-/-/holi.jpg
20 Holi is a festival of colours that also symbolizes the victory of good over evil, in
Operations and Aviation Safety addition to the profusion of the spring crop season. It's commonly referred to as the
"Festival of Colours".
4. Navaratri, Dussehra, and Durga Puja
Source: http://0.tqn.com/d/goindia/1/0/y/I/-/-/durgastatue.jpg
It is the festival of nine days known as Navaratri. The tenth day, called Dussehra, is
dedicated to celebrating the conquer of the devil king Ravana by Lord Rama. It also
signifies with the success of the honoured warrior Goddess Durga over the sin buffalo
mischievous Mahishasura.
5. Krishna Janmashtami/Govinda
Source: http://0.tqn.com/d/goindia/1/0/q/0/-/-/govinda.jpg
Krishna Janmashtami, also known as Govinda, signifies the birthday of Lord

Krishna. This festival include people climbing on one another and making a human
pyramid to attempt and arrive at and smash open earth pots that has curd, which have
been hanged up high from buildings.
6. Kerala Temple Festivals
Source: http://0.tqn.com/d/goindia/1/0/o/0/-/-/kerelafestival.jpg
Kerala the South Indian State has temples that are famous for their interesting temple 21
festivals. The huge processions of elephants, splendid in colourful ornaments, are the Travel and Tourism
foremost attractions of these festivals. The processions are made by bright drummers,
floats, and other musicians.
7. Onam
Source: http://0.tqn.com/d/goindia/1/0/p/0/-/-/onam.jpg
Onam is a traditionally 10-day festival that signifies the return of the legendary King
Mahabali. It’s a festival rich in customs and custom. People noticeably beautify the
ground in front of their houses with flowers set in good-looking patterns to greet the
King.
8. Pushkar Camel Fair
Source: http://0.tqn.com/d/goindia/1/0/2/1/-/-/pushkarcamels.jpg
An amazing 50,000 camels congregate on the little desert city of Pushkar, in India's
state of Rajasthan for the Pushkar Camel Fair. For five days, the camels are clothed
entered into beauty contests, paraded, shaved, raced, and of course traded. It's a big
occasion to witness a conventional style Indian gala.
1.7 IMPORTANT TRAVEL AGENTS AND TOUR

OPERATOR
The Ministry of Tourism has announced a scheme for giving way sanction to hotel
projects from the viewpoint of this aptness for worldwide tourists. A categorization
committee formed by the Ministry categories the performance of hotels in the star
organization into 6 categories from star one to five star deluxe. Likewise, the Ministry
has a system to approve Tour Operators, Travel Agents, Adventure Tour Operators
and Tourist Transport Operators, the thought being to support quality, standard and
service in these categories in order to encourage Tourism in India. This is an intended
scheme open to all bona fide agencies.
22 1.7.1 Travel Agents
Operations and Aviation Safety A Travel Agent is defined as the one who arranges the tour and makes preparations of
tickets for journey by ship, rail, or air, passport, visa, etc. He may also organize
lodging, tours, entertainment and other services related to tourism. It can be classified
as under:
z Inbound Tour Operators: An Inbound tour operator is defined as the one who
arranges accommodation, transport, sight-seeing, entertainment and other services
related to tourism for foreigners.
z Tourist Transport Operators: A Tourist Transport Operator Organization can be
defined as the one, who give tourist transport like coaches, boats, cars, etc. to
visitors for sightseeing, travelling, and journeys to visitor places etc.
z Adventure Tour Operators: An Adventure Tour Operator can be defined as the
one who is occupied in actions associated to Adventure Tourism in India i.e.,
mountaineering, water sports, aero sports trekking and safaris of a variety of
kinds, etc. Other than that he might also arranges for transportation, housing, etc.
z Domestic Tour Operators: A domestic tour operator is can be defined as the one
who arranges transportation, sight-seeing, entertainment accommodation, and
other tourism related facilities for domestic tourists.
Fill in the blanks:
1. A ……………………. is can be defined as the one who arranges
transportation, sight-seeing, entertainment accommodation, and other
tourism related facilities for domestic tourists.
2. An ……………………. can be defined as the one who is occupied in
actions associated to Adventure Tourism in India.
3. A ……………………. can be defined as the one, who give tourist transport
like coaches, boats, cars, etc. to visitors for sightseeing, travelling, and
journeys to visitor places. etc.
4. The ……………………. has announced a scheme for giving way sanction
to hotel projects from the viewpoint of this aptness for worldwide tourists.
5. Onam is a traditionally ……………………. festival that signifies the
return of the legendary King Mahabali.
1.8 LET US SUM UP

In this lesson we have learned how travel and tourism industry has developed over
time and achieved new scope with the growth of a variety of facilities and
infrastructure. From this we appreciate that in the current situation tourism is taken as
a service industry, and this industry is the leading foreign exchange earner and
employment generator. It is hence very essential to have good preparation and
organization of this business and thus increases the need and the significance of
tourism statistics. We know the difference between travel and tourism; tourist and an
excursionist; domestic and international tourist.
As tourism is taken as an industry, it also has a product, the product that comes out of
it is known as Tourism Product. In the next lesson we would learn the definition and
the characteristics of this product and the various forms of a tourism product.
1.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Make list of places that attract the tourist in Delhi.
23
1.10 KEYWORDS Travel and Tourism
Umbrella Industry: An umbrella company is a company that acts as an employer to

agency contractors who work under a fixed term contract assignment, usually through
a recruitment employment agency in the United Kingdom.
Segmentation: Market segmentation is a marketing strategy that involves dividing a
broad target market into subsets of consumers who have common needs, and then
designing and implementing strategies to target their needs and desires using media
channels and other touch-points that best allow reaching them.
Gross Domestic Product: Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all
officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country in a year, or
other given period of time.
National Development: National development refers to the ability of a country or
countries to improve the social welfare of the people, for example, by providing social
amenities like good education, infrastructure, medical care and social services.
Host Country: A nation in which representatives or organizations of another state are
present because of government invitation and/or international agreement.
Regional Development: Regional development is the provision of aid and other
assistance to regions which are less economically developed. Regional development
may be domestic or international in nature. The implications and scope of regional
development may therefore vary in accordance with the definition of a region, and
how the region and its boundaries are perceived internally and externally.
1.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What do you understand by tour and travel?
2. Describe the principles of the tourism.
3. Explain in details the scope and operation of the tourism.
Check Your Progress: Model Answers

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. False
CYP 2
1. domestic tour operator
2. Adventure Tour Operator
3. Tourist Transport Operator Organization
4. Ministry of Tourism
5. 10 days
24
Principles of Travel and Tourism 1.12 SUGGESTED READINGS
Harry A. Kinnison, Aviation Maintenance Management, McGraw Hill
S. Patankar and James C. Taylor Aviation and Airport Security; Terrorism and safety
concerns, CRC Press
IATA Manual on Diploma in Travel and Tourism Management, Ashgate Publishing
Ltd.
25
LESSON Scope of the Travel and Tourism
2
SCOPE OF THE TRAVEL AND TOURISM
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Scope and Operation of the Tourism Industry
2.3 Important Travel Agent and Tour Operator
2.3.1 Benefits of Booking Tours
2.3.2 Types of Tours
2.3.3 Choosing an Expertise
2.3.4 Marketing Yourself
2.4 Perception of the Tourism Worldwide
2.4.1 Tourism Perspective
2.4.2 Global Perspective
2.5 Perception of Travel Worldwide
2.5.1 International and Domestic Tourism
2.6 Indian Perspective
2.6.1 Nature/Characteristics of Tourism
2.7 Importance of Tourism
2.8 Travel Services
2.8.1 The Indian Scenario
2.8.2 Players: Competition
2.8.3 Travel Services Marketing
2.8.4 Other Marketing Challenges
2.9 State Tourist Organisation
2.10 Let us Sum up
2.12 Keywords
26
Principles of Travel and Tourism 2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
z Discuss the scope of the tourism
z Describe the travel agent and tour operator
z Understand the perception of tourism worldwide
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Tourism is the world’s largest industry that generates employment and provides a
source of foreign exchange to the country. This lesson deals with the approaches to
define tourism as an industry and the problems faced by this industry. The scope of
the tourism is very important to understand. This provides a great understanding of the
duties and responsibilities of the travel agent. How they carry out their work and their
function as per the need and the demand of the client. The tour operator and the travel
agents play an important role in making the trip of the tourist a good experience. In
this lesson we will study all the aspects and the requirements of the tourist in order to
make the tour of the client a remarkable and memorable and how the tour operator
work and give a good impression on the customer to increase their business.
2.2 THE SCOPE AND OPERATION OF THE TOURISM

INDUSTRY
The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) is an industrial group that
undertakes the main tourism services in the world. As part of their work they have
expected the size and scope of the tourism industry by means of sophisticated
profitable techniques. They state that travel and tourism is:
‘One of the largest and most dynamic industries of today’s global economy, travel and
tourism …it accounts for US£6 trillion, or 9%,’of global gross domestic product
(GDP) and it supports 260 million jobs worldwide, either directly or indirectly. That’s
almost 1 in 12 of all jobs on the planet’ (WTTC 2012: 3).
The Scope and Operation of the Travel and Tourism are as follow:
z The tourism industry is extremely diverse – from the size of organization;
business type; sector; organization; and process. It can be taken as the collection
of various industries.
z Tourism is a diverse range of products than a single product.
z It comprises tangible and non-tangible elements.
z It is produced where it is consumed.
To exacerbate this, the tourism industry is both misunderstood and underexplored
(Debbage & Daniels 1998). This is because it is amorphous and complex, shrouded in
conceptual fuzziness and imprecise terminology (is it tourism or travel?). This lesson
aims to dispel some of this mystique and provide a clear description of how to
approach examining the scope and scale of the contemporary tourism industry.
2.3 IMPORTANT TRAVEL AGENT AND TOUR

OPERATOR
Travel Agent: A travel agent provides information to the people on various travel
destinations advises them of available holiday packages to suit their tastes and budget
and chart their travel plan. He would generally sell the travel associated products like
currency exchange, car rentals, insurance etc.
Tour Operators: Tour operators offer holiday packages which comprise: 27
Scope of the Travel and Tourism
1. Travel like by rail, road or air.
2. Accommodation like hotels, resorts, apartments, guesthouses.
3. Travel services like airport pick and drop, sightseeing, excursions etc.
These tour operators may be the wholesale operators who operate tours only through
retail travel agencies or they may be direct sell operators who market their product
directly to the public.
2.3.1 Benefits of Booking Tours

The association among tour companies and the travel agents is constantly developing.
Earlier, tour operators relied approximately solely on travel agents for their business.
But now, with developing technology and growing business strategies, tour operators
are now diversifying how to carry out their business. Travel agents use internet
websites to attract their clients worldwide. Many tourists are now looking for an
exclusive and unique tour to have a memorable experience. Tour operators are
enhancing their strategies to have a good number of clients. Agents are taking a good
education and are of well aware of the places and technology so that they can achieve
their targets.
However, the advantages of booking a tour are extremely high. Group travelling is a
very profitable constituent of the business of the travel agent, and tours are the simple
and clear to accommodate these groups. The rate of commission is higher for group
travel, and the returns are also very high.
By having a good focus on your area one can have a specialization in one area. One
can have focus on particular places, like Italy, Brazil, or China. Moreover special trips
like African Safaris or Scuba Diving vacations can be organized. By the help of tour
operators you without any problems set up yourself as a specialist on one area of
travel.
Tour operators have a unique association prospect for travel agents. If you have a
good personal rapport with numerous companies, you can start to make to order trips
for your customers. These customers will be happy with the service you provide them
during their tour.
2.3.2 Types of Tours

Many tourists like to go to independent travel, mainly when going on a worldwide trip
where the currency, language, and transportation systems are difficult. Tourists
booking a tour often pass on to travel agents for assistance. If you are a good travel
agent you must be able to answer all the queries of the tourist about the tour, tour
types, group sizes, and travel styles. All tour companies are dissimilar each company
caters to its own market. It is the duty of the travel agent to ensure your clients is on
the trip that he wanted or that fits his needs.
You should ask your client what they want to get out of the experience. Some tourist
wants more freedom and flexibility during their trip, while some tourists want the trip
to be pre-planned and without any hassles. A travel agent must know about the niche
tours, like those that focus on history, food, or music. These tours grow in fame and
will give the clients a more comprehensive knowledge at a particular part of a culture.
These tours are more special and more personalized that your customer will greatly
value.
Another important factor is group size, when selecting a particular tour. Small trips
are more personalized, but many times are more costly. Considering age groups when
selecting a tour is also very important. Some companies, like Contiki, focus on a
younger people. These tours focus on partying and socializing.
28 Trips that do not involve heavy walking are being preferred by the old people.
2.3.3 Choosing an Expertise
You bill yourself as an expert, if you are a travel agent. As we know that the world is
a big place so if you want to give your customer a good tour you should have an
expertise in a particular area. Many travel agents take a particular place as their
expertise. When choosing a place, you should consider the place where you actually
locally live. You should have knowledge of what you opponent is offering. For
example if there are many companies that focus on Dubai than you should not focus
on that.
Those travel agencies could have a sound established name and customers that you
might face problem in competing with. You should always consider the area in which
you have a good interest. If you have spent a major amount of time in one place then
you should be OK with that. Travel demand is also significant so look at travel trends
in current time. If there is a place in which is popular, then will help you and you
should have expertise in that region. You should also give importance to the political
stability in that region, as this can have a remarkable impact of upcoming travel and
your business.
2.3.4 Marketing Yourself

Once you have developed a particular specialisation, you can start selling your
services. Schools, churches and businesses are popular sources of group travel. By
actively becoming a part of church activities you can become a recognisable face that
people feel they can trust. Also think giving referral incentives.
2.4 PERCEPTION OF THE TOURISM WORLDWIDE

2.4.1 Tourism Perspective
The term tourist is believed to have been derived from the Latin word ‘TORNUS’
which means a tool, a circle or a turner’s wheel. In the sense of the word of the origin,
tourist is a person who undertakes a circular trip, i.e., ultimately comes back to the
place from where he sets about his journey.
The simple word travel, defined as "the act of moving" by most dictionaries, has a
different definition within the context of tourism industry. For the purpose of this
book, travel is defined as "the act of moving outside one's community for business or
pleasure but not for commuting or traveling to or from work or school" (Gee, Makens,
& Choy, 1989, p. 12). With respect to travel as an industry, there must also be the
creation of economic value resulting from the travel activity.
Understanding fundamental definitions and concepts used within the context of the
travel and tourism industry provides an essential framework from which most
discussions on the industry are based. Because of tourism's intangible nature, common
definitions of terminology benefit the industry in a number of ways.
Standardised definitions help insure that all parties are speaking about the same term
or concept with little or no room for variables. This essential for tourism developers
and executives from different regions or countries when they discuss travel and
tourism matters.
In addition, having standardised definitions enables planners to use comparable data
in which to make more informed business decisions. Exact definitions, however,
cannot be taken for granted. For the first half of the 20th century, tourism visitor
arrivals were barely recorded by many countries and, when they were recorded,
methods varied by countries. It was not possible to effectively compare the total
number of visitors from one country to another which defined visitors differently, 29
usually counting arriving foreign passport-holding individuals. Scope of the Travel and Tourism
Finally, having standardized definitions enables tourism researchers to make

scientifically valid assumptions about the tourism industry. This becomes increasingly
important as travel and tourism researchers continue to enlighten public policy makers
and private industry executives about the extraordinary role tourism plays-in the
worlds overall economy. As a relatively new academic discipline, the tourism field
lacks the depth of research found in other forms of commerce. As standardized
definitions become more accepted, researchers will have an easier time collecting
comparable data and performing meaningful tourism studies.
Based on the various definitions of a Tourist here are some of the characteristics of a
Tourist:
z He takes up his journey of his own free will.
z He takes up the journey primarily in search of enjoyment.
z The money spent on the visit is the money derived from home, not
z Money earned in the places of visit.
z He finally returns to his original starting point.
2.4.2 Global Perspective

The World Tourism Organisation (WTO), the major inter-governmental body
concerned with tourism, has led the way in establishing a set of definitions for general
use. In 1991, the WTO and the Government of Canada organized an International
Conference on Travel and Tourism Statistics in Ottawa, Canada which adopted a set
of resolutions and recommendations relating to tourism concepts, definitions, and
classifications. The following definitions are based on the WTO definitions and
classifications and explain the various types of visitors:
z Tourism: The activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their
usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business,
and other purposes.
z Tourist: (Overnight visitor) Visitor staying at least one night in a collective or
private accommodation in the place visited.
z Same Day Visitor (Excursionists): Visitor who does not spend the night in a
collective or private accommodation in the place visited.
z Visitor: Any person travelling to a place other than that of his/her usual
environment for less than 12 consecutive months and whose main purpose of
travel is not to work for pay in the place visited.
z Traveller: Any person on a trip between two or more locations (WTO, 1995b,
p. 16).
Unfortunately, there is still confusion over these very basic definitions. Even within
the same country such as the United States, for example, different states may use
different definitions for data gathering and statistical purposes.
2.5 PERCEPTION OF TRAVEL WORLDWIDE

Just as there are different types of visitors, there are different forms and categories of
travel which take place, varying by traveller, destination, and motive for travel, such
as international vs. domestic travel, intra-regional vs. interregional travel, as well as
inbound vs. outbound travel.
30 2.5.1 International and Domestic Tourism
Operations and Aviation Safety According to the WTO, international tourism differs from domestic tourism and
occurs when the traveller crosses a country's border. Not every international traveller
is a visitor, however. The traveller is a visitor only if the trip takes him or her outside
the usual environment, e.g., workers who cross borders for employment are not
considered visitors. The interest in international tourism has always been strong,
primarily for economic reasons, as this form of tourism plays an important role in
trade and monetary flows among nations.
Domestic tourism has been overshadowed by the interest in international tourism, for
it was thought initially to have little or no international impact, and statistics on the
subject were felt to be a country's own business. It has become clear, however, that
international and domestic tourism do relate to each other. Travellers’ choices change
depending on circumstances, and domestic tourism can be substituted for International
tourism and vice versa under the influence of external factors, such as relative growth
in real incomes, price differences between countries, and international political
conditions. Over the past few decades, in many Western countries domestic holidays
were largely replaced by outbound holidays, influenced by the rise in living standards
and discretionary incomes, while developing countries have seen sharp increases in
domestic tourism.
Regional Travel
Regions are geographically united subdivisions of a larger area characterized by
definitive criteria or frames of reference. Three types of regions are used in tourism
research. The first one refers to geographical location. Regions such as "the north" or
"the west," are examples of this type. The second type refers to administrative areas,
such as "Province X." The third combines criteria referring to location with criteria of
a more physical nature. Examples of this type of regions are "the lake district" or "the
Pacific Basin." Regions of functional type can also be constructed, such as "urban
areas" or "coastal areas” The term interregional travel refers to travel among various
regions, whether in regions found within the same province or state, a country, or
various regions throughout the world. Intra-regional, on the other hand, refers directly
to travel contained within the same defined region, whether domestic or international
such as travel between countries of East Asia.
Inbound and Outbound Tourism

There are three forms of tourism at any level, in relation to a given area, e.g., domestic
region, country, or group of countries:
Domestic tourism, involving residents of the given area travelling (as visitors) only
within that area.
Inbound tourism, involving non-residents travelling as visitors in the given area.
Outbound tourism, involving residents travelling as visitors in an area other than the
given area.
If a country is the area of reference, the terms "domestic," "inbound" and "outbound"
tourism can be combined in various ways to derive the following categories of
tourism:
Internal tourism, which comprises domestic and inbound tourism;
National tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism;
International tourism, which consists of inbound tourism and outbound tourism.
To avoid misunderstanding the terms "inbound," "outbound," "domestic," "internal,"
"national “and” international tourism" are generally used with a country as the unit of
reference. However, it should be recognized that there are political subdivisions which 31
are less than countries and differ from states such as the Commonwealth of Puerto Scope of the Travel and Tourism
Rico and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, both part of the United
States (WTO, 1995b, p. 27).
2.6 INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

In India we see the origin of the concept of Tourism in Sanskrit Literature. It has
given us three terms derived from the root word “Atana” which means going out and
accordingly we have the terms:
z Tirthatana: It means going out and visiting places of religious merit.
z Paryatana: It means going out for pleasure and knowledge.
z Deshatana: It means going out of the country primarily for economic gains.
In simple terms Tourism is the act of travel for the purposes of leisure, pleasure or
business, and the provision of services for this act.
There are two important components that make up tourism:
1. The practice of travelling for pleasure.
2. The business of providing tours and services for persons travelling.
Difference between Travel and Tourism

Though the words Travel and Tourism are synonymies and used interchangeably but
Tourism is a wider concept and encompasses a lot more than travel alone. Travel
implies journeys undertaken from one place to another for any purpose including
journeys to work and as a part of employment, as a part of leisure and to take up
residence; whereas Tourism includes the journey to a destination and also the stay at a
destination outside one’s usual place of residence and the activities undertaken for
leisure and recreation.
All tourism includes some travel, but not all travel is tourism. A person may often
travel for a wide variety of purposes of which tourism is only one. However if
properly handled, a part of the travel for non-tourism purposes can be motivated into
travel for tourism as an additional purpose. For example a person on a journey as a
part of employment to a place with one or more tourist attractions – like a spot of
scenic beauty or historical significance, a pilgrimage, a lake, etc. can be induced to
spare some time and money for a short visit and or stay for tourism purposes alone .In
this sense every traveller is a ‘potential’ tourist and is up to the managers of the
industry to tap this ‘potential’ and convert the traveller into an ‘actual’ tourist.
2.6.1 Nature/Characteristics of Tourism

The following are the some of the characteristics of the tourism. They are:
z Absence of ownership: When you buy a car, the ownership of the car is
transferred to you, but when you hire a taxi you buy the right to be transported to
a predetermined destination at a predetermined price (fare). You neither own the
automobile nor the driver of the vehicle. Similarly, hotel rooms, airline tickets,
etc. can be used but not owned. These services can be bought for consumption but
ownership remains with the provider of the service. So, a dance can be enjoyed by
viewing it, but the dancer cannot be owned.
z Unstable Demand: Tourism demand is influenced by seasonal, economic political
and others such factors. There are certain times of the year which see a greater
demand than others. At these times there is a greater strain on services like hotel
bookings, employment, the transport system, etc.
32 z Intangible: Unlike a tangible product, say, a motor car or refrigerator, no transfer
Operations and Aviation Safety of ownership of goods is involved in tourism. The product here cannot be seen or
inspected before its purchase. Instead, certain facilities, installations, items of
equipment are made available for a specified time and for a specified use. For
example, a seat in an aero plane is provided only for a specified time.
z Psychological: A large component of tourism product is the satisfaction the
consumer derives from its use. A tourist acquires experiences while interacting
with the new environment and his experiences help to attract and motivate
potential customers.
z Highly Perishable: A travel agent or tour operator who sells a tourism product
cannot store it. Production can only take place if the customer is actually present.
And once consumption begins, it cannot be stopped, interrupted or modified. If
the product remains unused, the chances are lost i.e. if tourists do not visit a
particular place, the opportunity at that time is lost. It is due to this reason that
heavy discount is offered by hotels and transport generating organisations during
off season.
z Composite Product: The tourist product cannot be provided by a single enterprise
unlike a manufactured product. The tourist product covers the complete
experience of a visit to a particular place. And many providers contribute to this
experience. For instance, airline supplies seats, a hotel provides rooms and
restaurants, travel agents make bookings for stay and sightseeing, etc.
z Fixed supply in the short run: The tourism product unlike a manufactured
product cannot be brought to the consumer; the consumer must go to the product.
This requires an in-depth study of users’ behaviour, taste preferences, likes and
dislikes so that expectations and realities coincide for the maximum satisfaction of
the consumer. The supply of a tourism product is fixed in the short run and can
only be increased in the long run following increased demand patterns.
z Heterogeneous: Tourism is not a homogeneous product since it tends to vary in
standard and quality over time, unlike a T.V. set or any other manufactured
product. A package tour or even a flight on an aircraft can’t be consistent at all
times. The reason is that this product is a service and services are people based.
Due to this, there is variability in this product. All individuals vary and even the
same individual may not perform the same every time. For instance, all air
hostesses cannot provide the same quality of service and even the same air hostess
may not perform uniformly in the morning and evening. Thus, services cannot be
standardized.
z Marketable: Tourism product is marketed at two levels. At the first level, national
and regional organisations engage in persuading potential tourists to visit the
country or a certain region. These official tourist organizations first create
knowledge of its country in tourist –generating markets and persuade visitors in
these markets to visit the country. At the second level, the various individual firms
providing tourist services, market their own components of the total tourist
product to persuade potential tourists to visit that region for which they are
responsible.
z Risk: The risk involved in the use of a tourism product is heightened since it has
to be purchased before its consumption. An element of chance is always present in
its consumption. Like, a show might not be as entertaining as it promises to be or
a beach holiday might be disappointing due to heavy rain.
2.7 IMPORTANCE OF TOURISM

Tourism sector holds immense potential for Indian economy. It can provide impetus to
other industries through backward and forward linkages and can generate huge
revenue earnings for the country. In the recent 2007-08 budget, the provision for 33
building tourist infrastructure has been increased from US$ 95.6 million in 2006-07 to Scope of the Travel and Tourism
US$ 116.5 million in 2007-08 (Min. of Tourism, GOI).

Tourism is no longer looking at it as a leisure activity, but as a major source of
employment. The labour capital ratio per million rupee of investment at 1985-86
prices in the tourism sector is 47.5 jobs as against 44.7 jobs in agriculture and 12.6
jobs in case of manufacturing industries (Market plus Report, Min. of Tourism).
Tourism is one of the third largest net earners of foreign exchange for the country and
also one of the sectors, which employs the largest number of manpower.
In order to develop tourism in India in a systematic manner, position it as a major
engine of economic growth and to harness it’s direct and multiplier effects for
employment and poverty eradication in an environmentally sustainable manner the
state and central governments formulated several policies. But it continues to suffer
from lack of consistent and comprehensive policy. While little effort has been made to
tap the potential of the tourism sector over the last few decades, the central tourism
ministry is formulating policies to facilitate private investments through public private
partnership and focus on development of this sector.
India is rated among the top five travel destinations in the world according to Lonely
Planet. ABTA magazine rates India as the most preferred destination on earth. Indian
tourism is one of the most diverse products on the global scene. India has 26 world
heritage sites. It is divided into 25 bio-geographic zones and has wide ranging eco-
tourism products. Apart from this it has a 6,000 km coastline and dozens of beaches
(WTO 1997). India's great ethnic diversity translates into a wide variety of cuisine and
culture. It also has a large number of villages, plantations and adventure locations.
The potential of tourism to contribute to development is widely recognized in the
industrialized countries, with tourism playing an increasingly important role and
receiving government support. Tourism along with some other activities like financial
services and telecommunications is a major component of economic strategies.
Tourism has become a favoured means of addressing the socio-economic problems
facing rural areas on one end, while enhancing development of urban areas on the
other.
1. Tourism along with some other activities like financial services and
telecommunications is a major component of economic strategies.
2. India is rated among the top five travel destinations in the world according
to Lonely Planet.
3. Tourism is no longer looking at it as a leisure activity, but as a major
source of employment.
4. Tourism sector holds immense potential for Indian economy.
5. An element of chance is always present in its consumption.
2.8 TRAVEL SERVICES

Conventionally, it was believed that a travel agent (TA) does not create a need but
only fulfils an existing need. But it is now a reality that a number of TAs not only
creates the need to travel to destinations but give business to hotels, carriers and many
others. A TA is an important link between the traveller and the rest. How some travel
agencies have grown and benefited from the marketing approach, is being discussed in
this lesson.
34 The purpose of marketing is to create a customer, to persuade him to purchase your
Operations and Aviation Safety product, in spite of the options open to him to either buy from someone else or not to
buy at all. It is a well-recognised axiom that the customer pays not for the product, but
for the satisfaction he desires. To begin with, only the customer knows what would
satisfy him. Or does he, really? It is, therefore, important to know who the customer
is, or can be; to determine what satisfies him or does not; or, even to change his
perspectives and bring around to recognise the possibilities inherent in the offer you
are making.
Obviously the operative word here is value. To qualify, it is the value that the
customer receives or perceives he is getting, in exchange for a segment of money or
time or choice surrendered by him, which determines the 'decision variable'. As a
consequence, value for money has become a consumer buzzword as powerful and
pervasive as 'brand loyalty' and 'quality'-the latter, no doubt, being an integral part of
the value concept.
It is axiomatic that the 'decision variable' itself is not a constant. To explain, given the
same product backed with consistent value, the customer may decide not to buy it, or
defer his purchase decision, depending on various factors external to the product—
economy, attitudinal, and societal. The marketer, in such situations, has to reach out
beyond the confidence circle of his own product into larger concentric circles which
he can only hope to control most of the time. It is, perhaps, this perception of outer
circles and the compulsion to reach out for them which adds true value to his product,
particularly in fiercely competitive situations.
Fortunately, not only travel agents, but everyone else knows by now of the dramatic
attitudinal and societal changes which have come about in India over the last twenty
years in matters of business and leisure travel. It is no longer considered a luxury, and
certainly not a psychological block, to want to get from 'Point A' to 'Point B' in the
least possible time and in a most pleasurable manner The 'decision variable' has, in the
main, become more need driven as the external factors influencing such decisions
have weakened and lost their bite.
Since most things in life have a price attached to them, the advantages of a potentially
large travel market, close at hand, must be placed in the context of constricted
marketing opportunities. This is neither a paradox nor a contradiction in terms. What
really has emerged for the trade is a scenario in which the players have to operate with
not much to fall back on, in terms of Unique Selling Propositions (UPSs). The seller
of a travel service is not about 'to change the world'—the world has changed! What he
is attempting, really, is to add value to an existing product for influencing the buying
decision in his favour.
He is conscious all the time that the competitor is selling intrinsically the same
product—a flight coupon, a car rental, a passport or visa service, a tour, and so forth.
What could or does make a difference for him are the peripherals he can add on or, as
is increasingly obvious worldwide, what reductions he can offer to his client from the
cost of the service provided, by working as closely as possible.
This is not to imply that the travel business is a non-professionalised hit-or-miss
operation, working without sophistication and driven by cut-rate deals, made in little
offices. As a matter of fact, travel is the largest and fastest growing commercial
enterprise in the world. In India too, the growth patterns are exciting, but more of that
later. Moreover, technology has given the business a number of powerful operational
tools. Internally, large scale computerisation of travel agencies has brought about a
sense of productivity and efficiency norms – concepts which, in the 'people business',
are difficult to formulate and monitor. Externally, access to international reservation
mega-systems have changed the rules of the travel marketing game by offering
remarkable instant options to the airline travellers and hotel guests, and travel agents
are no longer unfamiliar with the distinct advantages of satellite data links and 35
electronic mail. Scope of the Travel and Tourism
The most important point, however, is that are we, in the travel business, marketing or
selling? Are we creating a need or merely fulfilling an existing need? Driven as we are
by the more amorphous elements of personal choice, how do we lend the product a
marketable dimension and how different are we allowed to be from the travel agent
next door? These are aspects which must be viewed in the current and short-future
Indian context.
2.8.1 The Indian Scenario

The travel trade in India is about sixty years old, and has received its impetus from the
growth of civil aviation in the country. From small beginnings with a few firms like
Thomas Cook, Vensimals, Mercury of the Oberoi's followed a few years later by TCI
and Sita, today it encompasses about 750 travel agencies spread all over the country.
Yet, this growth has been random and uncontrolled, manifest by today's trade
syndromes, a serious lack of professionalism, particularly in areas of marketing and
finance, the absence of clear-cut institutional and product definition, competition of
the most pernicious kind, and an inadequate code of ethics.
Also, apart from the odd ones out, travel agencies in India have grown around the
expertise, experience and enterprise of single individuals and, so, tend to be highly
personalised. These are superior technocrats who have plunged in, armed with
assurances from a small but dedicated clientele, mostly with poor funding and weakly
held beliefs on the workability of modern methods in a market-place, where contacts,
word of mouth publicity and perpetual deal making predominate. For instance, how
can one explain the fact that computerisation has been adopted just about a decade
ago, and even then, in the most rudimentary manner? Or that, finance still remains
primarily, a bookkeeping and debt-collection function? Or that the marketing function
is seen as an exercise in trade espionage, sweet-dealing the clients, wheeling-dealing
and pumping in sales volumes at any cost or consequence?
The biggest problem a travel service marketer faces is determining what to sell and to
whom. As an agent there is not much he can do about the activities of his principals,
or those on whom he must depend: be they airlines or shipping companies,
government or foreign embassies, local transport operators or their agents abroad.
Thus, the need is to be both circumspect and selective. Overpromising and
under-delivering a service can lead to loss of money and loss of a client; and, in a
trade which is as insular as the travel trade, the ripple effect is disastrous. Ironically,
the Indian travel agent constantly gambles on these imponderables because he
believes he is safer off in familiar territory, as opposed to offering products he is not
comfortable with.
2.8.2 Players: Competition

Situational, the Indian travel agent finds himself caught in the cause and effect fallout
of unplanned and non-regulated growth. He is forced to compete not only with fellow
agents, but with other players in the Held like general sales agents and passenger sales
agents. Initially, these firms were appointed by certain airlines to sell their capacities
in areas where no IATA approved travel agent existed, at commission percentages
higher than what the travel agent earned. First at a slow pace, but later with gathering
momentum, GSAs and PSAs have 'crossed the borders' and it is not unusual to find,
particularly in our metro cities, the airline, its GSA or PSA and IATA approved
travel agents operating next door to each other, and often running after the same
client! Furthermore, cases of airlines competing against their own agents for a plum
account are not difficult to find.
36 In the highly price sensitive travel trade, the IATA approved travel agent is at a
Operations and Aviation Safety serious disadvantage; because every other client is primarily concerned with
neutralising the effects of steeply increasing air fares on his travel budget and he is
forced to offer discounts from his earnings just to stay in the game.
Within the travel fraternity itself, at least five classifications have emerged; the IATA
agent offering a wide clutch of services on a multi-locational basis; the single location
agent; the corporation promoted 'in-house' agency; the 'consolidator' who buys
business for cash on a heavily discounted basis; the non-IATA 'Mom and Pop Shop'
who have no airline ticket stocks or service back-ups and exist by pulling in clients
literally from the pavements for IATA agents in exchange for a small sub-agency
commission. Add to these the firms which specialise only in visa or passport work on
the side, and the usual assortment of free lancers and touts. The IATA approved travel
agent must find his way through this maze of options and enticements to reach his
prospective client.
2.8.3 Travel Services Marketing

The quality, reach, and ultimate success of the marketing activity in a travel agency
depends on how clearly the marketer has understood the service levels his firm can
deliver, and how accurately he assesses the factors which make his firm stand out
from competition. To arrive at such level of clarity and accuracy, he will have to
measure his firm's potential and performance against the generic and specific factors
which contribute to the success of a travel services operation.
Whilst a distinction has been made between the generic and the specific, it must be
understood that the factors are not insular; there is both an overlapping and an
interlocking into one another. Moreover, there are some functional relationships
between them, particularly in terms of cause and effect.
This is not a priority listing and each factor assumes importance at a particular point in
time or amidst a specific scenario. However, everything should finally progress into
credibility and confidence.
Seven Cs of Travel Services Marketing

z Competence
z Credibility
z Confidence
z Consistency
z Customisation
z Care
z Clout
Credibility and Confidence: These are the strongest allies a travel agent can have in
the market-place. Qualitatively, selling travel services is a complex business, not only
due to convoluted fare structures, a lot of regulations to be complied with, involved
itinerary planning and so forth, but to a great extent due to the fact that the agent has
little control over the end product he offers. An aircraft may get delayed, or not take
off at all, leading to a missed connection; a visa or passport may be refused and there
is almost nothing you can do about it in a hurry; a hired car may fail to turn up, or a
hired coach may break down miles from anywhere; a hotel may not have a pre-booked
room ready for your client; your client's air cargo may be shut out at the last moment;
a tour can start with delay and misunderstandings and even end in a fiasco. Each of
these primary services are organised by you from principals; no principal is
answerable to you and only a few choose to commiserate with you. On the other hand,
since the client rarely interacts with the principals, you are inevitably answerable to 37
him. Scope of the Travel and Tourism
These traumas are what a travel agent has to frequently live through and a good agent
develops techniques and plans to safeguard his client and himself. How well he does
reflect the credibility and the confidence level he is able to generate and sustain in the
market. Word does tend to get around and if the marketer, in pitching for new
business, can demonstrate these qualities backed with data and facts, he can
manoeuvre his agency into a position of strength. Even so, we, in the Indian
market-place, are lucky because loyalties die hard here, unlike in the West where
credibility is subjected to constant testing and analysis. But with business perspectives
becoming increasingly bottom-line and pressure oriented, things are changing. The
marketing professional must realise this and search for credibility and confidence
advantages for his agency.
Competence and Clout: Listing competence as a marketing advantage may be
resorting to a tautology. Nevertheless, the qualities a travel agent possesses in terms of
high job specific skills and professional staff strength set him apart from the
run-of-the-mill agent and help in promoting client confidence. Here, competence is
related to technical excellence more than to street smart 'mister fix it' labels. There
will be enough opportunity to demonstrate the latter when things need to get done out
of turn by bending rules, but to begin with, an agency's prime strength lies in how well
the technicalities of the trade are handled by its staff and managers. Competence,
therefore, is a function of superior staff, strong supervision, effective systems and
controls and diverse experience culled from the trade. The marketer who can assert,
based on a proven track record, that his firm knows all the options and can deliver the
best one to the client, or has the talent to anticipate problems before they arise, is
bargaining from a position of strength.
Clout, of course, can be applied when, in spite of having pressed all the buttons, the
machinery remains immobile. Given the multiplicity of operational systems laid out
by a number of principals, anything could go wrong—cancellations, delays, tariff
revisions. If the marketer perceives the efficacy of his agency's contacts within the
confines of offices that matter, he must project this strongly to his prospective client.
He should, however, avoid overkill; contacts remain productive only if they are
handled judiciously.
Consistency: This is another important factor which the marketer must exploit to the
firm's advantage. It is far easier to maintain consistency of quality while selling goods
which can be produced to DIN or BS or ISI specifications than when you are selling
services which do not conform to tangible parameters and have a perceptual bias.
As a matter of fact, it is this bias which determines the vital 'decision variable' which
was discussed earlier. Consistency, however, is easy to comprehend, but not as easy to
sustain particularly, "when you are marching in someone else's parade." The travel
service marketer, in view of competitive pressures, tends to pitch at the highest
promise levels every time to the client. This practice is undesirable and one should see
very objectively on what the agency can do, time after time. The service performance
must not read like the ECG of someone with a systolic problem, nor should it be a
flat-liner. It is important to learn how to say 'no' at times and play safe. It pays in the
long run to consistently deliver good levels of service than be a 'one shot wonder'.
Customisation and Care: If an agency is still arguing about what has been discussed,
remember that the negative fallout of saying 'no' to a client can be neutralised if, as the
marketer, one is prepared to approach each client as someone who has special needs,
even if they are not obvious.
The travel service marketer is rarely selling a branded product. There is no airline that
everyone always likes or dislikes; there is no best airport in the world where your
38 client wants to get stuck in for hours; there is no ideal stopover or routing. Each client
Operations and Aviation Safety has a special perspective and he wants a travel agency which can assure him that it
understands this well.
Small and medium sized agencies have gainfully employed this factor in their selling
and servicing, perhaps due to low volumes that they handle which help a one-to-one
relationship with their clients. It is the larger travel agencies which suffer in
comparison.
For example, Mercury Travels, which is one of the top three in the country, has a
client base of over 500 companies. The problem of providing each passenger, which
could be say 1000 travellers a month on international flights alone, with highly
customised treatment, is acute. Just to keep track of their travel related data is no small
task. Until a satisfactory answer to this can be found, high volume agencies will have
to create a special sales and servicing cell, and then allocate perhaps 5 to 10 clients per
staff on a dedicated basis. But, as is obvious, this adds not only to staff costs, but also
to pernicious in-house squabbling, when each group member pushes for emergency
attention from the ticketing counter staff. Ideally, large agencies should find the
resources to create dedicated cells comprising one staff each drawn from domestic
ticketing, international ticketing, sales and servicing and documentation departments,
who deal with just their 'own' clients. But such a nuclear configuration may not
always be possible.
Large agents in America and Europe are highly computerised, both in-house as well
as being subscribers to mega-computerised reservation systems like Sabre, Galileo,
Amadeus and so forth. We, in India, are far behind till now. Indian travel agencies are
far behind. At Mercury Travel the focus, therefore, has been to bring about quantum
changes in in-house computerisation to go completely online. This will also help in
building up a comprehensive travel profile of each of the customers of Mercury
Travels. Whilst waiting for this upgradation to come about, marketers must sell
services on the premise that every passenger will receive personalised treatment, and
ensure that his or her commitment to the client is backed up by strong operational
support. The silver lining in this situation for a large agency is that, with years of
handling a wide span of customer needs, agency staff is conditioned to expect
complications and provide quick, effective, cost-saving solutions which are really
what the client is looking for, to begin with.
Customisation is pointless without care. First, the marketer must assert that his agency
cares about your particular needs and is prepared to put his money where his mouth is.
Secondly, that his agency takes more than adequate care in planning your travel
details and follows through till departure. It is generally believed that if a client is
convinced that adequate care has been taken at the planning stage and all that needs to
be done has been done, he tends not to hold the agency responsible for the problems
and frustrations which may befall him later. A client can be a business person, a
corporate manager, a government official, a self-employed professional, with whom
the travel service marketer can strike the empathy chord.
2.8.4 Other Marketing Challenges

There are a number of specific factors which can be used to great advantage in
marketing a travel service within the distinctive scenario that exists in India. These
factors are:
z Low general awareness
z Intense competition
z Poor infrastructure
z Lack of control.
The Indian traveller, having truly come of age in the last decade or so, is ironically, by 39
and large, still ignorant of all that a travel agency can do for him in terms of servicing, Scope of the Travel and Tourism
obtaining the best deals for him from the airlines and hotels, the various meet and
assist services which are available at airports in India and abroad, the most
inexpensive methods of transportation, time saving and so on.
On the other hand, the market is intensively competitive, with an increasing number of
players running after the same client groups. Even if .01% of our 880 million travel
(at 8,00,000 travellers), our country has immense potential. It is reasonable to estimate
that just about 10% of this potential is tapped. On the other hand, the number of travel
agents have increased fifty-fold in the last two or three decades. To paraphrase
Winston Churchill, never have so few expected so much of so many! Travel services
are overwhelmingly concentrated in the metros and their environs—few travel agents
have been intrepid enough to invest time and effort in opening up the vast and affluent
hinterland. This manifests itself in growing and intensive competition.
The tools that the travel agent has to work with are at best, primitive, and at worst,
non-existent. In-house computerisation levels in the trade are very low because given
the abysmal margins available to the agent, he fights shy of all investment that cannot
guarantee instant returns. Additionally, the agent is familiar with mega-reservation
systems only through the pages of foreign trade journals. On the other hand, the
available domestic service infrastructure from our telephone systems to airplanes can
keep anyone guessing and missing.
Finally, as explained earlier, the travel trade in India is not regulated by a charter or by
a strict ethical code. IATA norms, save for financial guarantees, are loosely operated
both in terms of licensing and monitoring. The premier travel trade body, the Travel
Agents Association of India is constituted by preference and has no statutory control
over its members which constitute about half of all IATA recognised agents in the
country. Thus grab-as-grab-can is the name of the game. The operational ethics of
many travel agents border on malpractice. Price, and not service, has become the
prime mover in the market.
Value Add-ons in a Travel Agency

z A tie-up with a credit card company for rupee payment in India, and a hotel
reservation system.
z A tie-up with authorised dealer in foreign exchange to secure the benefits of quick
processing at minimum cost.
z To possess a full-fledged money changers licence and work as a one-stop shop.
z To introduce a Privilege Travellers Club which can give the frequent traveller
benefits? This could take the form of complimentary meet and assist services of
free tickets, or even an all-expense paid holiday.
z Computerised reminder service on visas and passports and e', en on the highlights
of previous journeys.
The art of service recovery is also a very powerful tool in the hands of the travel
marketer. As we have seen, a travel agent is horribly prone to the more deadlier
aspects of Murphy's law, being subject to the fallout from its own and others’ errors of
omission and commission. It capitalises on and gets mileage from adversity.
Instances of a group being bumped off a flight and taken straight by a travel agent to a
restaurant for a five-star dinner or his picking up the tab for an aborted flight
connection or offering a complimentary trip to Agra when the usual transport fails to
report, are not uncommon. A leading hotel chain in America asserts that if 'Room
Service' takes more than 10 minutes the service is complimentary. If the marketer is in
a position to commit such quid pro quos, he should use it to his advantage.
40 As far as discounts, credit and complimentary service in general are concerned, the
Operations and Aviation Safety agency policies must be clearly defined. The marketer must make the initial pitch by
forcefully highlighting such benefits, keeping in mind what the competition has to
offer. He must be prepared for counter demands from the prospective client and be
flexible enough, as dictated by circumstance. Compulsions of high volumes and
prestige play an important role here. In securing a large bank's travel business, higher
discounts and longer credits than are usually offered by his agency may be justified if
there is a strong chance of the goodwill rubbing off on to the Bank's commercial
clientele, who may then swing their travel business towards that agency. Offering
special terms to powerful trade bodies and associations may also pay off in a similar
manner.
It is considered both ethical as well sound business policy to check out the prospective
client's record with the earlier agency – why is he leaving them? An independent
financial review and rating helps.
On the other hand, the marketer, reviewing a client's past performance, must take into
account sales volumes and payment record. In re-negotiating contracts, one of the
prime considerations is whether it has been a profitable relationship for both the
parties.
Look through any newspaper or magazine and you will observe that the advertising of
services in this country constitutes an infinitesimal segment of the total amount spent
on product advertising. This is a ridiculous situation because, obviously, it is the
former which is more nebulous in its perceived benefits and therefore needs to be
more positively projected at the potential market. Travel agents stop at the occasional
cocktail party or PR base—with the guest list being generally restricted to existing or
past clients. There is an agent who has an annual party for over a thousand people at a
football stadium, comprising past and present travellers with them! What little
advertising there is limited to specific launches — an outbound tour programme, or
the opening of a new location.
The concept of producing an effective corporate brochure, or a sales kit, is important;
it can form the basis of the marketer’s initial sales pitch. Similarly, in going for a very
large account, it may be worthwhile to invest in an audio-visual presentation. For
instance, once a very prestigious Bangalore based client called for an AV presentation
and Mercury Travels won the account on the strength of its AV presentation.
Newspaper and magazine advertising, leave alone TV, is very expensive and must be
judiciously used.
In the main, the successful travel service marketer must be convinced that effective
institutional advertising which forcefully imprints the agency's product in the public
mind, is essential. There are hundreds of potential clients out there who must be told
what you can offer them.
2.9 STATE TOURIST ORGANISATION

The STO is the body accountable for the formation and execution of national tourist
policy. It is the appropriate agency and instrument for the implementation of the
responsibilities for the direction, control, and endorsement of tourism. All countries
which are dealing in tourism formulated a state tourist organisation which plays a
most important role in both the formulation as well as the accomplishment of the
Government’s tourism programme. These organizations are also accountable for
coordinating the special actions of all the bodies involved in the development of the
tourism. There is on the other hand no fix method as to what make the most
acceptable constitutional deals for the state tourism. In some countries, tourism ranks
as a full ministry and the Minister enjoys a cabinet rank. An additional arrangement in
a lot of countries for tourism is to share a Minister with other departments like
information or with arts, sports and culture. However other possibilities comprise 41
attaching the tourism office to the government of the council, putting it in the charge Scope of the Travel and Tourism
of an official of the rank of a Deputy Secretary with an occasional voice in the council
of Ministers.
Functions of State Tourism Organisation

z STO normally undertake the following functions:
z Control of activities of private travel agencies
z Development of selected areas and
z Information and promotion within the country
z International relations
z Overall tourism policy and promotion.
z Publicity overseas
z Regularization of standards of lodging and restaurants
z Research
z Technical and judicial problems
Research is a necessary role of a State tourist organisation. A related institutional
support is research into the tourism prospective of the principal markets and analysis
into the marketability of the country’s tourist product. This is a significant straight
accountability of STO. Another important supervisory role of the STO is the Control
of the activities of private travel agencies. A lot of tourists are using the services
offered by the private travel agencies. It is necessary that the tourists must get efficient
and good service and protection.
The problems which are related with the administration of law are the technical and
the judicial problems. This is very important as variety of services depend on these
sectors. STO must be very careful while administering law. On the other hand
technical problems are concerned with the growth and maintenance of a variety of
services. Constant thorough consideration is made to the level to which the
superstructure and organisation planned and infrastructure, are likely to meet
upcoming tourism demand.
International relation is extremely essential part of tourism. International associates
that results from tourism have been constantly among the major important ways of
spreading ideas regarding other cultures. Tourism can be a medium for international
perceptive by way of bringing various people face to face. It has been cited as a major
supplier to international friendliness and as a prime means of increasing social and
cultural perceptive among all people of the world.
Improvement of preferred areas to draw tourists is compulsory. In each nation state
there are many areas of tourist potential. On the other hand due to a variety of
limitations, it is not feasible to increase all these areas. It is essential to recognize and
choose particular areas which have the utmost potential for the development of the
tourism.
Overall promotion of tourism and it is very important as it helps in the optimal use of
resources. In calculating income generating from investments in tourism, national
tourist policy cannot confine itself to restricted considerations of instantaneous
financial and economic prosperity. It has to cater for the beneficial effects of tourism
of common national improvement where considerations of non-economic nature may
be evenly or even more significantly, than merely economic returns viz. cultural
considerations, social considerations, political considerations, etc.
42 Check Your Progress 2
Operations and Aviation Safety Fill in the blanks:
1. The …………………… is the body accountable for the formation and
execution of national tourist policy.
2. …………………… of preferred areas to draw tourists is compulsory.
3. Research is a necessary role of a ……………………
4. The travel trade in India is about …………………… old.
2.10 LET US SUM UP

Tourism sector has a huge potential for the economy of India. It can give momentum
to many industries by forward and backward linkages and can make huge income
earnings for the country.
In India the travel trade is around 60 year old and is developed because of the
development of the civil aviation. Increasing worldwide competition in the market of
air travel meant that the 1990s were the decade of the air traveller as a user looking for
improved service quality. The responsibility of airline selling is to bring
simultaneously the contribution of air services, which every airline can control, with
the demand, which it can manipulate but cannot control, and to do this in a way which
is both advantageous and meets the airline's corporate goals.

Prepare a presentation on the travel and tourism industry in India and discuss it in
your class.
2.12 KEYWORDS
Hospitality: It refers to the relationship process between a guest and a host, and it also
refers to the act or practice of being hospitable, that is, the reception and entertainment
of guests, visitors, or strangers, with liberality and goodwill.
Leisure Travel: It is travel in which the primary motivation is to take a vacation from
everyday life.
Tourism: The activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their
usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and
other purposes.
Tourist: (Overnight visitor) Visitor staying at least one night in a collective or private
accommodation in the place visited.
Visitor: Any person travelling to a place other than that of his/her usual environment
for less than 12 consecutive months and whose main purpose of travel is not to work
for pay in the place visited.
World Tourism Organisation (WTO): It is the major inter-governmental body
concerned with tourism.

1. What is the scope of the travel and tourism in India?
2. What is the importance of the travel agent and tour operator?
3. Give a brief overview of the travel service in India.
4. What do you understand by the world perception of the travel? 43
Scope of the Travel and Tourism
5. Explain the world perspective of the perception of the tourism.

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. True
CYP 2
1. STO
2. Improvement
3. State tourist organisation
4. sixty years
2.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Robert D. Reid, David C. Bojanic, Hospitality Marketing Management
Kumar, Prasanna (2010), Marketing Of Hospitality & Tourism Services. Tata McGraw
Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.
45
World Tourism
UNIT 1
UNIT II
46
LESSON 47
World Tourism
3
WORLD TOURISM
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Important Countries/Capitals/Currencies/Exchange
3.3 World Tourism Attraction
3.4 Tourism in India
3.5 Tourism Types
3.6 Transportation Commercial Aviation
3.6.1 General Aspects
3.6.2 Emergency Oxygen Systems
3.7 Air Taxi Operation
3.8 Private Aviation
3.9 Let us Sum up
3.11 Keywords

z Discuss world tourism
z Describe important countries, states, currency essential for tourism
z Understand world tourism attraction
z Know about the tourism of India
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Tourism is considered as the third largest foreign exchange earner for many countries,
and rightly so emerged as an instrument for employment generation, poverty
alleviation and sustainable human development. The GDP contribution from tourism
is 5 per cent and above for many countries like China, Malaysia, Singapore and
Thailand. Tourism also helps in improving the bilateral relations among various
countries, which has resulted in positive contribution to economic, social and political
environment. Realizing the significance of these positive factors, many governments
48 have conferred the industry status, extended related incentives to tourism and have
Operations and Aviation Safety embarked on developing the sector to the maximum possible level of operations.
An important element of human life is planning. Without planning the day-to-day
activities do not start. Planning is a pervasive activity, in the sense it is present in all
activities and all phases of life. Planning is looking ahead and deciding the future
course of action at present. Even a kindergarten child has to plan the school bag and
kit before going to school. A housewife, a farmer, an employee, and managing
director of multi-national company, need planning before an activity is started,
whether of short-term or long-term duration. 'If you are failing to plan, you plan to
fail' – goes an old saying. This adage is true in the case of both individuals and
institutions alike. Tourism sector is no exception to this planning process.
The onset of mass tourism, in the nineteen 80s especially, and the institutions it has
given rise to, are producing more deterministic forms of culture. In general cases there
come into being new forms which are different from the earlier phase of tourism
activities. The focus today is on the exotic cultures which figure as key attractions.
Here the approach too differs methodologically. He effort is to satisfy the touristic
demand and in the process even contrive a cultural identity. This is continually
proving to be quite troublesome for the relationship between 'tourism' and 'culture'. Of
late this relationship has been subjected to some important anthropological scrutiny
both at the international and the national levels.
3.2 IMPORTANT COUNTRIES/CAPITALS/CURRENCIES/

EXCHANGE
This brief considers the choice of an appropriate exchange rate regime—floating,
managed or fixed arrangements—for individual countries in light of important
changes that have taken place in the world economy in recent years. These changes
include the general increase in capital mobility and the abrupt reversals of capital
flows to developing and transition economies. It is based on a recent IMF study,
prepared by Michael Mussa, Paul Masson, Alexander Swoboda, Esteban Jadresic,
Paolo Mauro, and Andrew Berg, which is now available in the IMF Occasional Paper
series. The main conclusion is that it remains true that there is no single exchange rate
regime that is best for all countries in all circumstances. Member countries continue to
have scope to choose the type of exchange rate regime that best suits their needs,
always with the proviso that the chosen regime must be credibly supported by policies
consistent with the choice. Which exchange rate regime and associated policies are
appropriate for a country depend on its particular circumstances. While increased
capital mobility has been leading an increasing number of countries to either end of
the spectrum between firmly fixed rates (or monetary unification) and free floating,
intermediate regimes are likely to remain viable and appropriate in many cases.
Overview
The exchange rate regimes adopted by countries in today's international monetary and
financial system, and the system itself, are profoundly different from those envisaged
at the 1944 meeting at Bretton Woods establishing the IMF and the World Bank. In
the Bretton Woods system:
z exchange rates were fixed but adjustable. This system aimed both to avoid the
undue volatility thought to characterise floating exchange rates and to prevent
competitive depreciations, while permitting enough flexibility to adjust to
fundamental disequilibrium under international supervision;
z private capital flows were expected to play only a limited role in financing
payments imbalances, and widespread use of controls would prevent instability in
such flows;
z temporary official financing of payments imbalances, mainly through the IMF, 49
would smooth the adjustment process and avoid unduly sharp correction of World Tourism
current account imbalances, with their repercussions on trade flows, output, and
employment.
In the current system, exchange rates among the major currencies (principally the
U.S. dollar, the euro, and Japanese yen) fluctuate in response to market forces, with
short-run volatility and occasional large medium-run swings . Some medium-sized
industrial countries also have market-determined floating rate regimes, while others
have adopted harder pegs, including some European countries outside the euro area.
Developing and transition economies have a wide variety of exchange rate
arrangements, with a tendency for many but by no means all countries to move toward
increased exchange rate flexibility.
This variety of exchange rate regimes exists in an environment with the following
characteristics:
z partly for efficiency reasons, and also because of the limited effectiveness of
capital controls, industrial countries have generally abandoned such controls and
emerging market economies have gradually moved away from them. The growth
of international capital flows and globalisation of financial markets has also been
spurred by the revolution in telecommunications and information technology,
which has dramatically lowered transaction costs in financial markets and further
promoted the liberalisation and deregulation of international financial
transactions;
z international private capital flows finance substantial current account imbalances,
but the changes in these flows appear also sometimes to be a cause of
macroeconomic disturbances or an important channel through which they are
transmitted to the international system;
z developing and transition countries have been increasingly drawn into the
integrating world economy, in terms of both their trade in goods and services and
of financial transactions.
Lessons from the recent crises in emerging markets are that for such countries with
important linkages to global capital markets, the requirements for sustaining pegged
exchange rate regimes have become more demanding as a result of the increased
mobility of capital. Therefore, regimes that allow substantial exchange rate flexibility
are probably desirable unless the exchange rate is firmly fixed through a currency
board, unification with another currency, or the adoption of another currency as the
domestic currency (dollarization).
Flexible exchange rates among the major industrial country currencies seem likely to
remain a key feature of the system. The launch of the euro in January 1999 marked a
new phase in the evolution of the system, but the European Central Bank has a clear
mandate to focus monetary policy on the domestic objective of price stability rather
than on the exchange rate. Many medium-sized industrial countries, and developing
and transition economies, in an environment of increasing capital market integration,
may also continue to maintain market-determined floating rates, although more
countries could may adopt harder pegs over the longer term. Thus, prospects are that:
z exchange rates among the euro, the yen, and the dollar are likely to continue to
exhibit volatility, and schemes to reduce volatility are neither likely to be adopted,
nor to be desirable as they prevent monetary policy from being devoted
consistently to domestic stabilisation objectives;
z several of the transition countries of central and eastern Europe, especially those
preparing for membership in the European Union, are likely to seek to establish
50 over time the policy disciplines and institutional structures required to make
Operations and Aviation Safety possible the eventual adoption of the euro.
The approach taken by the IMF continues to be to advise member countries on the
implications of adopting different exchange rate regimes, to consider the choice of
regime to be a matter for each country to decide and to provide policy advice that is
consistent with the maintenance of the chosen regime.
Exchange Rate Regimes for Major Currencies

Over the past two decades, exchange rates among the major currencies—the
U.S. dollar, the Japanese yen, and the deutsche mark with its partner currencies in the
exchange rate mechanism of the European Monetary System, before the introduction
of the euro in January 1999—and the currencies of other large industrial countries
currencies have exhibited substantial short-term volatility, in nominal as well as real
terms and also significant medium-term misalignments:
z volatility has been considerably higher than it was under the Bretton Woods
system prevailing from 1945 to 1971;
z medium-term swings have been quite large, including the 1980–85 appreciation of
the dollar and the 1990–95 appreciation of the yen, and their subsequent
depreciations;
z these wide swings in exchange rates have entailed misalignments relative to
economic fundamentals, giving rise to questions of whether and how they can be
avoided, or at least moderated.
Views on whether, how, and to what extent it might be desirable to attempt to stabilize
the exchange rates of major industrial countries differ widely. They range from
advocacy of pure floating, a view espoused especially by those who believe that
exchange rates always reflect fundamentals and that governments and central banks
do not possess knowledge superior to that of the market in such matters, to proposals
for the introduction of a single world currency. Intermediate proposals include target
zones, a quasi-fixed exchange rate regime among the major currencies to be achieved
by monetary policy rules aimed at the exchange rate, and various schemes for policy
coordination that would take the exchange rate into account.
There are two basic objections under current circumstances to any scheme that would
attempt to achieve substantial fixity of exchange rates among the euro, yen, and
dollar:
z the first is that it would require largely devoting monetary policy to the
requirements of exchange rate stability, which is likely to conflict with domestic
objectives, including the objective of reasonable price stability. Indeed, the fact
that movements of exchange rates among the major currencies have, on many
occasions, reflected divergences in cyclical positions among the countries
concerned and in the stances of monetary policy needed to achieve price stability
and to support growth indicates that this concern is warranted;
z second, the three major-currency areas do not conform to the usual criteria for an
optimum currency area. The past decade has highlighted their lack of
synchronization in economic activity and there is no reason to believe that
differences across them would not continue to prevail in the future. In the absence
of the type of political commitment that accompanied the euro's introduction, any
attempt at fixing the exchange rates of the triplet could lack credibility and be
rapidly undone by the market.
Nevertheless, a case can be made for monitoring potential major misalignments within
the IMF's surveillance process and for occasional corrective measures.
Exchange Rate Regimes of Medium-Sized Industrial Countries 51
World Tourism
Pegged exchange rate regimes have been extensively used over the past quarter
century by medium-sized industrial countries, most notably in the exchange rate
mechanism (ERM) of the European Monetary System. The presence of some residual
restrictions on international capital movements, as well as the willingness to make
parity adjustments before disequilibria became too large, contributed to the relatively
smooth functioning of the ERM system in the 1980s. Subsequently, however, the
system became subject to the major "asymmetric shocks" associated with German
unification, and became more vulnerable owing to increasing capital mobility and the
hardening of exchange rate parities following the negotiation of the 1991 Maastricht
Treaty on political and monetary union. The system came under severe strain
during 1992–93, when speculative pressures led to the withdrawal of Italy and the
United Kingdom. The ERM then operated relatively smoothly during the years
leading to the advent of the euro and the formation of European Monetary Union
in 1999, which removed the risk of exchange rate crises within Europe and vindicated
efforts to achieve convergence.
A number of other medium-sized industrial countries have successfully maintained
floating exchange rate regimes over long periods, accepting that rates will move
regularly and sometimes quite substantially in response to market forces. These
countries include Canada which initially adopted a floating regime during 1952–60,
and returned to floating in 1970, before the general collapse of the Bretton Woods
system; Switzerland; and Australia and New Zealand, which have diversified trade
partners as well as dependence on commodity exports. In the absence of an exchange
rate peg, these countries have needed to establish an alternative nominal anchor for
their monetary policies through a credible commitment to low inflation, which has in
some cases been facilitated by an inflation target and operational independence for the
central bank.
Important Countries and Capitals in World Tourism
Destination International Famous Tourist Location Currencies

Country Visitors 2012 Spots
(in Million)
France 83 Eiffel Tower Paris Euro, CFP
St. Tropez French Riviera franc
Palace of Versailles
Versailles
Mont Saint- Normandy
Michel
Palais des Papes Avignon
Dune of Pyla La Teste-de-Buc
Chartres Chartres
Cathedral
USA 67 Grand Canyon Northern Dollar
Arizona
Manhattan New York
Yellowstone Wyoming
Golden Gate Between San
Bridge Francisco and
Marin
Contd…
52
Principles of Travel and Tourism Niagara Falls Between
Operations and Aviation Safety New York and
Ontario
White House Washington DC
China 57.7 The Great Wall Across North Renminbi
of China China
Terracotta Army Xi'an
The Bund Shanghai
Victoria Harbor Hong Kong
The Yellow Huangshan
Mountains
Spain 57.7 Real Palacio Madrid Euro
La Concha San Sebastian
Aqueduct of Segovia/Iberian
Segovia Peninsula
Sagrada Familia Barcelona
Alhambra Palace Granada
Italy 46.4 Roman Rome Euro
Colosseum
Leaning Tower of Pisa
Pisa
St. Peter's Basilica Vatican City
Grand Venice Venice
Canals
Capri Island Italy
Turkey 35.7 Cappadocia Central Anatolia Turkish lira
Hierapolis Southwest
(Sacred City) Anatolia
Istanbul Turkey
Ephesus Selcuk, Izmir
Sumela Monastery Macka, Trabzon
Germany 30.4 The Berlin Wall Berlin Euro
Hamburg City Hamburg
Hall
Giant Old Church Cologne
Check Point Berlin
Charlie
Dresden Germany
Munchen/Munich Germany
Neuschwanstein Fussen
Palace
UK 30.4 The Eden Project Cornwall UK £
The Isle of Skye Scotland
Contd…
Shakespeare's London 53
World Tourism
Globe
Holkham Bay Norfolk
The Backs Cambridge
Edinburgh UK
Torquay UK
Russia 25.7 Mother Kiev Russian
Motherland ruble
Saint Basil's Moscow
Cathedral
Hermitage St Petersburg
Museum
Moscow Kremlin Moscow
Lake Baikal Siberia
Kizhi Island Karelia
Malaysia 25 Petronas Twin Kuala Lumpur Malaysian
Towers ringgit
Eye on Kuala Lumpur
Malaysia/Ferris
wheel
Kota Kinabalu Sabah
Melaka Malacca
Langkawi Kedah
Sunway Lagoon Petaling Jaya
Batu Caves Kuala Lumpur
3.3 WORLD TOURISM ATTRACTION

With an approximately infinite number of reasons to go for a vast holiday
destinations, tourist boards have constantly looked to discover if not generate, new
and exclusive reasons to attract rich prospect tourists to their location. Some have
established to be victorious in their activities, making attentiveness of attractions in
their jurisdictions that are now taken as must-see attractions by visitors all across the
world. From the Great Barrier Reef to the man-made attractions of Disney World or
the ancient ruins of Angkor Wat, these tourist attractions have had an unquestionable
character with tourists for a lot of years and will keep on to do so. Why? For the
reason that these attractions strike into and complete a basic human wish. That is, the
wish to run away from dull reality into a dream, a diverse world completely.
However one of the key constituent that adds to the timelessness of the aforesaid
spaces is how spectacularly classic they are. In spite of their differences, these
attractions are just so inspiring that they give even magnificence tourists with a
forceful cause to take a trip to the place they occupy, and more often than not
exclusively for that reason.
Let’s think two more appropriate ways in which unbelievable, astounding and, in
some cases, improbable holiday destinations will draw the wealthy visitor of
tomorrow:
54 Extravagantly themed destinations and resorts – the revival of the niche.
Operations and Aviation Safety Today’s magnificence travellers have turned out to be gradually more uneven in their
feast preferences. High-end developers have given a constant extra exclusive and
much-needed channel of get away for travellers looking to sincerely treat in their
particular fancy while away. Consider these examples:
Water Discus Underwater Hotel, Dubai
Source: http://hypebeast.com/2012/5/dubai-water-discus-underwater-hotel
Located on a tropical coral reef off the coast of Dubai, the Water Discus Underwater
Hotel is located in the tropical coral reef of the coast of the Dubai which is a luxury
resort complex made by Polish firm Deep Ocean Technology. With both above-water
compartments and underwater compartments, the 21-room hotel give underwater
views of marine life, rooftop gardens an underwater dive centre and diving lessons, as
well as water sports facilities, and swimming pools, and a helipad. Construction of the
resort commenced in late 2012.
Kung Fu Kingdom, China
Source: http://www.allposters.com/-sp/Shaolin-Monastery-Shaolin-Birthplace-of-Kung-Fu-Martial-Art-
Henan-Province-China-Posters_i6060979_.htm
The Chinese city of Wudang in recent times announced campaigns to construct the
world’s first tai chi and Kung Fu-themed amusement park. Set to open in 2015,
Wudang Kung Fu City will be built at the bottom of the Wudang Mountains, the 55
origin of Kung Fu, and house to some of China’s main Taoist shrines. The theme park World Tourism
will comprise stroke rides that are based on traditional icons like the Monkey King,
and mark procedures like daily specialist performances of tai chi and services such as
traditional teahouses.
Real Madrid Resort Island, United Arab Emirates
Source: http://inhabitat.com/soccer-team-real-madrid-to-build-1-billion-artificial-island-resort-in-uae/
In 2012, Spanish soccer club Real Madrid announced that it had commenced
construction of the Real Madrid Resort Island in the northern Emirate of Ras al-
Khaimah. Located on a mock land mass, the $1bn resort is programmed for
completion in January 2015, providing 4.6 million square feet of leisure facilities that
include hotels, soccer-themed club museum a soccer stadium and training college, and
a marina. The island will be made in the shape of the soccer club’s logo.
Flamboyantly ‘faketastic’ attractions – the ultimate antidote to authenticity
We heard a lot about the travellers seeking out genuine educational experiences
and entirely natural environment, but don’t ignore the unavoidable counter-trend. A
lot may be content with, holiday experiences that are brashly not natural, and yet go
far away from the normal in their implementation.
Hallstatt Alpine Village, China
Source: http://www.thehelper.net/threads/china%E2%80%99s-pirated-austrian-village-opens.155742/
56 A replica of an Austrian village near Huizhou has been built by the Chinese metal and
Operations and Aviation Safety mining company China Minmetals Corporation. The original Hallstatt is a UNESCO
World Heritage-listed site and the Chinese replica facial appearance copies of the
churches, houses, and buildings that can be established in the Alpine village, along
with road signs and signposts in Chinese.
Sustainable ‘Superpark’, Singapore
Source: http://www.forumforthefuture.org/greenfutures/articles/singapores-new-superpark-takes-
inspiration-eden
In 2012, 250-acre eco-park Gardens by the Bay opened in Singapore. Singapore’s
National Parks Board spent $1bn on the development. In addition to several
conservatories containing exotic plants, it features a canopy of 18 artificial
‘supertrees’. The 50-metre-tall manmade structures are vertical gardens that are linked
by elevated walkways, providing ventilation, harnessing solar energy, and collecting
rainwater for the park.
1. A replica of an Austrian village near Huizhou has been built by the Chinese
metal and mining company China Minmetals Corporation.
2. We heard a lot about the travellers seeking out genuine educational
experiences and entirely natural environment, but don’t ignore the
unavoidable counter-trend.
3. A lot may be content with, holiday experiences that are brashly not natural,
and yet go far away from the normal in their implementation.
4. Today’s magnificence travellers have turned out to be gradually more
uneven in their feast preferences.
5. With an approximately infinite number of reasons to go for a vast holiday
destinations, tourist boards have constantly looked to discover if not
generate, new and exclusive reasons to attract rich prospect tourists to their
location.
3.4 TOURISM IN INDIA

Tourism to and within India has undergone some important changes in recent years
seen by the rising numbers of international tourists and increase in domestic tourism.
This has led to the redevelopment and rebranding of many of its destinations as the 57
Indian government has begun to recognise the potential importance of tourism to the World Tourism
Indian economy and has begun to invest in tourism infrastructure. It is also recognised
that as its economy continues to grow at a rapid rate, India will also become one of the
most important countries in terms of future outbound tourism.
India is a great country with a haven of tourism delights like wealth of sights, cultural
exuberance, and diversity of terrain.
It is no doubt a place of wonder, with creative burst of cultures, races, and religions,
over a billion people, 15 official languages, and gifted nature's beauty. Its diversity is
out of all bounds. Indians live with variety and thrive on diversity. From mud hut to
mansion, there is variety. In every aspect, India is on massive exaggerated scale which
can be compared to the superlative Himalayan Mountains. It is set apart from the rest
of Asia by the supreme continental wall of the Himalayas. It touches the three large
water bodies. This triangular peninsula defined by the Bay of Bengal to the east, the
Arabian sea to the west, and the India Ocean to the south has in its store the wealth of
natural resources.
The abundance of vast mountain ranges, exciting national parks, enchanting rivers,
roaring seas, silent valleys, thrilling waterfalls, historical monuments, holy temples,
and diverse tribal culture added with the hospitality of its people, India offers
innumerable opportunities for tourism.
z Present Situation and Features of Tourism in India
Today tourism is the largest service industry in India, with a contribution of 6.23% to
the national GDP and providing 8.78% of the total employment. India witnesses more
than 5 million annual foreign tourist arrivals and 562 million domestic tourism visits.
The tourism industry in India generated about US$ 100 billion in 2008 and that is
expected to increase to US$ 275.5 billion by 2018 at a 9.4% annual growth rate. The
Ministry of Tourism is the nodal agency for the development and promotion of
tourism in India and maintains the "Incredible India" campaign.
According to World Travel and Tourism Council, India will be a tourism hotspot from
2009-2018, having the highest 10-year growth potential. As per the Travel and
Tourism Competitiveness Report 2009 by the World Economic Forum, India is
ranked 11th in the Asia Pacific region and 62nd overall, moving up three places on the
list of the world's attractive destinations. It is ranked the 14th best tourist destination
for its natural resources and 24th for its cultural resources, with many World Heritage
Sites, both natural and cultural, rich fauna, and strong creative industries in the
country. India also bagged 37th rank for its air transport network. The India travel and
tourism industry ranked 5th in the long-term (10-year) growth and is expected to be
the second largest employer in the world by 2019. The 2010 Commonwealth Games
in Delhi are expected to significantly boost tourism in India further.
z Tourist Attractions in India
India is a country known for its lavish treatment to all visitors, no matter where they
come from. Its visitor-friendly traditions, varied life styles and cultural heritage and
colourful fairs and festivals held abiding attractions for the tourists. The other
attractions include beautiful beaches, forests and wild life and landscapes for eco-
tourism; snow, river and mountain peaks for adventure tourism; technological parks
and science museums for science tourism; centre of pilgrimage for spiritual tourism;
heritage, trains and hotels for heritage tourism. Yoga, Ayurveda and natural health
resorts and hill stations also attract tourists.
The Indian handicrafts particularly, jewellery, carpets, leather goods, ivory and brass
work are the main shopping items of foreign tourists. It is estimated through survey
that nearly forty per cent of the tourist expenditure on shopping is spent on such items.
58 z Future Prospects of Tourism in India
Operations and Aviation Safety According to the latest Tourism Satellite Accounting (TSA) research, released by the
World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) the future prospects of tourism are as
follows:
The demand for travel and tourism in India is expected to grow by 8.2 per cent
between 2010 and 2019 and will place India at the third position in the world.
India's travel and tourism sector is expected to be the second largest employer in the
world, employing 40,037,000 by 2019.
Capital investment in India's travel and tourism sector is expected to grow at 8.8 per
cent between 2010 and 2019.
The report forecasts India to get capital investment worth US$ 94.5 billion in the
travel and tourism sector in 2019.
India is projected to become the fifth fastest growing business travel destination from
2010-2019 with an estimated real growth rate of 7.6 per cent.
3.5 TOURISM TYPES

Today people are feverishly participating in tourism. This may include short trips
during the, weekend breaks or longer journeys during holidays. Old age pensioners
have a dream of retiring to a place where the weather is good and the prices low.
Without any outside pressure, millions of people flock to destinations of their own
free will. Long lines of care, crowded buses and trains and jumbo jet go all over the
world. As a result the beaches become too small, shops and restaurants too crowded,
porting facilities and the environment degraded and worn down with years of being
admired and used, and the world shrinks. For an increasing number of people work is
no longer the main purpose of life and this encourages tourism. Modern tourism is one
of the most striking phenomena of our times. Tourism offers us an opportunity to
learn, to enrich humanity and to identify what may be termed as goals for a better life
and a better society. But conservationists want to change things. They want to arrest
the spread of the "landscape caters" who have transformed the countryside with their
mass migration.
Forms and types of tourism emerge within the context of changing social values. For
example, in modern society, the value of being has been superseded by the value of
having possession, property, wealth, egoism and consumption have become more
important than community, tolerance, moderation, sensibility and modesty. As a result
in all parts of the world:
z Economy is characterized by increasing concentration of earth, division of labour
and specialization.
z Environment is being treated as if resources are renewable.
z The limits of eco-system are stretched without considering the negative aspects,
and
z Peoples' rights are constantly corded to meet the needs of the power system, etc.
Forms of tourism emerge from different fields of tension such as work/rest, awake/
asleep, exertion/relaxation, income/expenditure, job/family, freedom/necessity, risk/
security, similarly, dirt, noise, rush, pollution and trouble etc., are all key expression
of such tension. The possibility of going away is very important is such a context.
The desire for tourism is therefore determined socially. Government promote tourism,
people talk about their holidays, unions sponsor holidays, health insurance covers
visits to spas, tax rebates are given for holiday homes and corporations reward
employees with travel instead of bonus money. Seasonal pressure strengthen the urge
to get away from home, Annual vacations, the Media, literature and fashion all 59
strengthen the holiday mania. The tourism industry whets the appetite with tantalizing World Tourism
offers of entertainment and pleasure. The commercialization of recreation functions

within the well-established principles of a free market economy. In the past, in the
erstwhile socialist countries have a transport subsidy called the leave Travel
Concession and most companies provide holiday homes for their workers, but tourism
is primarily a private enterprise. A study of tourist brochures indicates the successful
design of a tourist visit:
1. Create a holiday mood by emphasizing informality, abandonment, scenery,
freedom, pleasure.
2. Show time, standing still, romanticism and relaxation, peace and space.
3. Show something beautiful that is not available at home. And typical holiday
symbols like the sun, a beach umbrella, a palm fringed coastline, etc.
4. Show people from other cultures, always beaming, happy, friendly and idle.
All four ingredients form the tourism mix. However, in today's context the different
types of tourism are as follow:
Rest and Recuperation: Taking a rest from everyday life; relieve the stress of
societies that have shifted from manual to sedentary work. Tourism as diversion or
compensation to holiday destination is what may be called holiday or vacation travel
which is focused on resorts and beach holiday's both domestic and international.
Escape: Tourism as a mass flight from everyday reality to an imaginary world of
freedom. This flight take place within the movements from centres to peripheries or in
other words a North-South migrating.
Communication: Spending quality time with family and friends, make new friends
and acquaintances. This is mass tourism, in herds, enjoying the facilities of tourism
enclave.
Culture and Education: Such Tourism is based on sightseeing tours to experience
and see other countries of the world though not necessarily in depth.
Freedom: Tourism frees you from home and work and is directed towards facilities
and comfort rather than experience.
Health: Visit spas, go to saunas, undergo cures for chronic ailment, visit health club
for workouts or do yoga i.e. travel for health.
Special Interest Tours: Is organized as per the special interests of the tourist ranging
from medical, historical, archaeological and other interests to golf or fishing.
Adventure and Wild Life: Far away from modern civilization, with bears and porters
and mules, camels, elephants or jeeps mixing trekking and hiking and camp life with
the luxury of a first class hotel.
Convention Tourism: To mix leisure with work, holding convention or meetings at
tourist destinations.
Different forms of tourism also give rise to different types of tourist.
z The ridiculous tourist who is dressed in funny clothes and views everything
through the lens of a camera
z The naive tourist who is inexperienced in travel always asks unnecessary
questions and has no language skills
z The organized tourist who feels at home with a guide and a group of follow tourist
z The ugly tourist who behaves as if he owns the world
60 z The uncultured tourist who is an each bum and spends his time taking and eating
Operations and Aviation Safety z The exploiting tourist who spends a holidays at the cost of people and takes
advantage of their culture hospitality and poverty
z The polluting tourist who demands that for his comfort everything can be
flattened or destroyed
z The alternative tourist who explores the few untouched corners of the world thus
opening the way to mass tourism
3.6 TRANSPORTATION COMMERCIAL AVIATION
Transportation Commercial aeronautics is the part of civil aviation (both general

aviation and scheduled airline service) that includes working aircraft for hire to
transportation commuters or cargo.
3.6.1 General Aspects

In almost countries, a flight may be worked for money only if it meets three criteria:
z the operator must hold a certificate or some other authorization for commercial
operations
z the aircraft must hold a valid commercial registration
z the pilot must hold a valid commercial pilot's certificate
There are some exemptions — for instance, a flight teacher is normally allowed to fly
for money in a private aircraft owned by the student — but the above requests hold for
maximum flights where money variations hands.
Classically, a commercial record or process needs higher values than a private one.
For example, a profitable pilot may have to establish more manoeuvres to a higher
standard, and may essential to pass more recurrent medical examinations. A
commercially recorded aeroplane may need more frequent or more wider
maintenance.
It is the goal of the flight, not the type of aircraft or pilot that controls whether the
flight is profitable. For example, a two-seat Cessna 150 towing a banner for money
would be a profitable flight, while a large jet flown by its holders for a private holiday
could not be, even if the pilots were commercially certificated and the jet were
commercially registered.
3.6.2 Emergency Oxygen Systems 61
World Tourism
Emergency Oxygen Masks Deployed

Most commercial airplane is tailored with oxygen masks for usage when cabin
pressurisation becomes unsuccessful. Generally, marketable aircraft are pressurized so
that the cabin air is at a pressure equal to no additional 8,000 feet, where one can
respire generally with no oxygen mask. If the oxygen pressure in the cabin falls below
a safe level, risking hypoxia, sections comprising the oxygen masks will open
spontaneously, either above or in front of the passenger and crew seats, and in the
lavatories.
3.7 AIR TAXI OPERATION

An air taxi is an air charter commuter or goods aircraft which works on an on-
demand basis.
In 2001, Air taxi operations were commercialized in the United States by a NASA and
aerospace business study on the potential Small Aircraft Transportation System
(SATS) and the growth of light-jet aircraft manufacturing.
Air taxi operator means an aircraft operator who brings the processes in an aircraft
with 30 or less passenger seats and a cargo capacity of 7,500# or less, for hire or
advantage. An air taxi operator works on-demand base and does not have the flying
scheduled experiences of a traveller. Pursuant to 14 CFR 298.21, an air taxi operator
is essential to record with the Civil Aeronautics Board and to reintroduce the
registering semi-annually. An air taxi operation must not use big aircraft and must
preserve liability assurance. A commuter air carrier is chosen as any air taxi operator
which makes at least five round trips per week between two or more points and issues
flight plans which identify the times, days of the week and places among which such
flights are performed.
In Forum Ins. Co. v. Seitz Aviation, Inc., 241 Kan. 334 (Kan. 1987), the court
observed that “Air taxi operator means an air carrier coming within the classification
of air taxi operators established by 14 C.F.R. § 298.3 (1986). 14 C.F.R. § 298.2(b)
(1986). 14 C.F.R. § 298.3 set forth the classification:
z There is hereby established a classification of air carriers, designated as "air taxi
operators," which directly engage in the air transportation of persons or property
or mail or in any combination of such transportation and which:
Except as provided in 14 C.F.R. § 298.5, do not directly or indirectly utilize
large aircraft in air transportation;
62 Except as provided in 14 C.F.R. § 298.5, do not hold a certificate of public
Operations and Aviation Safety convenience and necessity or economic authority issued by the Board other
than that provided by this part;
Have registered with the Board in accordance with Subpart C of this part;
Have and maintain in effect liability insurance coverage in compliance with
the requirements set forth in Subpart E of this part and have and maintain a
current certificate of insurance evidencing such coverage on file with the
Board.”
3.8 PRIVATE AVIATION

Private aviation process is the part of civil aviation that does not comprise flying for
hire.
In most countries, private flights are always general aviation flights, but the reverse is
not true: many overall aviation flights (such as banner towing, charter, crop dusting,
and others) are commercial in that the pilot are employed and paid. Numerous private
pilots fly for their own pleasure, or to share the joys and suitability of general flying
with friends and family.
In private flight the pilot is not salaried, and all aircraft working expenditures are
usually paid by the pilot. In some countries like the United States, aircraft working
expenditures for a flight may optionally be divided with any travellers up to a pro
rata amount. For example, if aircraft working expenditures total $120 for a flight with
pilot and three travellers, each of the three passengers could pay not more than $30
(one fourth) of the expenses with the remainder paid by the pilot.
It is the purpose of the flight, not the aircraft or pilot that determines whether the flight
is private. For example, if a commercially licensed pilot flies a registered plane to visit
a friend or attend a business meeting, most countries would consider this to be a
private flight. Conversely, a private pilot could legally fly a multi-engine complex
aircraft carrying numerous passengers for non-commercial purposes (no compensation
paid to the pilot, and a pro rata or larger portion of the aircraft operating expenses paid
by the pilot).
Fill in the blanks:
1. It is the purpose of the flight, not the aircraft or pilot that determines
whether the flight is ……………………..
2. Numerous private pilots fly for their own …………………….., or to share
the joys and suitability of general flying with friends and family.
3. An …………………….. is an air charter commuter or goods aircraft which
works on an on-demand basis.
4. …………………….. is the part of civil aviation (both general aviation and
scheduled airline service) that includes working aircraft for hire to
transportation commuters or cargo.
3.9 LET US SUM UP

Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure, or business purposes. The World Tourism
Organization defines tourists as people "travelling to and staying in places outside
their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business
and other purposes".
Tourism is an excellent way to develop a country, but it can also cause harm. How can 63
countries ensure that tourism benefits the development? It is irrefutable that tourism World Tourism
has become the backbone of many economies of the world. In fact many countries
rely on the tourist dollar for their development. This has also led to damage of the
natural environment and at many places the tourist places have been so much littered
that they have ceased being a tourist attraction any more.
Leisure travel was associated with the Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom –
the first European country to promote leisure time to the increasing industrial
population. Initially, this applied to the owners of the machinery of production, the
economic oligarchy, the factory owners and the traders. These comprised the new
middle class.

Prepare a quiz on tourism forms and types for your classmates.
3.11 KEYWORDS
Physical: Of or relating to the body as opposed to the mind.
Psychological: Of, affecting, or arising in the mind; related to the mental and
emotional state of a person.
Pleasure: A feeling of happy satisfaction and enjoyment: "she smiled with pleasure at
being praised".
Recuperation: Convalescence: gradual healing (through rest) after sickness or injury.

1. Define tourism.
2. What are the different forms of tourism?
3. What are the future trends of tourism?
4. Explain taxi operation.
5. Describe private operation.
6. Explain Transportation Commercial Aviation.

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
CYP 2
1. private
2. pleasure
3. air taxi
4. Transportation Commercial aeronautics
64
Beaver, Allan (2005), A Dictionary of Travel and Tourism Terminology, CABI.
Bhatia, Arjun Kumar (2006), International Tourism Management, Sterling Publishers
Pvt. Ltd.
Archer, Jane & Syratt, Gwenda (2012), Manual of Travel Agency Practice, Routledge.
Bhatia, A. K. (2006), The Business of Tourism: Concepts and Strategies, Sterling
Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Blanke, Jennifer & Chiesa, Thea (2007), The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness
Report 2007: Furthering the Process of Economic Development, World Economic
Forum.
65
LESSON IATA
4
IATA
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Early Days of IATA
4.3 IATA Aims and Objectives
4.4 Functions of IATA
4.5 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
4.5.1 Aims and Objectives
4.5.2 Role of ICAO
4.6 Organisational Structure at IATA
4.6.1 IDFS – Industry Distribution and Financial Services
4.6.2 MGR – Member and Government Relations
4.6.3 SO&I – Safety Operations and Infrastructure
4.6.4 MACS – Marketing and Commercial Services
4.6.5 CS – Corporate Services
4.6.6 HC – Human Capital
4.7 IATA Geography and Global Indicator
4.8 Travel Agent Management
4.9 Travel Partner
4.10 Aircraft Handling
4.11 Let us Sum up
4.13 Keywords

z Discuss the characteristics of IATA
z Describe the role and responsibility of the IATA
66 z Identify the development of IATA
Operations and Aviation Safety z Explain the competency requirements for supply chain managers
4.1 INTRODUCTION
IATA - The International Air Transport Association - was founded in Havana, Cuba,
in April 1945. It is the prime vehicle for inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe,
reliable, secure and economical air services – for the benefit of the world's consumers.
The international scheduled air transport industry is now more than 100 times larger
than it was in 1945. Few industries can match the dynamism of that growth, which
would have been much less spectacular without the standards, practices and
procedures developed within IATA.
At its founding, IATA had 57 members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North
America. Today it has some 230 members from 126 nations in every part of the globe.
The modern IATA is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association
founded in The Hague in 1919 – the year of the world's first international scheduled
services.
Source: http://www.iata.org/hc/Documents/WelcometoIATA.pdf
Figure 4.1: IATA Office Locations
IATA has had six Director Generals since 1945. Tony Tyler, their current Director
General and Chief Executive Officer, took the helm in 2011.
Governance: IATA is a not-for-profit, business-driven trade association with a
balance of commercial and non-commercial activities.
Annual General Meeting (AGM): The top governance body of IATA meets once a
year. It approves the dues assessment to member airlines and elects the Board of
Governors as part of its agenda.
IATA Board of Governors: Composed of 31 CEO’s from Member airlines, this group
meets twice a year. Its main function is to exercise an oversight and executive role on
behalf of the membership. The Board of Governors also elects and supervises the
Director General and Chief Executive Officer of IATA and approves the annual
operating budget.
Executive Management Group (EMG): The top management body of IATA includes
the DG, the Senior Vice Presidents and the Vice President, Human Capital.
4.2 EARLY DAYS OF IATA

The old IATA was able to start small and grow gradually. It was also limited to a
European dimension until 1939 when Pan American joined. The post-1945 IATA
immediately had to handle worldwide responsibilities with a more systematic
organisation and a larger infrastructure.
This was reflected in the 1945 Articles of Association and a much more precise
definition of IATA's aims than had existed before 1939.
To promote safe, regular and economical air transport for the benefit of the peoples of
the world, to foster air commerce, and to study the problems connected therewith;
To provide means for collaboration among the air transport enterprises engaged 67
directly or indirectly in international air transport service; IATA
To cooperate with the newly created International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO
– the specialised United Nations agency for civil aviation) and other international
organisations.
The most important tasks of IATA during its earliest days were technical, because
safety and reliability are fundamental to airline operations. These require the highest
standards in air navigation, airport infrastructure and flight operations. The IATA
airlines provided vital input to the work of ICAO, as that organisation drafted its
Standards and commended Practices. By 1949, the drafting process was largely
complete and reflected in "Annexes" to the Chicago convention, the treaty which still
governs the conduct of international civil aviation.
In those early days, ICAO coordinated regional air navigation and support for airports
and operational aids in countries which could not themselves afford such services.
IATA provided airline input to ICAO and to sessions of the International
Telecommunications Union on wavelength allocation.
The standardisation of documentation and procedures for the smooth functioning of
the world air transport network also required a sound legal basis. IATA helped to
mesh international conventions, developed through ICAO, with US air transport law
which had developed in isolation prior to World War Two. The Association made a
vital input to the development of Conditions of Carriage the contract between the
customer and the transporting airline. One early item on the legal agenda was revision
and modernisation of the Warsaw Convention – originally signed in 1929 – on airline
liability for passenger injury or death and cargo damage or loss. This work continues.
Once they were operating within a sound technical and legal framework, airlines' next
requirements were for answers to questions such as: who can fly where? What prices
are to be charged? How is the money from multi-airline journeys – that is, interlining
– to be divided up, and how do airlines settle their accounts?
The Chicago Conference of 1944 which gave birth to the Chicago Convention tried to
achieve a multilateral answer to the first two questions, but failed to do so. The
questions of who flies, and where, were resolved on a bilateral basis. The benchmark
Bermuda Agreement of 1946 between the US and the UK was the first of almost
4,000 bilateral air transport agreements so far signed and registered with ICAO.
In the early days, governments insisted on the right to oversee the prices charged by
international airlines but could not, in practical terms, develop those prices for
themselves. IATA was delegated to hold Traffic Conferences for this purpose, with all
fares and rates subject to final government approval. The aim was twofold: ensuring
that fares and rates would not involve cut-throat competition, while ensuring that they
could be set as low as possible, in the interests of consumers.
A coherent pattern of fares and rates pattern was established, avoiding inconsistencies
between tariffs affecting neighbouring countries – and thereby avoiding traffic
diversion. The predictability of fares and rates in this pattern also enabled airlines to
accept each other’s tickets on multi-sector journeys and thus gave birth to interlining.
Today, 50 million international air passengers a year pay for their ticket in one place,
in one currency, but complete their journey using at least two, and sometimes five or
more, airlines from different countries using different currencies.
The first worldwide Traffic Conference was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1947. It reached
unanimous agreement on nearly 400 resolutions covering all aspects of air travel. Fare
construction rules for multi-sector trips, revenue allocation – pro-rating – rules,
baggage allowances, ticket and air waybill design and agency appointment procedures
were typical details agreed at this pioneering meeting.
68 Today, that pioneering work is reflected in the currently applicable IATA Resolutions
Operations and Aviation Safety dealing with these and many other subjects. Notable examples are:
Multilateral Interline Traffic Agreements: These are the basis for the airlines'
interline network. Close to 300 airlines have signed them, accepting each other’s
tickets and air waybills – and thus their passenger and cargo traffic – on a reciprocal
basis.
Passenger and Cargo Services Conference Resolutions: These prescribe a variety of
standard formats and technical specifications for tickets and air waybills.
Passenger and Cargo Agency Agreements & Sales Agency Rules: These govern the
relationships between IATA Member airlines and their accredited agents with regard
to passenger and cargo.
Debt Settlement between airlines, largely arising from interlining, takes place through
the Clearing House, which began operations in January 1947. During its first year, 17
airlines cleared (US) $26 million. The IATA Clearing House today.
4.3 IATA AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

In many ways, those tasks remained the same as in 1945, or even in 1919. But IATA
gave them new relevance and focus by redefining its mission and goals in 1994:
z Safety and Security: To promote safe, reliable and secure air services.
z Industry Recognition: To achieve recognition of the importance of air transport
worldwide social and economic development.
z Financial Viability: To assist the industry to achieve adequate levels of
profitability, by optimising revenues (yield management) while minimising costs
(fuel, charges and taxation).
z Products and Services: Provide high-quality, value for money, industry required
products and services that assist the airlines in meeting the needs of the consumer.
z Standards and Procedures: To develop cost-effective, environmentally-friendly,
standards to facilitate the operations of international air transport.
z Industry Support: To identify and articulate common industry positions and
support the resolutions of key industry issues (congestion, infrastructure).
These objectives proved to be relevant and most were carried over to the new
millennium, where they still form most of IATA’s current mission.
At IATA their values include:
z Place their people first
z Achieve results with speed
z Embrace innovation and change
z Work as a unified team with cultural intelligence
z Act with integrity
z Demonstrate leadership
4.4 FUNCTIONS OF IATA

The functions of IATA are centred on the achievement of its objectives, which benefit
the airlines across the globe: (i) Challenging unreasonable rules and charges;
(ii) Holding regulators and governments to account; and (iii) Striving for sensible
regulations.
The organization performs several functions like: 69
IATA
z Preparation of International Time Tables for air travel
z Establishing networks through effective use of telecommunications and
computerization
z To train travel and flight agents
z Improving security standards in air travel
z To control and monitor all legal issues
z To streamline rules and regulations for passenger and cargo traffic at airports
z Solving all issues pertaining to international air travel, and
z To standardize the ticketing and reservation systems and procedures.
It is mandatory for an airline to get certified from the respective governments as a
scheduled airliner of the country. While the international operators are regarded as full
time members of IATA, the domestic airlines are considered as associates in the
organization. It has a staff of around 500 employees and organizes international
seminars on a regular basis on matters related to issues covering all aspects of aviation
industry. The issues may be ticketing, baggage checks, preparation of bills, etc.
For fare calculations, IATA has divided the world into three regions:
z South, Central and North America.
z Europe, Middle East and Africa.
z Asia, Australia, New Zealand and the islands of the Pacific Ocean.
IATA provides valuable support to the members in many functions covering areas of
finance, security, operations, strategic management, safety and training.
The IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA) programme is an internationally
recognized and accepted evaluation system designed to assess the operational
management and control systems of an airline. The IOSA certification has now
become a mandatory requisite for all IATA member airlines.
IATA is pivotal in the worldwide accreditation of travel agents with exception of the
US where this is done by the Airlines Reporting Corporation. Permission to sell
airline tickets from the participating carriers is achieved through national member
organizations. Over 80 per cent of airlines' sales come from IATA accredited agents.
The IATA/IATAN ID Card is the only globally recognized industry credential for the
travel professional. Industry Suppliers worldwide rely on the IATA/IATAN ID Card
to reach out to individual travel professionals offering exclusive incentives and
educational programs.
The implementation of the IATA Safety Audit for Ground Operations (ISAGO) aims
to improve safety and cut airline costs by drastically reducing ground accidents and
injuries.
Any person involved in international airfreight and complying with appropriate
license and legal requirements may apply for registration as an IATA Cargo Agent.
Affording benefits to airlines and agents, IATA accreditation provides agents with
industry recognition of their financial and professional competence and airlines with a
worldwide distribution network of approved agents to sell their product.
In the airline business, the safety of passengers and crew is an absolute must. That
applies to every aspect of airline travel; including food. IATA's Catering Quality
Assurance programme (ICQA) takes a fresh approach to food safety and quality. It
70 was designed to regularly assess and encourage caterers' compliance with food
Operations and Aviation Safety processing safety and quality standards set by airlines.
IATA publishes standards for use in the airline industry. The Bar Coded Boarding
Pass (BCBP) standard defines the 2-Dimensional (2D) bar code printed on paper.
IATA provides for simple quality measurement system for ground handling services.
The system ensures feedback by the service provider to the customer on regular basis
to match standards as fixed by the customer.
The purpose of IATA is to achieve a coordinated and sustained effort among various
airlines for standardizing the air travel rules and regulations regarding passenger and
cargo movements, including safety and security at airports. IATA controls and decides
the international ticketing procedures and decides the fares among various sectors that
are to be followed by all member airlines. It shall honour the bilateral agreements
between two countries in implementing agreed fares. However, IATA shall have no
jurisdiction on the fares in respective domestic sectors.
IATA Clearing House: IATA revenue sharing procedure is applicable to international
tickets and cargo fares. This is referred to as "Clearing House". It is part of the system
of International Air Transport Industry to enter into various Agreements, covering the
transfer of passengers, freight and mail from one company to another. These
agreements make it possible for passengers and cargo service providers to purchase
multi-sector journeys involving transportation on any number of different airlines.
The effective and efficient settlement of these intra and inter transactions shall have
bearing on the functioning of various organizations to ease the working capital
pressure. Each partner or service provider must be able to promptly collect the dues
from the ticketing airlines and travel partners on time. The IATA Clearing House
settles around US Dollars 50 billion in interline and service transactions each year.
Some 75 per cent of these are settled through the netting process, requiring balancing
of amounts and no movement of funds, assuring high credit and currency protection to
its users. This operates similar to a bank's clearing house.
IATA Membership: The airlines willing to be a member of IATA should submit the
following details along with the application and a prescribed fee of US $ 15,000:
z Certificate of Registration with appropriate authority e.g., Chamber of Commerce
or equivalent.
z Audited Financial Statements for the applicant airline, and if majority owned by
another company (including state ownership), the financial statements of the
owner company should also be furnished. A chartered or public accountant must
certify these statements. For new airlines, a business plan prepared by a chartered
or public account is acceptable.
z The Annual Report of the applicant airline, or company by-laws showing how it is
constituted, or airline profile.
z Valid insurance certificates with aircraft type, registration number for each
aircraft and respective details of registering authority, valid for a minimum of six
months.
z Traffic statistics for the preceding two years. This requirement does not apply to
new airline.
z Published timetable/schedule, if the airline has scheduled operations.
IATA recommended charges are mandatory for all members and should be adopted.
The pricing depends on the profitability and the traffic demand. For example, the
charges on Europe-US may be less than the charges on Europe-India sector because of
the high traffic on the former sector. Other criterion is the competition and costs
involved shall also have a bearing on fixing the tariffs. IATA also regulates any
unethical practices by air lines and agents, which may print a higher tariff on the ticket 71
but subsequently may offer discounts to take undue advantage of competition; in such IATA
cases IATA shall levy penalties to erring airline/agent.
4.5 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION

(ICAO)
Operation of an air plane requires precise and meticulous procedures and systems,
which is made possible by the existence of universally accepted standards known as
Standards and Recommended Practices, or SARPs. This cover all technical and
operational aspects of international civil aviation, such as safety, personnel licensing,
operation of aircraft, airports, air traffic services, accident investigation and the impact
on environment. ICAO, which is established in the year 1944 with headquarters in
Montreal, Canada, is promoted exactly with the same mission of ensuring air safety
and establishing standardised practices that should be universally followed. Since
1947, ICAO functions as an organ of UNO. ICAO defines the protocols for air
accident investigation followed by various transport safety authorities in countries
signatory to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, known as the "Chicago
Convention".
4.5.1 Aims and Objectives

Objectives of ICAO: ICAO works to achieve its vision of safe, secure and sustainable
development of civil aviation through cooperation amongst its member States. To
implement this vision, the Organisation has established the following Strategic
Objectives for the period 2005-2010.
Safety: Enhance global civil aviation safety.
Security: Enhance global civil aviation security.
Environmental Protection: Minimize the adverse effect of global civil aviation on the
environment.
Efficiency: Enhance the efficiency of aviation operations.
Continuity: Maintain the continuity of aviation operations.
Rule of Law: Strengthen laws governing international civil aviation.
4.5.2 Role of ICAO

The role of ICAO in air travel and management is commendable. It sets standards for
safe and secure passenger and cargo transport with continuous technical and strategic
support to member countries and the service providers in aviation industry.
The organisation's concentrated efforts are aimed at passenger safety and security,
training and development of human resource of travel partners.
It strives hard for elimination of indiscriminate competition among various parties and
tries uniformity in operations. Further helps sort out the immigration related issues
and tries to simplify the customs and duties of various member countries. There are at
present 130 member countries in ICAO.
It helps in coordinated efforts among different countries and development of standards
for airports and maintenance of aircraft.
As part of UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), it resorts to improve
and provide the technology for ground control systems, and in-flight services.
Assembly is an important part of ICAO. All members of ICAO are members to its
general assembly. As on 2008, there are 190 member countries. The assembly
operates independently and meets once in three years to discuss in detail the activities
72 of the organisation. It also develops action plan for the ensuing period of three years
Operations and Aviation Safety till it meets. The Assembly constitutes a Council with 36 member countries. Assembly
shall elect these members once in three years. Further, the council is constituted with:
Those countries having significance in the aviation industry;
Countries, which render services for the growth and development of international civil
aviation; and
Countries, which possess geographical location advantage.
The Council shall work as governing body and supervise the organisation’s overall
functions. There are three more divisions: (i) Air Navigation Committee; (ii) Air
Transport Committee; and (iii) Legal Committee.
ICAO shall oversee the bilateral agreements among different member countries. For
example, to run 10 services from India to UK, Government of UK may also demand
similar number of services to India. In case India wishes to operate flight to New York
US via London in UK, it has to agree for UK flights to operate via Indian destinations,
like Mumbai or Delhi to Hong Kong and Singapore. Hence all this type of agreements
of varied nature is executed under the provisions and supervision of ICAO. There are
millions of people who work day and night for the safe passage of thousands of air
planes flying the skies- 24 hours, 365 days a year. This round the clock operation
demands meticulous support from man and machines. Coordination is vital among
Pilots, Air Controllers, and Weather Scientists. Standardisation of procedures and
establishing advanced technical equipment should be common to all airplanes and
airports; this is ensured by ICAO standards. The ICAO also standardises certain
functions for use in the airline industry, such as the Aeronautical Message Handling
System AMHS; this probably makes it a standard organisation.
ICAO has also brought an enactment to trail and punish the crimes on air travel, like
hijacking and drug traffic. The Security and Facilitation Policy Section is responsible
for the management of the ICAO Aviation Security Programme.
While IATA resolves issues and challenges among various partners to air travel,
ICAO helps the member countries to establish and improve safety and security aspects
of air travel. Even though there may not be direct link with tourism, these
organizations by helping the promotion and growth of air travel shall indirectly
support the sector. India is a member to the Council right from the inception. It is to
be noted that Dr S. S. Siddhu, an Indian was Secretary General to ICAO during 1991.
In the ICAO General Assembly held in Montreal from 18th to 28th September 2007,
India has been re-elected to the Council of ICAO for a period of 3 years. India has
consistently been elected to the Council since 1944.
Civil aviation is a powerful force for progress in modern global society. It creates
millions of jobs directly and indirectly, ranging from more technical and highly skilled
jobs to manage the aircrafts to semi-skilled ground duty and unskilled cleaning staff
employed in the air ports. It forms part of the economic lifeline of many countries. It
is a catalyst for travel and tourism, the world's largest industry. Beyond economics, air
transport enriches the social and cultural interactions of society and contributes to the
attainment of peace and prosperity throughout the world.

1. While IATA resolves issues and challenges among various partners to air
travel, ICAO helps the member countries to establish and improve safety
and security aspects of air travel.
2. Civil aviation is a powerful force for progress in modern global society.
Contd…
3. ICAO shall oversee the bilateral agreements among different member 73
countries. IATA
4. The role of ICAO in air travel and management is commendable. It sets

standards for safe and secure passenger and cargo transport with
continuous technical and strategic support to member countries and the
service providers in aviation industry.
4.6 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE AT IATA

There are the five divisions within IATA that report directly to the DG/CEO along
with six departments.
Source: http://www.iata.org/hc/Documents/WelcometoIATA.pdf
Figure 4.2: IATA’s Organisational Structure
4.6.1 IDFS – Industry Distribution and Financial Services

IATA’s financial business unit, IDFS processes over 300 billion US dollars annually.
This division develops the industry standards, infrastructure, products and programs
that enable airlines and agents to provide high-quality services worldwide.
Key activities are:

z Operating a worldwide distribution, billing and settlement system. The IATA
Billing and Settlement Plan, BSP, performs this function for the passenger side of
the business while the Cargo Agency Settlement System, CASS applies to cargo.
A truly worldwide system facilitating the settlement operations for airlines and
travel agents, BSP operates in 170 countries. CASS operations are deployed in
over 60 IATA offices, covering nearly 100 countries, servicing over 500 airlines,
sales agents and ground handling companies around the globe settling 29 billion
US dollars.
z Managing agency programs that ensure a financially sound and reliable
distribution network of travel and cargo agents.
z Providing a full range of cost-effective financial services for the air transport
industry.
z Developing of common international standards and procedures for commercial air
transport. Such standards serve the purpose of, first, underpinning these vital
activities and, second, simplifying the business of transporting passengers and
cargo through the air transport value chain.
74 4.6.2 MGR – Member and Government Relations
Operations and Aviation Safety This team identifies, assesses and responds to the needs of Members and other
customers. The Division is comprised of the following departments:
z Corporate Secretary
z Member and Regional Relations
z Government and Industry Affairs
z Industry charges, Fuel, and Taxation,
z Risk Management and Insurance
Its responsibilities cover:
z Responding to member needs by monitoring regulatory issues, developing and
implementing industry positions on aero political matters, lobbying and consumer
affairs.
z Representing and promoting the interest of IATA and its Members with the
International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO.
z Developing industry programs to minimize the cost of insurance, taxation, user
charges, and fuel.
z Managing IATA airline membership issues.
z Supporting the fulfilment of IATA’s corporate objectives within the governance
structure and the organization.
4.6.3 SO&I – Safety Operations and Infrastructure

The Safety, Operations and Infrastructure division promotes safe, secure efficient and
economical air transport. While air transport is the safest way to travel, IATA and its
members are committed to making a safe industry even safer with its Six-point Safety
program.
Key activities include:
z Auditing: The IATA Operational Safety Audit, IOSA, and IATA’s Safety and
Ground Operations Audit, ISAGO, are the global standards for safety auditing.
IOSA registration is also a condition for IATA Membership.
z Flight Operations: IATA develops and promotes policies and practices regarding
the safe and effective operation of aircraft. Their IATA Flight Operations team
participates in a number of ICAO technical panels and manages a series of
workgroups.
z Infrastructure Safety Data: IATA manages important data by sharing safety
information. This enables member airlines and other stakeholders to identify
potential for accidents and serious incidents.
z Integrated Airline Management System: IATA has developed an integrated
management system toolkit which provides airlines with the fundamental
guidelines to implement management systems for each operational function.
z Safety Data Management and Analysis: IATA’s wealth of safety data helps the
industry continuously identify hazard and properly manage risks through
mitigation strategies aimed at improving in operational safety.
z Security: On behalf of the industry, IATA works to ensure that security measures
are effective; internationally harmonized and minimize disruption to the
passengers and shippers.
4.6.4 MACS – Marketing and Commercial Services 75
IATA
This division helps IATA provide a wide array of products and commercial services to
airlines, airports, civil aviation authorities and other organizations. Their commercial
vision is to provide relevant, valued solutions to ensure the aviation industry achieves
superior results. MACS provide the self-funding mechanism to enable IATA to
deliver results against industry priorities and to fund industry initiatives.
Areas of activity include:
z Air Transport Consultancy Services: IATA draws on its extensive in-house
expertise and unique access to a vast network of specialists in all areas of civil
aviation. Their tailor made solutions provide users with vital, unbiased analysis
and recommendations for their strategic and commercial decision.
z Market Research: IATA brings expertise in market research in areas such as
customer satisfaction, product/service benchmarking and brand perception
research.
z Market Data and Statistics: IATA is a focal point for airline industry data, studies
and statistics.
z Global Events: IATA organises numerous global events to promote and drive
IATA’s industry-wide agenda.
z Strategic Partnerships: IATA provides a platform for major aviation suppliers
and service providers to contribute to solutions to industry challenges and
priorities.
z Publications: IATA produces a wide variety of publications based on best
practices in commercial aviation as well as IATA standards.
4.6.5 CS – Corporate Services

The Corporate Services division provides critical internal support for all areas of
IATA. The CS strategic drive is to build speed and quality into all its activities. A
major effort is underway across the division to fully implement an enterprise resource
management system from SAP – INSIGHT. CS includes the following functional
areas:
z Corporate planning and control – providing performance reporting and efficient
and timely information – both financial and non-financial.
z Corporate Tax – maintaining IATA’s favourable tax position while ensuring
compliance with applicable regulations.
z Corporate Finance – conducting accounting processes that are efficient and
effective to ensure accuracy.
z Corporate Treasury and Banking – managing cash, foreign exchange and banking
relationships for a global enterprise.
z Corporate Administration and Procurement – ensuring that global offices are fit
for purpose and procurement is performed in the most efficient manner with a
strategic outlook.
z Information Technology Services – supporting business flexibility through
appropriate IT systems and equipment, delivered in a secure and reliable manner.
4.6.6 HC – Human Capital

At IATA, their people are at the centre of their agenda to drive positive industry
change. We are working hard to provide their employees with a great working and
learning environment by:
76 z Adapting their organizational structure to the current environment
Operations and Aviation Safety z Attracting, selecting and retaining the best talent
z Assessing and rewarding employees based on their contribution to their business
z Developing leadership skills, cultural intelligence and overall job competency of
their employees
The Human Capital department also leads the development of human capital for
tomorrow’s air transport industry through the IATA Training and Development
Institute, ITDI. Their professional and vocational programs transfer knowledge and
expertise to promote leadership, commercial success and industry standards on a
global scale. We work closely with academic and industry partners to ensure the value
and relevance of their training on a global scale. We work closely with academic and
industry partners to ensure the value and relevance of their training.
4.7 IATA GEOGRAPHY AND GLOBAL INDICATOR

The fares depends not only on the fare type or the class of service but also by routing
type as said by the by global indicators (G.I). For example, an economy or Y fare
from Seattle (SEA) U.S.A. to Fukuoka (FUK) Japan by the Atlantic would be more
than the price paid by the traveller if he travelled by the Pacific. So to estimate the
right fare, one has to distinguish the form of routing the passenger requires. There are
11 global indicators that airline tickets can be issued on.
1. WH or TC1,
2. EH or TC2,
3. EH or TC3,
4. AT or TC12,
5. PA or TC31,
6. PN or TC31,
7. SA or TC123,
8. AP or TC23,
9. RU or TC23,
10. TS or TC23,
11. FE or TC23.
Passengers should try to meet or try to obtain their airline ticket from their travel
agents so that they can have cheaper fare quote, and also to know flight notices and
condition of carriage from the carrier as well as the terms and conditions of the
tickets.
z EH = EASTERN HEMISHERE
z WH = WESTERN HEMISHERE
z AT = ATLANTIC TRAVEL
z PA = PACIFIC ATLANTIC
z PN = PACIFIC NORTH
z SA = SOUTH ATLANTIC
z AP = ATLANTIC PACIFIC
z RU = RUSSIA IN EUROPE
z TS = TRANS- SIBERIA 77
IATA
z FE = FAR EAST
4.8 TRAVEL AGENT MANAGEMENT

Travel management or corporate travel management (CTM) is the means of taking
care of the strategies of the company’s travel policy, day-to-day operation of the
corporate travel program, the negotiations with all vendors, traveller safety & security,
T&E data management and credit-card management. CTM must not be mixed with
the services offered by the traditional Travel Agency, whereas agencies give everyday
travel services to help customers. Or we can say that CTM take decision on the
category of the people who are allowed to fly and negotiate corporate fares/rates with
airlines and hotels as well as set forth the use of the corporate credit card. For many
companies “travel and expenses” (T&E) costs means the second biggest yearly
expense, more than the salary and benefits, and is usually more than IT or real estate
costs. T&E costs are not only confined to travel (airline, rail, hotel, car rental,
ferry/boat, etc.) but also involve all costs incurred at the time of travel such as
gratuities, staff and client meals, client gifts, taxi fares supplies (office supplies and/or
services), etc. The management of these costs is normally done by the Corporate
Travel Manager which is a function that can be a part of the HR,
Finance, Procurement or Administrative Services Department. As this include all
these areas in some form and represents such a major corporate expense, it become a
reason that this function must have an equal ranking within a corporation as any other
major division and not be seen as a sub-set of existing departments.
4.9 TRAVEL PARTNER

There is a confirmed substitute to work as a travel agent or your own organization
with an additional lucrative and less hectic future. Whether you are a presently a
Travel Agency owner or a person employed as travel agent you will recognize that we
all work in a highly demanding, dynamic and competitive environment.
It’s the innovative and exciting approach to the fastest rising section of the travel
industry. The Travel Partners Way is depends on the business form that give a highly
trained, travel professionals who are looking for maintaining their own travel
consultancy or ascertaining their own individuality, with a stage from which to
function competitively and more by yourself.
All Travel Partners, and their customers, are completely supported with sound priced
products, the basic information technology systems and to offer a safe and a proficient
atmosphere in which to do business. To become a Travel Partner, you will need to
have a proven record of client contentment together with travel industry proficiency
and knowledge.
The profile of a typical Travel Partner consultant will include the following:
z Each Travel Partner should have a minimum 5 years of experience of travel
industry, and in every time, a Travel Partner will boast at least 2 or 3 times that
experience.
z You will be well travelled both domestically and globally and must have a wide
variety of travel experiences.
z Preferably you will grasp suitable qualifications together with expertise in related
travel software, fare computation and ticketing skills as well as comprehension of
consular and health necessities internationally.
z Travel Partners are often skilled and trained and regularly updated on new travel
procedures, products, and other aspects of the industry.
78 z Most Travel Partners have taken to become a Travel Partner so that they can focus
Operations and Aviation Safety on what they can do best, and i.e. servicing their client’s travel needs and using
their links and understanding to pleasure the consumer and to make an on-going
‘travel partnership’ with them.
4.10 AIRCRAFT HANDLING

In aviation, aircraft handling is defined as the servicing of an aircraft when it is on
the ground and is parked at a gate of the terminal in an airport.
According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), conservative
estimates depicts that the airlines outsources around 50% or more of the ground
handling that occur at the airport of the world. Airport handling addresses
requirements of the many services of an airliner between the time it reaches at a gate
of the terminal and the time it leaves on its subsequent flight. Efficiency, speed and
accuracy are very significant in airport handling services in order to reduce the
turnaround time.
Figure 4.3: A Ground-handling Tug Pulls a British Airways

Boeing 747-400 at London Heathrow Airport, England
Airlines may participate in an industry-standard Mutual Assistance Ground Service
Agreement (MAGSA). The MAGSA is published by the Air Transport
Association (the current version is from 1981) and is used by airlines to assess prices
for maintenance and support to aircraft at so-called MAGSA Rates, which are updated
annually based on changes in the U.S. Producer Price Index. Airlines may choose to
contract for ground handling services under the terms of a Standard Ground Handling
Agreement (SGHA) published in the International Air Transport Association
(IATA) Airport Handling Manual. Airlines may also contract for ground handling
services under non-standard terms.
Cabin service
These facilities make sure commuter comfort. The cabin washing is the highest job in
the cabin service. They comprise such tasks as cleaning the commuter cabin and
replacement of on-board consumables or washable substances such as soap, pillows,
tissues and blankets.
Catering
Catering comprises the unloading of new food and drinks from the aero plane, and
the loading of fresh stuff to eat and beverage for travellers and crew. Airline
mealtimes are characteristically carried in trolleys. Empty or trash-filled trolleys from
the prior flight are exchanged with fresh ones. Meals are ready typically on the ground
in order to diminish the amount of planning (apart from chilling or reheating) required 79
in the air. IATA
Airline catering sources include the following companies:

z Airline Services and Logistics PLC (EPZE)
z American Airlines
z Atlas Catering (Royal Air Maroc's catering service)
z Cara Operations
z Cathay Pacific's Cathay Pacific Catering Services
z Chelsea Food Services
z Gate Gourmet
z KLM's KLM Catering in Stages
z LSG Sky Chefs
z Q Catering
z Servair
z Thai Airways's Thai Catering Services
z United Airlines
Figure 4.4: Ramp Service
Figure 4.5: Lavatory Drainage

80 This includes services on the ramp or apron, such as:
Operations and Aviation Safety z Air cargo handling, usually by means of cargo dollies, and cargo loaders
z Air conditioning (more common for smaller aircraft)
z Airstart units (for starting engines)
z Catering trucks
z Deicing
z Gate checked luggage, often handled on the tarmac as passengers disembark
z Ground power (so that engines need not be running to provide aircraft power on
the ground)
z Guiding the aircraft into and out of the parking position (by way of aircraft
marshalling)
z Hydraulic mules (units that provide hydraulic power to an aircraft externally)
z Lavatory drainage
z Luggage handling, usually by means of belt loaders and baggage carts
z Passenger stairs (used instead of an aerobridge or air stairs, some budget airlines
use both to improve turnaround speed)
z Refuelling, which may be done with a refuelling tanker truck or refuelling pumper
z Towing with pushback tractors
z Water cartage (to refill fresh water tanks)
z Wheelchair lifts, if required
Field operation service
This service dispatches the aircraft, maintains communication with the rest of the
airline operation at the airport and with Air Traffic Control.
List of handling agents
z ACR Cargo Express
z Aerohandling
z Aeromexico Servicios
z Aircraft Service International Group
z American Eagle Airlines
z Aviance UK
z Aviapartner
z Aviator Airport Alliance
z African Open Sky
z Baltic Ground Services
z BAS-Bahrain Airport Services
z Caribbean Aircraft Handling Co. Ltd, Barbados
z DAL Global Services
z Dnata
z Executive Airlines
z GAT Airline Ground Support Inc. 81
IATA
z GDN Airport Services
z Global Handling Services
z Goldair Handling
z Ground Handling Inc.
z HAT Enterprises, S.A.
z Jardine Aviation Services
z JetCity Pty Ltd
z Jetex Flight Support
z JetFlight Aviation Services
z JetWash Aviation Services
z Kion de Mexico
z Latin American Aeronautical Technical Support (GUA)
z Menzies Aviation
z Myanma Airways
z NAS-National Aviation Services
z NavStar Aviation Inc.
z Neha Aviation Management Private Limited, India
z Nordic Aero
z Olympic Handling
z PlaneBiz Limited New Zealand
z Portway Handling de Portugal, SA
z Regional Elite Airline Services
z Royal Airport Services Pakistan
z Royal FBO Airport Services Paraguay (AGT, ASU, SGAS, SGES)
z SAS Ground Handling
z Servisair
z SkyStar Airport Services
z SRC Aviation, Pvt. Ltd
z Swissport
z Talaria, SA Aeroport Handling, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
z Tradewinds Aviation Services Ltd, Kenya
z Winner Aviation
z Universal Aviation
z UTG Aviation Services
z EASUD Aviation SupportCo. Ltd.
z Capavia/Aviation Services/Turkey
1. Empty or trash-filled trolleys from the prior flight are exchanged with
………………………
2. The cabin cleaning is the main job in the ………………………
3. According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA),
conservative estimates depicts that the airlines outsources
……………………… or more of the ground handling that occur at the
airport of the world.
4.11 LET US SUM UP

IATA – The International Air Transport Association – was founded in Havana, Cuba,
in April 1945. It is the prime vehicle for inter-airline cooperation in promoting safe,
reliable, secure and economical air services – for the benefit of the world's consumers.
The international scheduled air transport industry is now more than 100 times larger
than it was in 1945. Few industries can match the dynamism of that growth, which
would have been much less spectacular without the standards, practices and
procedures developed within IATA.
At its founding, IATA had 57 members from 31 nations, mostly in Europe and North
America. Today it has some 230 members from 126 nations in every part of the globe.
The modern IATA is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association
founded in The Hague in 1919 - the year of the world's first international scheduled
services.
IATA is a not-for-profit, business-driven trade association with a balance of
commercial and non-commercial activities. The old IATA was able to start small and
grow gradually. It was also limited to a European dimension until 1939 when Pan
American joined. The post-1945 IATA immediately had to handle worldwide
responsibilities with a more systematic organisation and a larger infrastructure. This
was reflected in the 1945 Articles of Association and a much more precise definition
of IATA's aims than had existed before 1939.
IATA's legal efforts anticipated the effects of new technology associated with the
period of rapid growth. It was able to advise the industry on new aircraft and systems,
electronic data processing and advances in sales and marketing techniques. IATA was
re-organised on a two-tier basis in October 1979. The tiers comprised: Trade
Association (technical, legal, financial, traffic services and most agency matters),
Tariff Coordination (passenger fares, cargo rates, and related conditions and charges).
At present, some 100 Members, including the world's largest airlines, continue to
participate in Tariff Coordination.
IATA’s financial business unit, IDFS processes over 300 billion US dollars annually.
This division develops the industry standards, infrastructure, products and programs
that enable airlines and agents to provide high-quality services worldwide. The Safety,
Operations and Infrastructure division promotes safe, secure efficient and economical
air transport. While air transport is the safest way to travel, IATA and its members are
committed to making a safe industry even safer with its Six-point Safety program.
The Corporate Services division provides critical internal support for all areas of
IATA. The CS strategic drive is to build speed and quality into all its activities. A
major effort is underway across the division to fully implement an enterprise resource
management system from SAP – INSIGHT. At IATA, their people have the
opportunity to learn and grow, and the responsibility to add value to the business by
delivering quality results. Each member of their team helps us build a powerful IATA 83
brand and deliver quality results that drive much needed industry change. IATA

Critically analyse the existence of IATA since its inception and for any one particular
country show how it has led to its international air transportation development.
4.13 KEYWORDS
AGM: It is a meeting that official bodies, and associations involving the general
public, are often required by law to hold.
Aviation: It is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft,
especially heavier-than-air aircraft.
Cargo: It is goods or produce transported, generally for commercial gain, by ship or
aircraft, although the term is now extended to intermodal train, van or truck. In
modern times, containers are used in most long-haul cargo transport.
Clearing House: It is a financial institution that provides clearing and settlement
services for financial and commodities derivatives and securities transactions.
Governance: It is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations,
grant power, or verify performance.
IATA: It is the trade association of airlines.
ICAO: It is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It codifies the principles and
techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of
international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth.

1. Critically comment on the statement, “IATA is a not-for-profit, business-driven
trade association with a balance of commercial and non-commercial activities”.
2. Discuss the early days of IATA in detail.
3. What is the mission of IATA that it is carrying out since 1994?
4. Describe the various types of services provided by IATA.

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
CYP 2
1. Fresh ones.
2. cabin service
3. around 50%
84
Pvt. Ltd.
Forum.
85
Hotel and their Rating
UNIT 1
UNIT III
86
LESSON 87
5
HOTEL AND THEIR RATING
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Hotel and Star Rating
5.2.1 Standards of Hotel Classification
5.2.2 Hotel Classifications in Britain
5.2.3 European Hotelstars Union
5.3 Rating System and Classification
5.3.1 World Hotel Rating
5.3.2 Seven Stars
5.4 Resort
5.4.1 Island Resorts
5.4.2 Seaside Resorts
5.4.3 Ski Resorts
5.5 Boarding and Lodging Houses
5.6 Hotel Products, Facilities, Service
5.6.1 Hotel Market Segment
5.6.2 Pricing
5.6.3 Distribution
5.6.4 Communications
5.6.5 Advertising
5.6.6 Sales Promotion
5.7 Let us Sum up
5.9 Keywords

z Discuss the types of hotel
z Describe the role of rating system
88 z Identify the resorts
Operations and Aviation Safety z Explain the boarding and lodging
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Conservatively, it was supposed that a travel agent (TA) does not make a need but
only accomplishes a present need. But it is now an authenticity that a number of TAs
not only generates the need to travel to endpoints but give corporate to hotels,
transporters and many others. A TA is a significant link between the traveller and the
rest. How some travel agencies have developed and helped from the marketing
approach, is being discussed in this lesson.
5.2 HOTEL AND STAR RATING
Figure 5.1: Five-star Superior Rating at Hotel Vier Jahreszeiten Kempinski,

Munich, Germany
z Hotel ratings are often used to classify hotels according to their quality. The
development of the perception of hotel rating and its related definitions display
strong equivalents. From the initial purpose of informing travellers on elementary
facilities that can be estimated, the objectives of hotel rating has extended into an
emphasis on the hotel understanding as a whole. Today the terms 'rating',
'grading', and 'classification' are used to normally refer to the same idea, that is to
classify hotels, mostly using stars as a symbol.
z There are a wide variability of rating patterns used by diverse organizations
everywhere the world. Many have a system including stars, with a greater number
of stars representing superior luxury. Forbes Travel Guide, formerly Mobil Travel
Guide, launched its star rating system in 1958. The AAA and their affiliated
bodies use diamonds instead of stars to express hotel and restaurant ratings levels.
z Entertainment, view, Food services, room variations such as size and additional
amenities, spas and fitness centres, ease of access and location may be considered
in forming a standard. Hotels are individualistically assessed in outdated systems
and rest seriously on the services provided. Some study this injurious to smaller
hotels whose worth of accommodation could fall into one class but the lack of an
item for example an elevator would avoid it from realization a higher
categorisation.
z In recent years hotel rating systems have also been criticised by some who claim 89
that the ranking criteria for such schemes are excessively complex and Hotel and their Rating
challenging for laypersons to recognize. It has been recommended that the lack of
a joined global system for rating hotels may also challenge the usability of such
schemes.
5.2.1 Standards of Hotel Classification

The more common arrangement systems comprise "star" rating, letter categorising,
from "A" to "F", equilateral or simply a "satisfactory" or "unsatisfactory" footnote to
room such as hostels and motels. Systems using terms such as First Class/Superior
Deluxe/Luxury, Tourist Class/Standard, and Budget Class/Economy are more broadly
accepted as hotel kinds, rather than hotel standards.
Some countries have mark by a single public customary — Malta, Netherlands,
Portugal Belgium, Denmark, Greece, Italy, Spain and Hungary have laws defining the
hotel rating. In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, the ranking is defined by the
separate hotel industry relationship using a five-star system — the German
organizations are Tourist (*), Standard (**), Comfort (***), First Class (****) and
Luxury (*****), with the mark "Superior" to flag accessories beyond the least defined
in the standard, but not sufficient to move the hotel up to the next tier position. The
Swiss hotel rating was the first non-government formal hotel classification
commencement in 1979 It did impact the hotel organisation in Austria and
Germany. The formal hotel organisation of the DEHOGA (German Hotel and
Restaurant Association) started on August 1, 1996 and showed very effective with
80% of guests citing the hotel stars as the chief criteria in hotel selection. This
application inclined the formation of a common European Hotel stars rating system
that started in 2010. In France, the rating is well-defined by the public tourist boarding
of the sector using a four-star system (plus "L" for Luxus) which has different to a
five-star system from 2009 on. In South Africa and Namibia, the Tourist Grading
Council of South Africa has strict rules for a hotel types granting up to 5 stars.
5.2.2 Hotel Classifications in Britain

In Great Britain, hotels are rated from one-star to five stars, as in many other
countries. The RAC pulled out of housing ranking in 2008 so the only grouping
schemes in process are those functioned by the AA (Automobile Association) and the
national tourist boards; Visit England, Visit Wales, the Scottish Tourist Board and the
Northern Ireland Tourist Board. The schemes were all 'harmonized' to make sure
reliability between the patterns. This applies to all housing types apart from Self
Catering that the AA have recently (2009) started offering. The AA criterion is
accessible on its website. Along with the usual black stars (ranging from one (the
lowest) to five (the highest), the AA awards red stars to the highest-rated, which are
believed 'Inspectors' Choice'. Each of the nationwide tourist boards has grading
explanations on their web sites.
5.2.3 European Hotelstars Union

The HOTREC (Hotels, Restaurants & Cafés in Europe) is an umbrella organisation
for 39 connotations from 24 European nations. At a meeting in Bergen in 2004, the
partners drafted a hotel classification system in order to match their national
standards. In 2007 HOTREC launched the European Hospitality Quality scheme
(EHQ) which has since credited the existing national examination bodies for hotel
rating.
Under the patronage of HOTREC, the hotel links of Netherlands, Sweden Austria,
Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, and Switzerland created the Hotelstars
Union. On 14 September 2009, the Hotelstars Union arrangement system was
recognised at a session in Prague. This system became operative in these countries in
90 January 2010, with the exemption of Hungary, Switzerland and the Netherlands, who
Operations and Aviation Safety have chosen future dates for the change. Well along more countries have linked the
HOTREC hotelstars system: Estonia (2011), Latvia (2011), Lithuania (2011),
Luxembourg (2011), Malta (2012), Belgium (2013), Denmark (2013) and Greece
(2013).
The European Hotelstars Union system is constructed on the earlier German hotelstars
system that had generally inclined the hotel classifications in central Europe, with five
stars and a Superior mark to flag extras. In its place of a strict least in room size and
essential shower facilities (e.g. a bath tub in a four-star hotel) there is a list of criteria
with 21 qualifications surrounding 270 elements, where some are obligatory for a star
and others optional. The leading criteria are in quality management, wellness and
sleeping housing. In the record of measures each entry is related with a number of
opinions – each Hotelstars level needs a minimal sum of points further some standards
being compulsory for the level. The minimum necessity for the Superior flag needs
the similar sum of points as for the next Hotelstars level which conversely was not
given due to at least one mandatory requirement being left out.
5.3 RATING SYSTEM AND CLASSIFICATION

Hotelstar Excerpt of the catalogue of criteria
Tourist z 100% of the rooms with
shower/WC or bath tub/WC
z Daily room cleaning
z 100% of the rooms with colour-TV
together with remote control
z Table and chair
z Soap or body wash
z Reception service
z Facsimile at the reception
z Publicly available telephone for
guests
z Extended breakfast
z Beverage offer in the hotel
z Deposit possibility
Superior Tourist The Superior flag is provided when the
additional service and accommodation
provisions are not sufficient for the
next Hotelstar. The bathroom facilities
are usually at the same level as for two
stars hotels but built from cheaper
materials. The cost for regular
inspection by independent associations
is waived as well.
Standard In addition to the single star (*) hotels:
z Breakfast buffet
z Reading light next to the bed
z Bath essence or shower gel
z Bath towels
Contd…
z Linen shelves 91
z Offer of sanitary products (e.g.
toothbrush, toothpaste, shaving kit)
z Credit Cards
Superior Standard The Superior flag is provided when the
next Hotelstar. The Standard-Superior
does usually offer the same service
level as three-star hotels but the
interiors of the hotel are smaller and
cheaper so that the three stars were not
to be awarded by the inspection body.
A two-star superior does not require
mystery guesting.
Comfort In addition to the standard star (**)
hotels:
z Reception opened 14 hours,
accessible by phone 24 hours from
inside and outside, bilingual staff
(e.g. German/English)
z Three piece suite at the reception,
luggage service
z Beverage offer in the room
z Telephone in the room
z Internet access in the room or in the
public area
z Heating facility in the bathroom,
hair-dryer, cleansing tissue
z Dressing mirror, place to put the
luggage/suitcase
z Sewing kit, shoe polish utensils,
laundry and ironing service
z Additional pillow and additional
blanket on demand
z Systematic complaint management
system
Superior Comfort The Superior flag is provided when the
next Hotelstar. The accommodation
facilities for a superior hotel need to be
on a modern level and fully renovated
which is checked regularly.
First Class In addition to the comfort star (***)
hotels:
accessible by phone 24 hours from
inside and outside
Contd…
92
Principles of Travel and Tourism z Lobby with seats and beverage
Operations and Aviation Safety service
z Breakfast buffet or breakfast menu
card via room service
z Minibar or 24 hours beverages via
room service
z Upholstered chair/couch with side
table
z Bath robe and slippers on demand
z Cosmetic products (e.g. shower
cap, nail file, cotton swabs), vanity
mirror, tray of a large scale in the
bathroom
z Internet access and internet
terminal
z "À la carte"-restaurant
First Class Superior The Superior flag is provided when the
first class hotel has a proven high
quality not only in the rooms. The
superior hotels provide for additional
facilities in the hotel like a sauna or a
workout room. The quality is checked
regularly by mystery guesting of an
external inspection service.
Luxury In addition to the first class (****)
hotels:
multilingual staff
z Doorman-service or valet parking
z Concierge, page boy
z Spacious reception hall with
several seats and beverage service
z Personalised greeting for each
guest with fresh flowers or a
present in the room
z Minibar and food and beverage
offer via room service during 24
hours
z Personal care products in flacons
z Internet-PC in the room
z Safe in the room
z Ironing service (return within
1 hour), shoe polish service
z Turndown service in the evening
z Mystery guesting
Superior Luxury The Luxury star hotels need to attain
high expectations of an international
Contd…
guest service. The Superior Luxury star 93
is only awarded with a system of
intensive guest care.
5.3.1 World Hotel Rating

There is so far no worldwide grouping which has been accepted. There have been tries
at joining the organisation system so that it becomes a globally renowned and
dependable standard, but they have all failed.
It has been measured that, as it has been the instance in other expanses (e.g.
international accounting standards), hotel classification standards should effect from a
private and independent creativity. This may be the case of the World Hotel Rating
(WHR) project, which particularly set worldwide grouping values and rating criteria
along the lines of a world star-rating system. It will also found an info platform on the
hotel sector which will be bilingual and multicultural. WHR intends to play a key role
in the development of quality hotel services, as well as equitable and sustainable
tourism, and the security of the world's cultural and usual heritage. In addition, WHR
will grow labels to encourage hotels famous by specific structures, such as a family
and child-friendly character. A test period was scheduled for 2010.
5.3.2 Seven Stars

z Some hotels have been promoted as seven star hotels. The Burj Al Arab hotel
in Dubai has opened in 1998 with a domestic help for every room – this has been
the first hotel being broadly defined as a "seven-star" property, but the hotel says
the label creates from an unidentified British reporter on a press trip and that they
neither encourage its use nor do they use it in their publicising. Similarly
the Emirates Palace Hotel in Abu Dhabi (open since 2005) is occasionally termed
as seven star as well, but the hotel uses only a five star rating.
z The Town House Galleria in Milan, Italy has opened in 2007 and it entitlements
to have a seven star documentation from SGS Italy in 2008.
z Historically, extravagance hotels have used the relationship in the Leading Hotels
of the World to document systematic examination on an additional level. This
group had been formed in 1928 and it rationalised in 1971 introducing a world-
wide inspection service.
1. The Town House Galleria in Milan, Italy has opened in 2007 and it
entitlements to have a seven star documentation from SGS Italy in 2008.
2. WHR intends to play a key role in the development of quality hotel
services, as well as equitable and sustainable tourism, and the security of
the world's cultural and usual heritage.
3. A resort is a habitation utilised for relaxation or recreation, appealing
companies for vacations and/or tourism. Resorts are places, towns or
occasionally commercial formation operated by a single company.
5.4 RESORT
A resort is a habitation utilised for relaxation or recreation, appealing companies
for vacations and/or tourism. Resorts are places, towns or occasionally commercial
formation operated by a single company.
94 5.4.1 Island Resorts
Operations and Aviation Safety An island resort is a landmass or an archipelago that comprises hotels, restaurants,
resorts, tourist attractions and its amenities.
5.4.2 Seaside Resorts
Figure 5.2: Miami Beach in Florida

z Seaside resorts are situated on a coast. In the United Kingdom, numerous
coastline towns have turned to other entertainment industries, and some of them
have a good deal of social life.
5.4.3 Ski Resorts

z In Europe and North America, ski resorts are towns and villages in ski areas, with
provision facilities for skiing such as hotels and chalets, equipment rental, ski
schools and ski lifts to access the slopes.
Self-contained resorts
Figure 5.3: Banff Springs Hotel, Banff, Alberta, Canada
Destination resort
z A destination resort is a resort that has, in and of itself, the essential guest
attraction capabilities—that is to say that a destination resort does not want to be
near an endpoint (town, historic site, theme park, or other) to draw its public. A
profitable institution at a resort terminus such as a fun area, a scenic or historic
site, a theme park, a gaming facility or other tourist attraction may participate with
other industries at a destination. Therefore, another quality of an endpoint resort is
that it offers drink, lodging, sports, food, and entertainment, and shopping within
the competence so that guests have no need to leave the capability throughout
their stay. Commonly these amenities are of developed quality than would be
probable if one were to stay at a hotel or eat in a town's eateries. Some examples
are Atlantis in the Bahamas, the Walt Disney World Resort near Orlando, Florida, 95
USA, Costa do Sauípe in North-eastern Brazil, Laguna Phuket in Thailand and Hotel and their Rating
Sun City near Johannesburg in South Africa.
All-inclusive resort
Figure 5.4: The Paradise Resort in the Catskills

z An all-inclusive resort controls a fixed price that comprises most or all items. At a
least, most comprehensive resorts comprise lodging, limitless sports activities,
food, drink, and entertainment for the fixed price. In recent years, the amount of
resorts in the United States offering "all-inclusive" facilities has reduced
intensely; in 1961, over half accessible such plans and in 2007, less than 10% do
so.
z All-inclusive resorts are started in the Caribbean, mainly in Dominican Republic,
and somewhere else. Notable examples are Club Med and Sandals Resorts.
z An all-inclusive resort comprises a minimum of three meals daily, soft drinks,
most alcoholic drinks, gratuities and probably other services in the price. Many
also compromise sports and other events comprised in the price as well. They are
often situated in warmer regions. The all-inclusive model invented in the Club
Med resorts which were started by the Belgian Gérard Blitz.
z Some all-inclusive resorts are intended for specific holiday interests.
Figure 5.5: A Resort Swimming Pool, Marawila, Sri Lanka

z Golf resorts are resorts that provide specially to the sport of golf, and comprise
access to one or more golf progress and or clubhouse. Golf resorts usually afford
golf packages that offer visitors with all greens and cart fees, range balls,
accommodations and meals.
96
Figure 5.6: A View of a Typical Ski Resort and Ski Lifts

z In North America a ski resort is generally a destination resort in a ski area, and is
less likely to refer to a town or village.
z A resort can be an expensive vacation and often boasts many visitor activities and
attractions such as golf, water sports, spa and beauty amenities, skiing, natural
ecology and tranquillity. Because of the extent of facilities presented, it may be
considered destination resort.
Figure 5.7: The Las Vegas strip in 2009

z A mega resort is a kind of destination resort which is of a remarkably large size,
for example those along the Las Vegas Strip. In Singapore an integrated resort is
an understatement for a casino-based destination resort.
5.5 BOARDING AND LODGING HOUSES

The term Boarding and Lodging House shall mean an institution which comprises
boarding and lodging for five (5) or more consistent boarders but no more than ten
(10) regular boarders for times of one week or more.
Though few people today distinguish among the two, boarding and lodging houses
were initially different accommodation types intended to separate markets. In the 19th
and early 20th centuries, boarding houses provided to a range of classes and
accessible food and shelter on a weekly basis, particularly to single people. Lodging
houses, instead, inclined to draw the poor and the more transitory who rented beds for 97
one night at a time. Lodging houses were generally larger and more unidentified than Hotel and their Rating
boarding houses and their residents were not delivered with meals. Women, who
delivered this type of facility either within their own homes or in previous large
houses altered for the drive, controlled all sectors of the market. The boarding market
was mainly based in the inner southern and eastern environs, particularly St Kilda,
Prahran, South Melbourne and East Melbourne. Lodging, on the other hand, was
centred north of the Yarra River in the more working-class areas of Carlton, Fitzroy,
North Melbourne and West Melbourne.
5.6 HOTEL PRODUCTS, FACILITIES, SERVICE

To set achievable marketing goals and realistic objectives, four aspects of the hotel’s
offerings to its chosen guests are involved. These are: the products, the price or tariffs,
distribution and marketing communication. Just as a chef prepares varied and tasty
dishes with the same basic ingredients, the marketer can also vary the quantum and
proportion of the four elements of the marketing mix to achieve appropriate marketing
goals and sales targets.
At the very outset some basic assumptions regarding hotel marketing are necessary.
These are:
z Hotel customers are referred to as ‘guests’ as they receive hospitality by way of
accommodation, food and drink or all for which they pay. If satisfied, they return
to the hotel for receiving further paying hospitality.
z A hotel is “immovable” in contrast to a manufactured product or service which is
mobile and can be taken from the venue of production to the site of consumption.
z The capital investment in a hotel industry is generally high and the gestation
period for adequate returns on the investment is normally long.
z The demand for hotel facilities has a variety which a few manufactured products
have.
z Some hotel facilities like rooms, and ‘covers’ in restaurants are quickly perishable
just as empty airline seats are.
z Hotels are not only in competition with others hotels, but also with the products
and services of other industries catering to discretionary expenditure.
These assumptions postulate that the economic viability of a hotel depends largely on
three factors. First, the speed with which demand for hotel facilities can be generated;
second, the capacity to ensure and retain customer satisfaction which will result in
repetitive business and expansion of business; and third, the package, tenor of
atmosphere, service and quality which together constitute the hotel’s standing and
image. The hotel product comprises the basic service that is offered, which consists of
accommodation and food and beverage.
5.6.1 Hotel Market Segment

The total hotel market, which consists of the total demand for hotel facilities, may be
divided into various segments. These segments are determined as per the needs of the
people and the means they possess to pay for their satisfaction. The fulfilment of these
means relates to the market package. The market for the hotel will be served
according to what is provided, how it is provided, and for how much.
Independent Guests
A common classification of hotel market segment is according to the purpose of visit
by guests, i.e., holiday-tourism oriented, business-traveller oriented, conference
98 oriented, or foreign versus domestic traffic oriented. These terms tend to be equivocal
Operations and Aviation Safety as they relate to a particular type of traveller or customer irrespective of the market
segment to which he belongs. For instance, a foreign tourist staying at a luxury hotel
may be on business on his company’s expense account whereas if he comes as a
normal pleasure or leisure tourist, he may well stay at a lower-tariff hotel suiting his
budget. Similarly, a guest staying at a luxury hotel may be a businessman for whom
the address and image of the hotel are important enough to justify the tariff. On the
other hand, when he travels for pleasure or for social purposes, he may stay in the
same luxury hotel or one with a lower tariff, depending on the purpose of the visit.
Groups
Customers travelling in groups comprise another segment, so do meeting and
conference groups. Therefore, the hotel market segments correspond to the basic
market packages in terms of spending power as also social classifications –
upper/upper-middle/lower.
Special Groups
For us, in India, there is yet another important segment, namely, non-vegetarian or
vegetarian. Vegetarian hotels (with comparatively lower tariffs than non-vegetarian
hotels), may attract the same category of customers as for the non-vegetarian group,
who would naturally evaluate and choose hotels according to the purpose of their visit
and stay; consequently, the tariff they are prepared to accept.
Hence, it is apparent that interchange between segments does take place, whether as a
temporary or permanent phenomenon, according to the duration of the changing
circumstances of the guest-segments. These segments of the total market for a
particular hotel may be further divided into primary and secondary levels of demand;
each of which, in turn, contains two further levels of demand, as shown in Table
below.
Table 5.1: Primary and Secondary Levels of Demand
Primary level z Basic demand which exists for hotel facilities but
not being served at present.
z Displacement demand rising from the clientele of
other hotels where the customers’ needs are not
fully met by the market package offered.
Secondary level z Created demand which does not exist so far, and
arising from people who do not normally use hotel
facilities, or from people who do not use the hotel
facilities in a particular area.
z Futuristic demand which may occur at sometimes in
the future, due to certain socio-economic or socio-
psychological factors or both, e.g., rise in the
standard of living and per capita income (‘green
revolution’ areas, new industrial complexes),
increase in population, changing social systems and
habits, etc.
A new hotel introduced in a particular segment of the hotel market may eventually be
able to exploit all these levels of demand. It is essential that there should be
substantial basic demand which can be tapped by a new hotel. Displacement and
created levels of demand require a period of time and a sustained sales effort to realise
their potential, whereas, the assessment of future demand relates to the continuing
long-term prosperity of the hotel. If the basic demand is absent but if the displacement
created and future levels of demand promise well for an investment appraised on a ‘10 99
to 15 year basis’, the decision to start a new hotel under such circumstances has Hotel and their Rating
perforce to be a long-gestation decision.

For accommodation, each segment of the market, together with its primary and
secondary divisions, contains some or all of the potential buyers of hotel
accommodation, as shown in Table 5.2, which may sometimes overlap.
There may well be more types according to the geographical, economic, industrial,
and social characteristics of the location of each hotel.
Similarly, for food and beverages, each segment of the hotel market contains varied
categories of potential buyers of catering services which may also sometimes overlap.
Table 5.2: Potential Buyers for Accommodation and Catering Services
Accommodation z Transit tourists, passing through the particular location.

z Terminal tourists, for whom the location represents end of a
journey.
z Travelling businessmen.
z Visiting personnel, i.e., business or industrial employees for
whom travel is an occasional part of their job.
z Organised tours.
z Conventions, conferences, workshops, meetings, where the
location is pre-fixed by the organisers.
z Social visitors, i.e., guests to weddings or other social
functions.
Catering z Occupant customers staying in the hotel.
z Transit or change customers – people other than local
residents of the areas patronising the hotel either by impulse
or intentionally planned for meals, refreshments, etc.
z Organisations and societies consisting of members acting in
unison.
z Local business customers who patronise the hotel due to
local industrial or commercial activity.
z Meetings and conferences organised by agencies from
outside areas.
z People on tour who step into the hotel for meals,
refreshments, etc.
The Hotel Product

The hotel product has a number of components like accommodation, food and
beverage, recreation and health, shops, car rental service, apart from others. But of all
these, the accommodation and food and beverage components are the primary ones.
The accommodation component of the hotel product requires a clear identification of
the type of clientele the hotel wishes to attract and serve. Regardless of ‘star’
categorisation, as customers tend to graduate from one ‘star’ category to another,
accommodation can be either of the luxury type almost regardless of the price, or the
economy type providing the essentials of shelter frugally. Between these two there are
a variety of accommodation facilities—catering to customers whose accommodation
is paid for; leisure customers who pay for their accommodation; customers who are
100 part of groups either on business or on pleasure. However, once the hotel property has
Operations and Aviation Safety been constructed to serve identified and specific customer segments, the possibility of
variation is severely restricted. Admittedly, the economy type property cannot be
moved up into a luxury one without considerable expense and time although a reversal
from the luxury to the economy class is more feasible and less problematic.
To tide over the above difficulties, hotel architects, the world over, are now designing
properties with as much flexibility as possible to make multipurpose adjustable public
rooms feasible. In the case of a hotel where such a flexibility does not exist, the hotel
product decision for accommodation will depend entirely on the accuracy of selling
rooms to the right type of customers.
On the other hand, the food and beverage component of the basic hotel product offers
greater scope for flexibility. Qualitative differentials can be very wide and would
range from high class a la carte high-price menu restaurants with complete table
service to the utilisation table of medium or low-priced menu dining rooms. Capital
expenditure is relatively lower – décor, furnishings and fittings can be changed more
easily to transform the image of a restaurant or dining room in either way. Availability
of room service from either the hotel’s own kitchens or from outside is another area of
flexibility.
It is obvious, however, that resident guests in a hotel know what exactly they are
buying in room occupancy and in food and beverage sales. Hence their experience of
the hotel product will condition their future relationship with the hotel and the
patronage afforded.
5.6.2 Pricing
It is difficult for a hotel to exercise differential pricing except for certain specific
purposes. These may typically be differentials in tariffs and prices during the peak and
lean seasons; group rates; contact rates for airline crew; special conference rates or
special concessions to attract customers; tourism year syndrome, etc. However, by and
large, hotel pricing tends to follow or conform to pricing standards applicable to.
5.6.3 Distribution
As has been said earlier, the hotel does not journey to its customers to consummate a
sale. It is the reverse that takes place—customers come to the hotel. Hotel distribution
relies on interdependence with other industries serving travellers and tourists such as
the transportation industry (airlines, railways, roadways, shipping lines), travel agents
and tour operators, national and state tourism organisations, shopping and
entertainment providers. In sum, those services which provide certain other facilities
to the traveller or the tourist which are bought when accommodation and food are
assured.
Some interesting features of hotel distribution need critical examination. The first is
cooperative distribution which operates in passing on traffic overflow from one hotel
to its neighbour, on a reciprocal basis, without affecting regular business with the
main intermediaries in the distribution system such as travel agents; tour operators;
airlines and special business clientele. The second is the increasing development of
franchising. Franchising may take various forms but it basically involves making
available to the franchisee (the beneficiary) of a service system that is designed and
controlled for quality standards by the franchiser. The franchisee gets the advantage of
being part of a reservation and sales system which ensures a certain level of business
which may not be available otherwise. The franchisee also benefits from the image of
the franchiser, professional advice and training provided by the franchiser. In the
process, he improves his own operational image and efficiency. The franchiser also
benefits as his investment is not required in the franchisee’s properties. At the same
time, the franchiser’s distribution system is expanded and the franchisee is well
motivated to succeed in his own business. Hotel distribution is, thus, an important 101
element of the marketing mix. Hotel and their Rating
5.6.4 Communications
Perhaps this element of the hotel marketing mix is most important as it is directly
responsible for bringing customers to the hotel. Hotel marketing communications are
either direct or indirect. The direct communications are through personal selling,
advertising, sales promotion and direct mail. Appropriate messages are conveyed to
those who are potential buyers of the hotel product and those who directly influence
decisions to buy the hotel product. Personal selling of the hotel product is effective
when long-term relationship between the hotel and the customer is sought. It is also
required where the level of business per customer is likely to be significant. Indirect
marketing communications for hotels include public relations and publicity, both of
which may or may not form a part of the hotel’s marketing communication
programme but may function independently. The major elements of the hotel
communication mix are – mass media advertising, direct mail, sales promotion, public
relations, and publicity.
5.6.5 Advertising
Hotel advertising is an effective and, generally, a long-term effort to inform the
customer about the existence of the property, giving details about the location and
types of facilities offered. Advertising is also aimed at influencing the attitude of the
customer to bring about his acceptance of the particular service offered. Informative
advertising is necessary for a new hotel or a hotel offering new facilities or services
which are different from the past. Persuasive advertising is aimed at a more
competitive situation where desired business from all departments of the hotel is not
achieved.
In advertising, a hotelier is dealing with a non-personal contact with the target
audience, unlike sales promotion where the hotelier is aware of the identity of the
target. The purpose of advertising is indeed the same as the purpose of communication
– it aims to inform and persuade the consumer or the travel trade to change, to
influence their attitude towards the advertiser’s product or organisation.
5.6.6 Sales Promotion

Sales promotion is aimed at generating immediate response in terms of a buying
decision. For a hotel which wishes to cash in on sales promotion, the specific part of
the business which stands to benefit, i.e., room sales or food and beverage sales, has to
be clearly identified and a promotion drive which will bring about the desired increase
of sales must be launched. For instance, a hill station hotel which normally has almost
empty rooms during winter or off-season may promote its accommodation and other
facilities when a famous winter sports festival is to be held in that area or a national or
international conference is to take place or any other special convention or workshop
where participating delegates also need relaxation. People who would normally not
visit the hill station in winter will do so when presented with such an opportunity.
There are two ways in which one can examine sales promotion. First, schemes which
can be defined in terms of time; and second, as an ongoing permanent
activity/function. Irrespective of these distinctions one can clearly identify three
groups of activities under sales promotion: trade promotions; consumer promotions;
and display.
Trade promotions are schemes which are generally intended to induce or persuade the
travel trade or the distribution channel to generate more demand. The term “travel
trade” has been used in its generic form—to refer to all the available distribution
channels or outlets to the hotel industry. Trade promotions are, therefore, schemes
102 which are intended to induce or persuade the travel trade to sell more of the hotel
Operations and Aviation Safety product or hotel service and for this purpose a variety of incentives are given.
Consumer promotions are schemes to persuade the consumer, i.e., the potential hotel
guest or the user of hotel services, to buy a particular hotel product or service, at a
particular point of time. Consumer promotions should be understood as the first
definition of sales promotion schemes which are defined in terms of time and are
finite.
The third group of activities which include product display and related point-of-sale
material, i.e., posters, show cards, display units, etc., help keep in perspective the view
that one can’t obviously display the actual hotel product or service at the point of sale
and so one has to depend on the descriptions and representations of the actual product.
Fill in the blanks:
1. ………………….. is aimed at generating immediate response in terms of a
buying decision.
2. The term “…………………..” has been used in its generic form—to refer
to all the available distribution channels or outlets to the hotel industry.
3. ………………….. is an effective and, generally, a long-term effort to
inform the customer about the existence of the property, giving details
about the location and types of facilities offered.
4. The ………………….. are through personal selling, advertising, sales
promotion and direct mail.
5.7 LET US SUM UP

Hospitality refers to the relationship process between a guest and a host, and it also
The term Tourist is believed to have been derived from the Latin word ‘TORNUS’
which means a tool, a circle or a turner’s wheel. The World Tourism Organisation
(WTO), the major intergovernmental body concerned with tourism, has led the way in
establishing a set of definitions for general use. According to the WTO, international
tourism differs from domestic tourism and occurs when the traveller crosses a
country's border.
Tourism sector holds immense potential for Indian economy. It can provide impetus to
other industries through backward and forward linkages and can generate huge
revenue earnings for the country.
Hotels are a major service industry in India. A number of international hotel chains
have come to India, either independently or with a tie-up with an Indian partner.
The travel trade in India is about sixty years old, and has received its impetus from the
growth of civil aviation in the country. The quality, reach, and ultimate success of the
marketing activity in a travel agency depends on how clearly the marketer has
understood the service levels his firm can deliver, and how accurately he assesses the
factors which make his firm stand out from competition.
Growing global competition in the air travel market meant that the 1990s were the
decade of the air traveller as a consumer seeking enhanced service quality. The role of
airline marketing is to bring together the supply of air services, which each airline can
largely control, with the demand, which it can influence but not control, and to do this
in a way which is both profitable and meets the airline's corporate objectives'.
103
5.8 LESSON END ACTIVITY Hotel and their Rating
Have a group discussion on the topic – hotel industry in India.
5.9 KEYWORDS
everyday life.
Tourism: The activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their
other purposes.
Visitor: Any person travelling to a place other than that of his/her usual environment
for less than 12 consecutive months and whose main purpose of travel is not to work
World Tourism Organization (WTO): It is the major intergovernmental body

1. Distinguish between hotel and resort.
2. Give a brief description of the rating system.
3. Explain the hotel products and services.
4. How hotel industry is helping India in growing faster?

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
CYP 2
1. Sales promotion
2. travel trade
3. direct communications
4. direct communications

Kumar. Prasanna (2010), Marketing of Hospitality & Tourism Services. Tata McGraw
104
LESSON
6
TYPES OF ROOMS AND BEDDING
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Guest Rooms and Accommodation
6.3 Types of Bedding
6.4 Meal Plan
6.5 Cancellation
6.6 Currency Fluctuation and Commission Policies
6.6.1 The Impact of Economic Crisis on Tourism and Hospitality Worldwide
6.7 Appointment and Control
6.8 List of IATA Approved Travel Agencies
6.9 Bank Guarantee Scheme
6.10 IATA Billing and Settlement Plan
6.10.1 BSP Participating Airlines Benefits
6.10.2 IATA Accredited Travel Agent Benefits
6.10.3 Consumer Benefits
6.11 Credit Period
6.12 Customer Service – Service Provider
6.13 Training and Development of the Travel Agent
6.14 Global Distribution System (GDS)
6.15 Let us Sum up
6.17 Keywords

z Discuss the types of bed
z Explain the types of room
z Describe meal plan
z Know about bank guarantee
105
6.1 INTRODUCTION Types of Rooms and Bedding
We can define guest house as a type of lodging. In several parts of the world a guest
house is related to a hostel, bed and breakfast, or hotel as in other parts of the world
guest houses are the inexpensive hotel-like accommodation. It is a confidential home
which has been transformed for the restricted use of visitor lodging. The proprietor
typically lives in a totally divide area within the belongings and the guest house might
work as a shape of housing industry.
A bed is a type of furniture generally used for undeveloped reason. Most current beds
are equipped by a mattress on a bed framework, with the mattress kept either on a
solid base, often wooden boards, or a sprung base. In North America many beds
surround a box spring inner-sprung base a large mattress-sized box property wood and
springs that offer additional sustain and deferral for the mattress.
Most beds have a bedhead for hidden next to, with others also having side rails and
footers. "Bedhead only" beds often include a "dust ruffle", "bed border", or "drapery
sheet" to hide the bed frame.
For greater head maintenance, most people like to use a pillow, retained on the top of
a mattress. Some form of wrapper blanket to defend the sleeper are also worn,
often bed sheets, a quilt, together referred to as bedding. Bedding is the variable non-
furniture portion of sleeping surroundings. For example a bed can be thought of as a
body and the bedding its clothing.
6.2 TYPES OF GUEST ROOMS AND ACCOMMODATION

A room that is utilized by the guest as a bedroom in a home not regularly occupied by
a member of the family and kept predominantly for guests as a spare room or a room
in a hotel or lodging house for occupation by guests.
The guest room is the central product of a hotel as it adds to more than 50% of the
total sales making the profit percentage from the room sales very high. Guestrooms in
a hotel have a role in the image building of the hotel. Guests may stay in a hotel for
pleasure, convenience or from necessity. Whatever the reason for the stay, they will
always expect a certain standard of service and comfort.
It used to be customary to have rooms of more or less than the same standard
throughout the property, but the trend is changing now. Guests are now being offered
a choice of more expensive rooms with upgraded facilities. Hotels now offer a wide
variety of rooms catering to the needs of different types of travellers.
Types of Guest Rooms
z Single Room: A room with a normal solo bed to accommodate single person.
z Double Room: A room which has double bed and arrange for sleeping comforts
for two persons. A double bed is a large bed usually for two persons.
z Twin Room: A room having two single beds separated out by a small bedside
table. The room delivers sleeping room for two people.
z Double-double Room: A room has two double beds and provides sleeping
comfort for 4 people or for the family.
z Studio Room: A room having utility furniture such as sofa-cum-bed. A bed is
used as a sofa in the day time and converts into bed at night, meant for business
people.
z Suite: A suite refers to a set of two rooms interconnected to each other out of
which one is a bed room and other is a sitting room. Suite is a costly room of the
hotel.
106 z Hospitality Suite: A parlour with a connecting bedroom, to be used by guest to
Operations and Aviation Safety entertain his own guest or for companies offering cocktails during conventions,
entertaining and trade shows. This room usually contains a bar and occasional
tables as well. It is charged on hourly bases.
z Junior Suite: A large room with a partition separating the bedroom furnished
from the sitting area.
z Efficiency: A room having small kitchen facilities.
z Cabana: A room situated near the swimming pool of the hotel and normally used
by the people who love water games or swimming. These rooms are mainly used
for changing.
z Duplex: Two rooms on two successive floors and is connected to each other with
a common staircase. Generally the sitting room is on the lower floor and the
bedroom is on the upper floor.
z Pent House: Room situated on the terrace of the building with one of the door
opening towards the terrace. Other facilities and amenities may also be added to
it.
z Lanai: A room overlooking a landscaped area, a scenic view, a water body or a
garden. These rooms are found in resort hotels.
z Hollywood twin room: A room with two twin beds but a common headboard
meant for two people. If so desired the beds can be joined together to make it
appear like a single bed.
Single room A room assigned to one person, having one bed.
Twin room A room with two twin beds meant for one person each.
Hollywood twin room A room with two twin beds but a common headboard,
meant for two people.
Double room A room with a double bed for two persons.
Triple room A room assigned to three people, which may have two or
more beds.
Quad room A room assigned to four people, which may have two or
more beds.
Queen room A room with a queen-size bed.
King room A room with a king size bed.
Double room A room with two double beds, meant for four people.
Studio room A room with studio bed.
Sico room A room with a Murphy bed.
Mini-suite room A single large room with a bed and a sitting area.
Suite room A combination of one or more bedrooms and a parlour, it
may also contain a bar and a kitchenette.
Connecting room A room with individual entrance doors from the outside
and a connecting door between, so that guest can move
between rooms without going through the hallway.
Adjoining rooms A room with a common wall but no connecting door.
Adjacent room Rooms close to each other but not necessarily adjoining-
perhaps across the hall or corridor from each other.
Cabana A room adjacent to the pool area, with or without
Contd…
sleeping facilities, but with provision for relaxing in a 107
Types of Rooms and Bedding
sofa.
Duplex Two storey suite, with parlour and bedroom connected
by a stairway.
Efficiency room A room containing some kitchen facilities.
Hospitality suite A parlour with a connecting bedroom to be used by guest
to entertain his own guests or for companies offering
cocktail during conventions, entertaining and trade
shows.
Lanai A room overlooking landscaped area, a scenic view, a
water body or a garden. It may have a balcony, a patio or
both.
Parlour A living or sitting room, A room not used as bedroom.
Family room A room with two double beds, meant for two, three or
four persons.
Pent house A room that opens onto the roof and may be
accompanied by a swimming pool, patio, a tennis court
and other facilities and amenities.
Executive rooms A room that has a large bedroom with a sitting area,
provided with chairs and usually a sofa and coffee table.
Guest Room Status
OCC: A guest has currently registered to the room and so the room is occupied.
Stay over Room S/O
The guest is not checking out today and will occupy the room for at least one more
night.
Do Not Disturb/DND
The guest has requested not to be disturbed. DND card is on the door.
Scanty Baggage/SB
The guest has very light luggage and he may leave the hotel without settling his room
account.
Vacant/V
The room has been cleaned, inspected and is ready for the arrival of the guest.
Out of Order/OOO
The room cannot be assigned to the guest. It may require major maintenance work to
be done.
Check Out/C/O
The guest has settled his account returned the room keys and left the hotel.
Did not Check Out/DNCO
The guest made arrangement to settle his account but has left without informing the
Front Office.
Double Locked/DL
The room which has been double locked by the guest from inside. No other key can
open this room door except the grand master key.
108 No Baggage/NB
Operations and Aviation Safety The guest is staying in the room but without baggage.
Not Packed/N/P
The guest has settled his account with Front Office but has not packed his baggage in
his room.
Packed Luggage/P/L
The guest has packed his baggage and left it in the room but has not settled his room
account.
6.3 TYPES OF BEDDING

There are various dissimilar types of conditions used to recognize definite pieces of
bedding. Meaningful the correct conditions will assist you supermarket and find the
right item for your bed. Whether its linens, bed coverings, pillows, or the filling you
use for a duvet cover, this list will assist you find the ideal fit, along with several tips
you may not have recognized in regards to bedding.
Top Sheet
A top sheet, also recognized as a flat sheet, is the sheet you put over the top of your
bed to divide you from your quilt or duvet. Some duvet or quilt sets do not consist of a
top sheet as they’ll have a flat, crisp cotton side in its place, which replaces it.
Bottom Sheet
A bottom sheet is the sheet with the elastic-edge that is utilised to fit over your
mattress hence the given name bottom or fitted sheet.
Coverlet
A coverlet is an ornamental fabric cover that does not handle the floor and usually
does not cover the pillows. Woven coverlets and quilts fall into this group.
Bedspread
A bedspread is alike to a coverlet a thin, pleasing to the eye covering--but it usually
covers the whole bed and touches the floor.
Blanket or Throw
A blanket or throw is a small casing usually establish at the foot of a bed utilised for
additional warmness or attractive accents.
Comforter
A comforter is a bed cover swollen with fibers or down then sewed jointly at all four
sides. This wadding is further to generate extra heat and soothe on cold nights. A
comforter can be attractive and come in many dissimilar colours, patterns, and
designs. It’s usually used as a main attractive element in bedrooms.
Duvet
A duvet is comparable to a comforter apart from it needs the use of a duvet cover,
where a quilt does not.
Duvet Cover
A duvet cover that has an opening where the quilt or duvet is inserted, once located in,
its opening is closed with buttons. The duvet cover is usually an ornamental covering,
which essential purpose is to put in interior decoration to your bedroom.
Euro or Continental Pillow 109
A euro or continental pillow is a large four-sided figure pillow, i.e. an attractive pillow
that sits back next to the headboard.
Decorative Pillow
A decorative pillow, also consider as an accent or throw pillow, is a small pillow that
comes in many shapes, sizes and colours to add decoration to a bed.
Bolster Pillow
A Bolster pillow is a tubular pillow utilised to bend back next to for lumbar hold, but
classically it’s used as an ornamental pillow or accent pillow bed.
Pillow Sham
A pillow sham is alike to a pillowcase but it does not unwrap on one side, as an
alternative it has an extension, which is an extra piece of cloth that extends from
where the pillow deception is sewn on each border. Pillow shams make a more refined
look, so they are used over pillowcases. Pillow shams are often more decorative than
pillowcases and more likely to have elaborate embellishes on them.
6.4 MEAL PLAN

Hotels present numerous unusual “Meal Plans” that depend on the hotel or resort.
Having some meals incorporated can make a big variation taken as a whole vacation
everyday expenditure. Make sure to observe what time of the day the meals are
presented. There is no logic paying for something you won’t be here to eat. Find out
how several people staying in the area the “Meal Plan” will comprise. Several times
the room will grasp extra people than the “Meal Plan” will give for so you may be
necessary to pay for additional guests.
(AP) American Plan – Includes three meals daily.
(MAP) Modified American Plan (sometimes called demi-pensions, half pension or
half board depending where you are in the world) – Includes some meals.
(AL) All inclusive Plan (also called Full Pension, or Full American Plan) Check what
they mean by all complete it could be just 3 meals a day with drinks, dessert, food and
drink etc. or it may comprise some meals but not drinks.
(EP) European Plan – No meals included.
(CP) Continental Plan – Continental Breakfast: This varies from hotel to hotel.
Generally, it is pastries and coffee.
(B&B) Bed and Breakfast – Some sort of breakfast is included with your hotel night
stay. The breakfast can range from a drink or coffee with a roll to a full breakfast
buffet.
Each hotel, resort or accommodation may understand the sense of these terms in a
different way so this is an additional cause to check precisely what is incorporated
before you book your hotel. We for all time try to have meals incorporated as it
generally costs more to buy meals separately than to have them incorporated in the
room rate.
6.5 CANCELLATION
z Waiving tour fees (e.g. deposit-payment) from customers in unusual
circumstances (e.g. sudden withdrawal of booking by customers).
z Favoring particular customers by cancelling others’ bookings.
110 Recommended Measures
Operations and Aviation Safety Require authorization for waiving of charges or cancelling of bookings by staff. A
waiver of fees on each occasion should be justified and recorded for audit review.
1. European Plan – No meals included.
2. A pillow sham is alike to a pillowcase but it does not unwrap on one side,
as an alternative it has an extension, which is an extra piece of cloth that
extends from where the pillow deception is sewn on each border.
3. A decorative pillow, also consider as an accent or throw pillow, is a small
pillow that comes in many shapes, sizes and colours to add decoration to a
bed.
4. A top sheet, also recognized as a flat sheet, is the sheet you put over the top
of your bed to divide you from your quilt or duvet.
6.6 CURRENCY FLUCTUATION AND COMMISSION

POLICIES
The hospitality and tourism sector is facing many challenges as a consequence of the
global financial crisis. After an important reduction in 2009, tourism rebounded
muscularly in 2010 and in 2011 the international tourist arrivals and proceeds are
expected to rise significantly. The hospitality industry is projected to show a
continuous improvement in 2012. The crisis has mainly strong collision and harmful
penalty in Greece. The country is undergoing a severe political disaster as well, and it
seems that the approaching elections are the only solution for the restitution of
strength and social peace. Additionally, tourism can be the powerful force following
Greece’s economic recovery. Conversely, for its attainment the country’s strategy
makers should take numerous measures towards reorganization and civilizing the
sector. These actions include: improvement of substitute forms of tourism;
environmental protection; creation of quality infrastructure; and boost of competitive
ess through a tourism product that offers value for money.
There is no universally accepted definition of what constitutes a crisis and different
writers present their own interpretations. However, it appears that three elements must
be present: a triggering event causing significant change or having the potential to
cause significant change; the perceived inability to cope with this change; and a
thereto the existence of organisations (Keown-McMullan, 1997), as well as of tourists
and members of the tourism industry (Henderson, 2006). Every crisis is unique
displaying a remarkable range and variety (Henderson, 2006), yet characteristics
generally cited include unexpectedness, urgency and danger (Hermann, 1972).
Tourism crises usually share these attributes although certain crisis situations can be
predicted and lack immediacy. Causes of many tourism crises can be traced to
developments in the economic, political, sociocultural and environmental domains
which affect demand and supply in generating and destination countries. Economic
downturn and recession, fluctuating exchange rates, loss of market confidence and
withdrawal of investment funds can all create a tourism crisis. Crises generated within
the industry can also be analysed under the headings of economic, sociocultural and
environmental when tourism has negative impacts in these fields (Henderson,
2006).The external and internal threats of the economic crisis to the tourism industry
are:
z External threats: recession; currency fluctuations; and taxation.
z Internal threats: rising costs; falling revenues; unprofitability (Sian et al., 2009). 111
Crises occur at all levels of tourism operations with varying degrees of severity, Types of Rooms and Bedding
from much publicized environmental, economic and political disasters through to

internally generated crisis such as accidents and sudden illness (Beeton, 2001).
The travel and tourism industry is susceptible to a wide range of internal and external
forces and is impacted heavily by crisis events resulting in negative tourist perceptions
(Pforr & Hosie, 2009). Economic downturn can undermine demand and possibly
result in crisis for industries in origin and destination countries if the slump is
sufficiently intense or prolonged. The depression of the 1990s on the U.S. mainland
contributed to decline.
Hawaii’s tourism from 1990 to 1993 and Japan’s economic difficulties had adverse
consequences for its outbound tourism in the same decade, including travel to
Hawaii(Sian et al., 2009). In 1997 the world financial crisis that began in Asia and
spread to Russia and Brazil in 1998 (Schifferes, 2007), as well as the falling currency
values depressed demand for travel and investment in tourism (Henderson, 2006). The
U.S. hotel industry experienced an intense and immediate negative impact on
occupancy, rate, and revenue per available room (RevPAR) in real dollars after the
fall of Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008 and the financial crisis that followed.
Although the direct effects of the economic crisis decreased in about four months,
occupancy rates continued to fall and remained low throughout 2009 and early 2010
(Enz et al., 2011).
6.6.1 The Impact of Economic Crisis on Tourism and Hospitality

Worldwide
The current financial crisis that began in 2007 has created the greatest financial
disorders since the Great Depression of the 1930s (Melvin & Taylor, 2009).
As with most industries, the welcome and tourism area is experiencing many
challenges as a consequence of the global financial crisis. The industry is sense the
impact of a reduction capital marketplace and decreased expenditure by both
corporate and person consumers. Businesses have reported a recession in sales of
accommodation, food service, events and other hospitality crop and some have
stopped up their doors evermore. The decline resulted not only from fewer clientele in
hotels, restaurants, discussion and meeting centres, etc., but also from a significant
decline in the average expenditure per guest (Pizam, 2009).The recession caused
serious problems for luxury hotels in particular. However, many hotels in certain
global markets, especially those catering to leisure travellers, were less affected. And
the popularity and growth of the luxury hotel segment in recent years suggests that a
strong rebound may not be unrealistic (Barsky, 2009). There were sharp differences in
the performance of the various global regions in2009. More specifically:
z Europe ended 2009 down 6%. Destinations in Central, Eastern and Northern
Europe were particularly badly hit, while results in Western, Southern and
Mediterranean Europe were relatively better.
z Asia and the Pacific (−2%) showed an extraordinary rebound. The second half of
2009 saw a 3% growth, reflecting improved regional economic results
and prospects.
z In the Americas (−5%), the Caribbean returned to growth in the last four months
of 2009.
z The Middle East (−6%), though still far from the growth levels of previous years,
had a positive second half in 2009.
z Africa (+5%) was a strong performer, with sub-Saharan destinations
doing particularly well. The average price of a hotel room around the world was
112 14% cheaper in 2009 than in 2008, according to the Hotels.com Hotel Price Index.
Operations and Aviation Safety In fact, a hotel room was cheaper in 2009 than it was in 2004. Rooms cost 13%
less in Europe during 2009 than in 2008, 14% less in the United States, 16% less
in Asia and 21% less in Latin America. However, towards the end of 2009, the
price falls started to stabilize.
According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the key trends in
international tourism during 2010 were the following:
z Worldwide, international tourism rebounded strongly, with international tourist
arrivals up 6.6% over 2009, to 940 million.
z The increase balanced the decline caused by the economic downturn, with an
additional 23 million arrivals over the former peak year of 2008.
z In 2010, international tourism receipts are estimated to have reached US$
919 billion worldwide (693 billion euros), up from US$ 851 billion (610 billion
euros) in 2009, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 4.7%.
z As a reflection of the economic conditions, recovery was particularly strong in
emerging economies, where arrivals grew faster (+8%) than in advanced ones
(+5%).
z The international tourist arrivals are projected to increase in 2011 by 4% to 5%.In
the DLA PIPER EU hospitality outlook survey (March 2011) the majority
of respondents expect the hospitality industry to show a sustained recovery in
2012 and are turn to pre-financial crisis levels in terms of room rates, largely due
to a predicted growth in business travel. “Being Green” and having green
accreditation is seen as important for increasing brand value by 57% of
respondents and the use of energy-efficient materials is widely adopted and driven
by individual green policies and rising energy costs.
The EU hospitality and leisure sector is increasingly using social media as a
promotional tool to enhance sales, marketing and public relations, although it is still
behind the U.S. The World Economic Forum published its Travel and Tourism
Competitiveness Report 2011 under the theme “Beyond the Downturn,” including the
following findings: the Travel and Tourism (T&T) industry is slowly recovering from
the Economic downturn, with the strong recovery being in emerging economies. The
industry is looking for ways to develop new market segments and attract new
customers. Indeed, T&T remains a critical economic sector worldwide, with
the potential to provide economic growth and development internationally.
6.7 APPOINTMENT AND CONTROL

Common Malpractice
z Colluding with land operators to inflate the price of services.
z Showing favour in appointing particular land operators, tolerating overcharging
and accepting substandard services.
z Leaking commercial information e.g. quotation prices to competing land
operators.
Recommended Practice
Attainment of services as well as goods is an area that has a lot of misuse. The travel
agents staff are energetically involved in procurement activities (e.g. procurement of
pre-trip souvenirs as gifts to travellers and office stationery, engagement of overseas’
land operators to receive outbound travellers, and local service providers for inbound
visitors such as hotels, transport companies, restaurants, attractions operators, etc.).
Besides ensuring that procurements are value for money, it is significant for the
transportable agent operators to start a competitive procurement system with adequate 113
safeguards to avoid misuse by deceitful staff. Types of Rooms and Bedding
6.8 LIST OF IATA APPROVED TRAVEL AGENCIES

Travel Agency Name Address
Advaita Holiday Pvt 11/231, Vasundhara Sector-11, Ghaziabad – 201012
Ltd
Alpcord Network 614, 6th Flr, New Delhi House, New Delhi House, 27,
Travel Barakhamba Road, Delhi – 110001
Apollo Holidays Office No 4, SCF 71, Basement, Sector 15 Market, Near
OBC Bank, Faridabad Sector-15, Faridabad – 121007
Archi Travels A -181 Chander Vihar I.P. Ext., Opp. Rama Krishna
App, Patparganj, Delhi – 110092
Arush Forex Pvt Ltd N-12, Chamber No-14 & 15, Munshi Lal Building, Nr
Tata Indicom Showroom, Connaught Place, Delhi –
110001
Belair Travel & Cargo 10-B, Sindhia House, Connaught Place, Delhi – 110001
Pvt Ltd
Bhraman Tours & M-14a, Nr. Ambey Inn Hotel, Lajpat Nagar II-Lajpat
Travels Nagar, Delhi – 110024
Blue Moon Travels D-40, Next to Noida Authority, Noida Sector-6, Noida –
201301
Bluebell Tours & LGF-70, Near Ansal Fortune Arcade, Noida Sector-18,
Travels Pvt Ltd Noida – 201301
Colombus Travels B6, Near Police Station, Sec 8, Noida Sector-8, Noida –
201301
Cox & Kings A 90, 1st Floor, Roxy Chowk, Lajpat Nagar 2, Delhi –
110024
Cox & Kings India Ltd UG-6 Western Mall, Near Janak Puri East Metro Station,
Janakpuri, Delhi – 110058
Cox & Kings India Ltd G 54 – 1st Floor, Near Walia Nursing Home, Vikas
Marg, Lakshmi Nagar, Delhi – 110092
Creative Travel Creative Plaza, Nanakpura, Moti Bagh, Delhi – 110021
D Pauls Tours & B-50 & B-36, Shivalik, Malviya Nagar, Delhi – 110017
Travels Ltd
D S Tourist Services A-180, Chander Vihar, Opp Rama Krishna Apprtment,
Patparganj, Delhi – 110092
Decent Travels Shop No. 1, Janpath Lane, Connaught Place, Delhi –
110001
Dekhoduniya.Com 204 & 262, Agarwal Shopping Plaza, Plot No-1,
Pitampura, Delhi – 110034
Deneb & Pollux Tours 106, South City Arcade, South City PH-I, Nr Unitech
& Travels House, Gurgaon, Gurgaon – 122001
Dimple Travels Old No A-26, New No B-239, 1st Flr, Opp Saraswati
Kunj Apt, I P Extn, Vinod Nagar West, Delhi – 110092
Contd…
114
Dnata Travels Gf-33, Barakhamba Rd, Connaught Place, Delhi –
Operations and Aviation Safety 110001
Dolphin Travels B-6,3rd Floor, Above -Axis Bank, Lajpat Nagar II-Lajpat
Nagar, Delhi – 110024
Equator Tours & 5-B, Vandana Bldg, 11,Tolstoy Marg, Nr Janpat Mac
Travels Donalds, Tolstoy Marg, Delhi – 110001
Eternity Travels & Tour 116, Hans Bhawan, Bahadurshah Zafar Mg, ITO, Delhi –
110002
Expertise Hotel Noida, Sector-6, Rohini Sector-3, Delhi – 110085
Services
Fantasy Travels & 208-209, Madhuban Bldg,55, Nehru Place, Delhi –
Tours 110019
Flexi Tours I-84, Taneja House, 1st Flr, Lajpat Nagar II-Lajpat
Nagar, Delhi – 110024
Friends Travels & 15a/55, W E A Karol Bagh, Saraswati Marg, Karol Bagh,
Consultants Delhi – 110005
Globe Trotters Pvt Ltd Gf-12, Prakash Deep Bldg, 7 Tolstoy Mg, Connaught
Place, Delhi – 110001
Go India Journeys C7, 3rd Floor, Sector 3, Noida – 201301
Hopp Worldwide F-44, Bhagat Singh Mkt, Connaught Place, Delhi –
110001
Hrg Sita India F-12, 1st Flr, Connaught Place, Delhi – 110001
Jeevan Travels Community Centre-1,Office No-103, PVR Naraina &
Opp Fire Station, Naraina Industrial Phase – I, Delhi –
110028
Journey Needs Dot National College Campus, L G 6, Somdut Chambers 1,
Com Beside August Kranti Bhawan, Adjacent To Skoda Show
Room, Bhikaji Cama Place, Delhi – 110066
JRK Holidays 516, Naurang House, 21 K.G. Marg, Connaught Place,
New Delhi-110001
Knap Sackers Travels 202, Krishna Plaza-2, Sector-12, Dwarka, Delhi –
110075
Kumar Tourist Agency J-3/5 Top Floor, DDA Flats Alaknanda, Kalkaji, Delhi –
110019
LE Travel World 2, Danbro House, F-22,Sec-18, Nr McDonald's, Noida,
Noida – 201301
Lords Travel 74, Nr Canara Bank, Tolstoy Janpath Lane, Connaught
Place, Delhi – 110001
MarvelTrip.com 8 – 9 Ground Floor, Centrum Plaza, Gurgaon Sector-53,
Gurgaon – 122003
New Kansal Travels 161-D,Ground Floor, Near Bitto Tikki Wala, Post Office,
Kamla Nagar, Delhi – 110007
Pacific Travels 206 Prakash Deep Bldg 7, Tolstoy Mg, Connaught Place,
Delhi – 110001
Paradise Tour Co India 211/Bg8, DDA Commercial Complex, Paschim Vihar,
New Delhi – 110063, Paschim Vihar, Delhi – 110063
Contd…
Paul Merchant F 46,1st Floor, Malhotra Building, Nr Rajeev Chowk 115
Metro Station, Connaught Place, Delhi – 110001
Premium Tours Pvt Ltd 507 5th Flr Laxmi Deep Building, District Centre,
Behind V3S Mall, Lakshmi Nagar, Delhi – 110092
Prime Travels L-8, Green Park Extn, Green Park, Delhi – 110016
SkyLink Travel Pvt Ltd G-17,Marina Arcade, Opposite Shivaji Stadium & Below
Radisson Blue Marina Hotel, Connaught Place, Delhi –
110001
Skylord Travels 203-205 Avg Bhawan, M-3, M-Block, Middle Circle,
Connaught Place, Delhi – 110001
Smile Tours and Shop No 12, Vasant Enclave, DDA Market, Vasant
Travels Enclave-Vasant Vihar, Delhi – 110057
Sonata Travels India S-8, Cu Block, Kohli Plaza, Pitampura, Delhi – 110034
Pvt Ltd
Spring Travels Pvt Ltd Head Off-310, Ambika Vihar, Paschim Vihar, Delhi –
110063
Spring Travels Pvt Ltd Gf-22,Tdi Poragon Mall, Rajouri Garden, Delhi –
110027
Sterling Intl Tours & G-39, Pawan House, 4th Flr, Middle Circle, Connaught
Travels Place, Delhi – 110001
The Great India Tour B-34 A, Ground Floor., 1st Gole Chakker., Kalkaji,
Company Delhi – 110019
Travel 360-visa 1304,Hemkunt Towers, Rajendra Place Metro Station, 6,
Management Rajendra Place, Delhi – 110008
Travel Baazar 1611, Near Nulife Hospital, Outram Lines, GTB Nagar,
Delhi – 110009
Travel With Us D-8/8127, Nr Masoodpur Flyover, Vasant Kunj, Delhi –
110070
Trip & Events P-61,Old Double Story, Lajpat Nagar IV-Lajpat Nagar,
Delhi – 110024
UAE Exchange & Shop No-123, Nr SBI ATM, Bhagatsingh Mkt,
Financial Services Golemarket, Connaught Place, Delhi – 110001
www.makemytrip.com Shoppers Stop, TDI Mall, 11 Shivaji Place Complex,
Rajouri Garden, Delhi – 110027
Yokoso India Tour & Shop No-1, Flat No-77, Rps Flats, Near E Block, DDA
Travels Market, Vikaspuri, Delhi – 110018
Zap Booking Pvt Ltd 552, Metro Heights, Netaji Subhash Place, Pitampura,
Delhi – 110088
Zenith Leisure Holidays 401/5,Distt Centre,4th Flr, Janakpuri, Delhi – 110058
6.9 BANK GUARANTEE SCHEME

The Bank Guarantee Scheme is formed by the Government of India for the issue of
bank guarantees in favour of Central Government Departments, in lieu of safety
deposits, etc. by contractors, has been customized from time to time. Beneath the
system, it is open to Government Departments to believe generously guarantees, etc.
from all planned commercial banks.
116 The Government of India have advised all the Government departments/Public Sector
Operations and Aviation Safety Undertakings, etc. to believe bank guarantees in the Model Bond and to make sure
that alterations additions to the clauses every time measured essential are not one-
sided and are made in agreement with the guaranteeing bank. Banks should declare in
the promise bonds and their communication with the various State Governments, the
names of the recipient departments and the purposes for which the guarantees are
executed. In respect of guarantees issued in favour of Directorate General of Supplies
and Disposal, the following aspects should be kept in view:
z So as to speed up the procedure of confirmation of the authenticity of the bank
assurance, the name, description and code information of the officer/officers
signing the guarantees should be included under the signature(s) of officials
signing the bank guarantee.
z The recipient of the bank guarantee should also be advised to consistently obtain
the authentication of the worried banks about the authenticity of the guarantee
issued by them as a determine of safety.
z The initial period of the bank security issued by banks as a means of safety in
Directorate General of Supplies and Disposal contract administration would be for
a period of six months beyond the original delivery period. Banks may include an
appropriate section in their bank guarantee, provided that automatic addition of
the strength period of the guarantee by 6 months, and also get appropriate
responsibility from the client at the time of establishing the guarantee to keep
away from any probable difficulty later.
z The bank guarantee, as a means of safety in the Directorate General of Supplies
and Disposal contract administration and expansion letters thereof, would be on
non-judicial stamp paper.
6.10 IATA BILLING AND SETTLEMENT PLAN

z IATA’s Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP) is a scheme planned to make possible
and make simpler the selling, treatment and remitting events of IATA Accredited
Passenger Sales Agents, as well as get better financial power and cash flow of
participating airlines.
z A worldwide system that operates in some 177 countries and territories.
z In 2012 IATA’s BSP processed $251.8 billion.
Year Agents Sales $ bn Bad debt $ m Bad debt % sales
2003 58,900 132 43 0.032
2004 59,500 158 55 0.035
2005 60,400 171 62 0.036
2006 60,557 187 31 0.017
2007 53,894 220 53 0.024
2008 54,566 240 85 0.035
2009 54,848 191 128 0.067
2010 55,036 221 54 0.029
2011 53,914 249 68 0.027
2012 60,471 252 64 .02
6.10.1 BSP Participating Airlines Benefits 117
z Access to a global allocation system of IATA credited travel agents who have
signed a single standard Passenger Sales Agency Agreement with IATA.
z Impartial agent confirmation services by IATA together with financial estimate
and status monitoring.
z Reliable credit organisation with a gathering rate of 99.976%.
z Access to IATA’s BSP and BSP link that jointly give a single standard border for
invoicing and expense among agents and airlines.
z Security in case of destruction of the Passenger Sales Agency Agreement or
fraudulent practices.
6.10.2 IATA Accredited Travel Agent Benefits

z Capability to sell global and/or local tickets on behalf of the airlines.
z Access to IATA’s Billing and Settlement Plan (BSP), and BSP link that jointly
give a single standard border for invoicing and expense between the agent and
multiple airlines and transport providers.
z Entrance to more than 240 IATA airline members by means of a solitary standard
Passenger Sales Agency Agreement.
z Global customer self-assurance due to credit of IATA-accredited travel agents
gathering industry standards identifiable by the IATA logo and branding
displayed on travel agents’ premises and websites.
z Global travel industry recognition through an IATA Numeric Code that provides a
unique agent identifier.
z Provides standard events which make sure fair and consistent standards in all
transactions with airlines.
6.10.3 Consumer Benefits

z Confidence that IATA credited travel agents meet trade principles and financial
criteria.
z Impartial advice and the selection to acquire tickets on a wide range of airlines
from side to side IATA-accredited travel agents.
“Most agents give credits to corporate clients and have large receivables. The seven-
day payment cycle will impact agents,” said Pradip Lulla, general secretary of Travel
Agents Federation of India.
“We are discussing the issue with airlines and hope it is postponed. We are against the
move. The airlines are cutting their marketing arms. The seven-day cycle will lead to
a consolidation amongst travel agents and will increase the risk for airlines,” said
Iqbal Mulla, president of Travel Agents Association of India (TAAI).
"Moving to weekly settlement plan will benefit both airlines and agents. Airlines will
receive payments in time, while agents will have a reduced financial burden as a result
of a lower financial guarantee requirement due to more frequent remittances. With the
change in the credit period, travel agents should also review their business processes
so as to ensure that their cash flow is sufficient to cover the payments,” said IATA
spokesperson Albert Tjoeng.
“The default insurance coverage is a commercial matter between travel agents and
insurance providers. We understand that a vast majority of the accredited travel agents
in India were able to obtain default insurance coverage during a recent renewal
118 exercise. Nonetheless, even if an agent is unable to obtain default insurance coverage,
Operations and Aviation Safety they still have the alternative option of providing a bank guarantee,” he added.
6.11 CREDIT PERIOD

Airlines and travel agents are on a collision course. Yesterday, the International Air
Transport Association (IATA) informed travel agents that they would have to dispatch
the ticket sale proceed to airlines every 7 days, in place of the current fortnightly span.
IATA has slated the alteration to arrive into effect from June 1, even as agents are
challenging an adjournment in its completion.
Jet Airways, Air India, and Kingfisher, all of which are stressed with rising sufferers
and ruling it tricky to pay their vendors in time, took the show the way to protect an
approval from IATA to change the billing cycle to a week from fifteen. A decree to
alter the billing cycle in India was accepted way back in October last year at an IATA
discussion attended by all member airlines, though it was only the recent past that the
new allowance plan was introduced.
BILLING SETTLEMENT PLAN: HIGHLIGHTS
* A resolution to change the billing cycle in India was approved in October last
year by all member airlines, though it was introduced only yesterday. It will be
effective from June 1.
* For all sales between 1st and the 7th of a month, an agent will have to make
payment to the airline on 15th and so on.
* Low-cost airlines such as IndiGo, GoAir and SpiceJet are not members of the
billing settlement plan (BSP).
* Agents are required to submit bank guarantees to IATA’s BSP, which would be
revoked in case an agent defaults.
* With the reduced billing cycle, airlines will be able to ascertain defaults and stop
transactions with such agents much earlier.
“This will improve the cash flow of airlines,” the executive said. “We sell the ticket,
but do not realise the amount for over 15 days.” The agents, he added, would have to
reduce the credit period given to corporate clients so as to adjust to the new system.
Certain travel agents give large corporates as much as three months’ credit for the
business. “Other countries have adopted a seven-day billing cycle. Why can’t it
happen in India?” he asked. Korea has adopted a three-day billing cycle, a source said.
There are some other benefits too. The agents are necessary to present bank
guarantees to IATA’s BSP, which would be revoked in case a manager defaults. Now
with the concentrated billing cycle, airlines will be able to determine defaults and stop
dealings with such agents much earlier.
Travel Agents Federation of India (TAFI) says it will be a difficult proposition to
make remittance four times a month. “No corporate pays you on the spot. So, from
where will agents arrange the finances,” asks Ajay Prakash, president of the
federation. For some large agents, he says corporate sales account for 50-60 per cent
of their business.
“There is also a fear that the change in billing cycle will hurt small travel agents,” he
adds.
“For us too cash flow is important,” reasons Pradip Lulla, former president of TAFI.
“Travel business is increasingly becoming a high-interest low-margin business.
Bringing about the change requires time.”
The Travel Agents Association of India plans to take up the issue with the airlines 119
later this month. “We are talking to the credit card companies as well,” reveals Types of Rooms and Bedding
association president Iqbal Mulla.
6.12 CUSTOMER SERVICE – SERVICE PROVIDER

IATA provides a high-quality customer service and provides a variety of preparation
program to improve the service. By the assistance of this we can study how to switch
a difficult client and circumstances with assurance, increase the customer connections
and develop loyalty.
What you will learn upon completing this course, you have the skills to:
z Account management teams
z Account managers
z Customer Service managers
z Customer Service staff
z Develop customer loyalty
z Feel confident in any customer situation
z Handle difficult customers and situations
z Make the most of every customer contact
z This course is recommended for
z Who should attend
6.13 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAVEL

AGENT
Training and Development plays an important role in increasing professionalism in
the industry of tourism and travel agency operations. On the other hand, the condition
is that just like the manufacturing itself still does not have an obvious and sufficient
operational framework for managing human resources, the training is being largely
carried out in a haphazard and uncoordinated manner. In this volatile business
environment, only that travel and tourism organization will succeed that will modify
to get together the spirited fear to match the requirements of a new travel market, and
will bring creativity, innovation, flexibility, willpower and professionalism into its
operations. So as to meet these varying requirements, businesses and countries
challenging for tourists need to make substantial efforts on training and retraining
their staff for presenting high quality in service. Thus, Training and Development
plays a significant function in increasing professionalism in the business of tourism
and travel agency operations. Today, the travel industry is appropriately more and
more cutthroat. The part-time stage of the travel agency industry is long over. Over
the last two decades, the travel companies have altered their prototype and
arrangement to meet rough challenges in the worldwide tourism market. So, in this
unstable business surroundings, only that travel agency will do well that will alter to
meet the viable threats and opportunities to contest the needs of a new travel
marketplace, and will bring creativity, innovation, flexibility, determination and
professionalism into its operations. Travel agencies need tourism professionals
specializing in reservation and ticketing services, dissimilar operational and
administrative functions – tour planning and journey scheming, travel information,
destination counselling, sales and marketing, etc.
Consequently, a company’s staffing policy may not be only to focus on functional
know-how but on attitudes and approaches that fit their company goals and
120 civilization. Unluckily, the employee income is very high in the tourism industry –
Operations and Aviation Safety particularly in travel agencies and tour operation business.
6.14 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (GDS)

A global distribution system (GDS) is a network operated by a company that allows
automated transactions between vendors and agents in order to establishment travel
linked facilities to the end customers. A GDS can link facilities, rates and bookings
combining products and services across all three travel sectors:
z i.e., airline reservations,
z hotel reservations,
z car rentals,
z and other activities.
GDS is different from a computer reservations system which is a booking system used
by the particular vendors. Primary customers of GDS are transportable agents (both
online and office based) to make reservation on various reservations arrangements run
by the vendors. GDS grasps no inventory, the list is held on vendor’s arrangement
system itself. A GDS system will have real-time association to the vendors’ database.
E.g., when a travel agency needs a registration on the service of a specific airline, the
GDS system routes the appeal to the suitable airline computer objections system. This
allows a travel agent with a construction to a single GDS to select and book numerous
flights, hotels, actions and related services on all the vendors in the domain who are
part of that GDS.
Table below lists the numerous portals run by GDS enterprises. A client can view
their questions held in the GDS's own database or using the airlines booking system
itself. If a registration is made through a GDS—there are generally two registration
references, one is called a GDS locator code and the other the actual reservation or
PNR number.
Portal Name GDS Company URL link Sector
View My Trip Travelport https://www.viewtrip.com/ Airline
(includes Galileo,
Worldspan & Apollo
Check My Amadeus https://www.checkmytrip.com Airline
Trip
Virtually Sabre https://www.virtuallythere.com Airline
There
Some GDS systems (primarily Amadeus and Sabre) also have double use ability for
holding multiple computer difficulties system, in such circumstances functionally the
computer reservations system and the GDS panel of the system perform as if they
were separate systems.
Future of GDS: Use of GDS in the travel business created from an old-style legacy
business model that occurred during the initial days of computerized reservations
systems of 1950s. Most airline sellers (including budget and mainstream operators)
have now accepted a strategy of 'direct selling' to their consumers by participating in
their own questions and distribution systems, removing the dependence on a dedicated
global GDS. Hence some specialists argue that modern skill improvement and change
in commercial models will finally lead to phasing out of GDS in the Airline space.
Hotels last to advantage from selling lodgings via the several GDSs because of the
large spreading network and low cost when associated to online travel agencies. Some
GDS corporations are also in the process of participating and establishing important 121
offshore competence in a move to reduce costs and improve their profit margins. Types of Rooms and Bedding

Fill in the blanks:
1. Hotels continue to …………………… from selling rooms via the various
GDSs because of the large distribution network and low cost when
compared to online travel agencies.
2. Use of GDS in the travel industry originated from a traditional legacy
business model that existed during the early days of computerised
reservations systems of ……………………
3. A mirror image of the passenger name record in the airline reservations
system is maintained in the ……………………
6.15 LET US SUM UP

A sleep or not we spend a large part of our lives in bed. If you are suffering from sleep
problems, you may not be aware that your bed is affecting the quality of your sleep.
Many people find they sleep better away from home. There may be a number of
reasons for this – being away from the stress of home and work, peace and quiet less
expectation of being able to sleep – or, possibly the bed is more comfortable!
The right bed for a good night sleep will be depending on a number of factors. People
sleep in different environments throughout the worlds, from straw bedding on the
floor, to a hammock strung between two trees. You need a bed that will give you the
correct support and comfort, and provide you with a health space to sleep.
It is recommended that a bed should be changed every 8–10 years. We sweat an
average of half a print each night and a matter is a haven for dust mites, conditions
that may affect our health as well as our sleep. Wear and tear means that it may not be
as supportive as it was when new – all reasons to take a regular look at the condition
of your bed.
Tourism industry is managed by both the public and private sector enterprises.
Tourism has four primary components such as attraction, accommodation, transport
and technology. Tourism is a subjective experience and an amalgam of products and
services. Tourism is a small-business industry. More than 70 per cent of businesses in
the hospitality sector employ less than ten persons. It is a diversified and decentralised
industry because the commercial imperatives that drive tourism change according to
the location, environmental, social and cultural impacts of tourism on particular
communities. It is controlled by government and mostly run by private players. The
nature of tourism is over-consumption but it can be reduced with sustainable
approach. This industry is highly inter-dependent and inter-connected among sectors.
It is a profitable industry and dominated by sellers. The particulars of the tourism
system are the impacts of numerous independent components with a wide range of
relationships that differ both quantitatively and qualitatively. The system is run by
structural components such as the visitor, transit and destination regions. It is also
managed by the providers of support services, the government, the environment and
the community. Tourism is a sunrise industry with much of the positive benefits if the
tourism activities are managed meticulously. Tourism industry should be supported by
the policy and planning guidelines of the government and private sector should be
allowed to operate in all stages of the development of tourism. Tour operators are the
organisers and providers of package holidays. They make contracts with hoteliers,
airlines and ground transport companies then print brochures advertising the holidays
that they have assembled. Travel agency as the name suggests, is responsible for
organizing travel. It in fact, is a travel consultant and organizer for the tourist.
122
Principles of Travel and Tourism 6.16 LESSON END ACTIVITY
Give a presentation on the star rating of the hotel industry.
6.17 KEYWORDS
IATA: International Air Transport Association.
ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization.
DGCA: Director General of Civil Aviation.
FIA: The Federation of Indian Airline.

1. What do you mean by the term star rating?
2. Give the classification of the rating system.
3. Describe various types of the rooms.
4. Explain various types of bedding.
5. What do you understand by the credit period?
6. Why is it essential to give training to the travel agent?

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
CYP 2
1. benefit
2. 1950s
3. GDS system

VV Vara Parsad, Travel and Tourism Management, Excel Books, New Delhi.
Suddhendu Narayan Mishra, Basics of Tourism Management, Excel Books, New
Delhi.
Dr. Dileep M.R., Information Systems in Tourism, Excel Books, New Delhi.
Dyche J, 2003, Customer Relationship Management, The Pearson Education
(Singapore), Delhi.
Inkpen G, (1998), Information Technology for Travel and Tourism, II Ed., Longman,
Essex, England.
Poon, A, 1993, Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies, CAB International,
Oxford.
123
Aviation – A National
Security Asset
UNIT 1
UNIT IV
124
LESSON 125
Security Asset
7
AVIATION – A NATIONAL SECURITY ASSET
CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Importance of Air Transportation
7.3 Development of Aviation Industry
7.3.1 Airways
7.4 Airline Deregulation
7.4.1 Air Cargo Deregulation
7.4.2 Express Package Delivery
7.4.3 Passenger Deregulation
7.4.4 International Aviation
7.4.5 Effects of Deregulation
7.5 Consequences of 9/11 on the Aviation Industry
7.6 Emergency Funding
7.6.1 American Red Cross
7.6.2 Other Charitable Drives
7.6.3 Emergency Supplies
7.6.4 Memorial Funds
7.7 Protecting Public in Air Transportation
7.7.1 Fighting Back
7.8 Hijacking
7.9 Safety Measures
7.10 International Prospective of Hijacking
7.11 Protection Against Terrorism
7.11.1 Travel to High-Risk Areas
7.12 Let us Sum up
7.14 Keywords
126
Principles of Travel and Tourism 7.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
z Discuss development of Aviation Industry
z Understand Airline Regulation
z Explain Emergency of Funding
z Describe hijacking and various safety measures
z Explain protection against terrorism
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Aviation services are vital to the economic and social development of any economy.
They are a symbol of opulence and a generator of business in the surrounding region
and help the economy to expand business, technology, leisure, recreational and trade.
The economics of aviation spell out the importance of modern transport and their
needs in the present environment for timely travel and trade. Aviation industry is a
modern mode of transport, which started during the early 20th century. A description
of aviation industry includes manufacturing, airlines, airport operation, maintenance,
air traffic control, metrological and pilots. The aviation industry means different
things to different people. Some people only think of the pilots who fly commercial
airplanes when they think of aviation. Others include the airports and private planes.
Unless you are involved in the aviation industry, the many features of aviation are not
readily thought of. Aviation industry doesn’t only mean manufacturing of aircraft,
airport operations, and aircraft maintenance but it also influences many industries
associated with airline travel. The travel and tour business along with the hotel and
restaurant, international trade with exporters and importers, retail industries and many
other businesses prosper due to air travel. The term “Aviation” may be mnemonically
described as
A AIRPORTS
V VISITORS
I INTER-TRANSFER
A AIRLINES
T TRADE
I INCOME
O OPERATION
N NUCLEUS
7.2 IMPORTANCE OF AIR TRANSPORTATION

Today air transportation occupies the similar place in the national economy that
railways has century ago. In 1846, on the other hand, the analyst projecting the
character of rail transport would have met fewer problems than are currently met in
assessing the upcoming of air transportation. Like railways in 1846, air transportation
is at a primary phase in its technical development; its market is similarly only partly
prefigured in its previous experience. A vigorous technology-new standard of design
and of power production, a dynamic working pattern-new administrative and
managerial technique to be developed, a lively market-new profitable relation to be
tested as reserves in time and decreases in price increase the request for air facilities,
all of these and other influences advise that past understanding have enough money no
dependable plan for the future. Air transport nowadays, like rail transport a period 127
ago, has proven itself. It is prefigured as the instrument opening a new frontline. Air Security Asset
transport has moved out through its first trial period. It has won a big amount of public
reception. It is still mainly a transporter of passengers, of mail, and of high-grade
express. It has practiced a very considerable development, but it may still show to be
reliant on management monetary support, at least in founding definite new worldwide
ways and in transporting facility to less crowded groups within the nation state. Not
like the railroads of a time ago, air transporters are focus on a significant amount of
governmental regulator; on the other hand, that control is not as comprehensive and
wide as the current controls of rail transportation. The Civil Aeronautics Board, in
terms of its statutory powers and experience, may be compared with the Interstate
Commerce Commission before 192.
7.3 DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION INDUSTRY

7.3.1 Airways
To fly with the birds has been man’s dream since Neolithic times. Centuries of studies
and experiments precede the first successful flight. Only until the beginning of the
20th century have we accomplished flight in a heavier-than-air craft. Throughout the
past century of evolution, aviation has acquired a responsibility much greater than
ever conceived. The utilization spectrum of aviation extends from air combat and
high-altitude surveillance to more mundane functions like shipping mail and cargo.
With such versatility, aircraft have contributed to augmenting the fast paced lives we
already live. Air transport has contributed to expansion of the global economy, leisure
activities, and influenced governments and industries to diversify. The portrayal of
aviation has impacted our society on three stages: socially, politically and
economically. Leonardo da Vinci had begun drawing blueprints of a flying machine in
the 15th century. At that time, human flight had never been contemplated, beyond a
dream. Practicality worked against Leonardo; however, his thoughts were quite
contemporary by today’s standards seeing how his drawings resemble those of
modern aircraft. Just over a hundred years ago, the idea of human flight was thought
absurd. Flying was something one only did while one was dreaming; but today, one
can fly to any destination in the utmost comfort and safety, thanks to the airplane. The
first flight took place on December 17, 1903, in Kill Devil Hills near Kitty Hawk,
North Carolina. The inventors of ‘The Flyer’, the first heavier-than-air machine that
actually flew under its power, were Wilbur and Orville Wright, the Wright brothers.
Orville made the first successful flight. Although their “air machine” flew for only
twelve seconds, the Wright brothers started a revolution that has greatly affected the
entire world.
The time will come when gentlemen, when they are to go on a journey, will call for
their wings as regularly as they call for their boots.
– Bishop Wilkens (Glaeser)
With the success of the Wright brothers’ flight, powered flight has undergone
renovations that have made everyday flight possible. As time went on, the design and
mechanics of the plane greatly advanced, cockpits were built for the pilot and
suggestions were made to make the plane a weapon, which became a reality with
winged warfare in the First World War. Airplanes are used for a variety of things;
travel is only one of many.
Following the fillip given by The Great War, air transportation developed rapidly in
the 1920s and 1930s, not always for commercial reasons. Airlines were seen as a
means of providing a national airmail service (US) and of establishing long haul air
services to colonies and dependencies (UK and France). Airline companies were set
up to oversee these national goals, a trend that continued in the post-colonial period of
128 the 1950s to the 1970s, as many African, Asian and Caribbean nations created their
Operations and Aviation Safety own airline companies while reserving them for specific markets and for specific
routes. In advanced economies, the national policies went in the same direction with
national markets reserved to national carriers offering stable services, but at high
prices. Air transport was then seen as a public service that should be regulated. Thus,
the regulatory agencies of governments (e.g., the Civil Aeronautics Board for the
United States) decided which routes were to be serviced, as well as the pricing.
In the 1970s, the outlook changed and air transport came to be increasingly seen as
just another transport service. Market forces played a major role in fixing air transport
prices, and the role of governments was limited to operational and safety regulations.
In the United States, the Air Deregulation Act of 1978 put an end to fixed markets and
opened the industry to competition. This liberalisation process has spread to many
other countries, although with important local distinctions. Many of the former private
firms in the US and many former state-owned airlines that were greatly protected and
subsidized went bankrupt or were absorbed by larger ones. Many new carriers have
emerged, with several low-cost carriers such as Ryan Air and North-West Air in USA
and now, Air Deccan in India having achieved industry leadership in this low-cost
segment. A key outcome of airline deregulation has been the “Emergence of Hub and
Spoke Networks” dominated by a single carrier. Internationally, air transport is still
dominated by bilateral agreements between nations (Graham 1995).
The post-World War II period saw a momentous growth of air transportation, as it
became the leading mode of international movements of passengers. Air transport has
greatly contributed to cutting distances as it is perfectly tailored to carrying freight and
passengers rapidly across continents and oceans. However, for safety reasons, the
organization of air transport at the international level is strictly regulated. As such, for
long haul passenger travel, no other modes compete with air transportation. In many
cases, such as in North America, air transportation became a significant mode for
domestic movements of passengers. As a result, airspace became progressively more
used. They include two major components, one being land-based (takeoffs and
landings) and the other air-based, mainly composed of air corridors. These corridors
can superimpose themselves to altitudes up to 22,500 feet. The geography of air
transport is limited to the use of predetermined corridors. Air transport makes use of
air space that theoretically gives it great freedom of route choice. Strategic and
political factors influence route choice. For example, the flights of South African
Airways were not allowed to over-fly many African nations during the apartheid
period, and Cubana Airlines has been routinely prohibited from over-flying the US.
By convention, an air space exclusively belongs to the country under it. Air
transportation depends on agreements between nations and airline companies. The
Chicago Convention of 1944 established the basic geopolitical guidelines of air
operations, which became known as the Air Freedom Rights. The most substantial
developments of air transportation came in the late 1960s and early 1970s where fast
growth in traffic came with the convergence of three processes:
Technical improvements: Technology has significantly extended the range of aircraft
that were now capable of crossing the Atlantic (this was first demonstrated by Charles
Lindbergh’s solo flight that made him a national hero) without stopping at
intermediate places, making trips of up to 18 hours duration. The introduction of the
jet engine considerably reduced distances because of greater speeds and improved
ranges. Transnational movements are favoured by the usage of polar crossings, which
enables a considerable reduction of distances.
Rising affluence: The growth of air transport is highly correlated to income and
economic output growth. As the population of developed countries became more
affluent, a greater amount of disposable income became available for leisure. Remote
destinations and intercontinental tourism (mainly between Europe and North America)
experienced significant growth in popularity. International tourism and air
transportation are thus mutually interdependent, which is characterised by significant 129
elasticities. Security Asset
Lower airfares: As a consequence of technical improvements, growing demands and
competition, airfares have been reduced considerably, making air transportation
affordable to the general public. This in turn triggered additional passengers and
airfreight demands.
Globalisation: Trade networks established by multinational corporations imply
important movements of passengers and freight over the economic space. About 40%
of the value of global manufactured exports is carried by air transportation (about 50%
of the value of American overseas – non-NAFTA – exports).
A key structural factor in the development of air transport networks is the emergence
of major hubs around which air traffic converges. This trend is mainly the result of
decisions made by airline companies in the organisation of their services.
7.4 AIRLINE DEREGULATION

The Airline Deregulation Act: Today’s aviation industry has transformed since Oct.
24, 1978, when Congress passed the Airline Deregulation Act, employed into law four
days far along by President Carter. Formerly, the industry bear a resemblance to a
public usefulness, as a government support, the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB),
determined which roads each carrier flew and the charges that it might charge.
Nowadays, mainly the market energies the industry, with client demand, total cost of
process and airline network competition defining prices and the level of service. 7.4.2
Events Leading to Deregulation.
One of those progresses was the arrival of wide-body airplane, which meaningfully
amplified air company capacity on numerous ways, making it firmer for airlines to
improve the cost of additional seats in the marketplace without regulating valuing. An
additional was the OPEC oil embargo in 1973, which controlled the high rising cost of
fuel and inflation. These proceedings employed a simple tension on the airlines as
traveller request fell in contradiction to a backdrop of increasing capacity and
increasing fuel prices. Likewise, the CAB had developed progressively awkward and
many observed that customers traveling in intrastate local markets, which were not
controlled by the CAB, normally appreciate lower fares.
In line with its command to confirm a realistic rate of return for the transporters, the
CAB replied by letting transporters to raise tariffs and appropriate series of contracts
between the transporters to limit capacity on main continent-wide paths. These
movements arises in the mid of a 4-year moratorium on approving new routes,
controlling the transporters’ capability to serve particular marketplaces. Nobody
changes, which complete flying additionally expensive, was general with the public.
Moreover, the CAB action did little to recover the transporters’ monetary situation.
The employees of the CAB extended the similar decision in a report give out in 1975.
The report said the industry was “indeed competitive, not monopolistic,” and that the
CAB itself could no longer justify controls on market entry or public utility-type
pricing. On its own, the Board began to loosen its grip on the industry, acting at first
under the leadership of John E. Robson and later under Alfred E. Kahn, who became
CAB chairman in 1977. Mr Kahn, an economist, persuasively argued that the board
should give the airlines greater pricing freedom and easier access to routes.
7.4.1 Air Cargo Deregulation

Government took the main law-making steps to airline financial deregulation in
November 1977, when it decided cargo transporters the freedom to work on any
national road and trust whatsoever the marketplace can accept. Government also
acknowledged that, one year after depiction of the bill, the CAB might confirm fresh
local load carriers, if they were found “willing, fit, and able.”
130 7.4.2 Express Package Delivery
Operations and Aviation Safety There was additional significant progress after goods deregulation – the speedy
development of abrupt distribution of booklets and small packages. Deregulation
produced intense consequences for all features of the goods business, but mainly for
fast bundle distribution. Instant distribution of high-value and time-sensitive sets and
booklets were activated in the early 1970s. On the other hand, it was deregulation that
actually unlocked the door to achievement for such facilities. Deregulation gave fast
transporters the working freedom that such high-quality facilities request,
consequential intense development over the following decade. In 1994, Government
additionally encouraged the growth of this part of the carrier industry by pre-empting
state efforts to control intrastate air/truck cargo and air express package consignments.
7.4.3 Passenger Deregulation

The same standard of free-market struggle was applied to the passenger side of the
industry in the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. Government directed that local road
and rate limitations be phased out over 4 years. It delivered for whole eradication of
limitations on paths and new facilities by Dec. 31, 1981, and the termination of all
degree regulation by Jan. 1, 1983. The CAB really progressed more rapidly than that.
It originated granting new route specialist so freely that in a year of the law’s
passageway transporters were able to introduce nearly any local facility they required.
7.4.4 International Aviation

Amongst the functions of the CAB shifted to DOT was the power to choose
transporters to help limited entry worldwide markets, to apply reasonable competitive
practices in both local and global marketplaces, and to review fares for distant air
transport. Certain additional worldwide functions, containing studying union
suggestions, assessing inter carrier contracts and yielding antitrust protection continue
with the DOT.
International aviation facilities are typically ruled by mutual air-transport facility
agreements that are assigned among two countries. Bilateral civil air travel
discussions connecting the United States are controlled by a group from the
Department of State and DOT. Usually, bilateral contracts postulate how many air
company from each state might work, what routes may be flown, which cities may be
attended, how many times each week an air company might work, how prices might
be determined, and whether or not an air company can choice passengers and cargo in
that nation and transportation it to a 3rd country.
7.4.5 Effects of Deregulation

z Increased Competition, Discount Fares and Growth in Air Travel: Improved
opposition unleashed by the Airline Deregulation Act laid reduction in fares and
the propagation of new service, which tourists found to be the utmost significant
benefit of airline deregulation. The appearance of new airlines, joint with the fast
development into fresh marketplaces by numerous of the recognized airlines, lead
to domestic charges dropped more than 40% in actual terms since 1978. They
have developed so low, that with rare exception national bus and intercity support
have developed hard-pressed to participate with the air company that nowadays
deliver the means of long-distance common-carrier transport among U.S. cities.
With larger opposition on the massive mainstream of routes, wide discounting and
more accessible flights, air travel has developed quickly since deregulation.
These days, the overpowering mainstream of U.S. airline travellers has a choice of
two or more transporters, with air company challenging strongly in nearly all
main marketplaces. The beginning of coinciding national air travel systems
resulted in bigger struggle in hundreds of small marketplaces that could not
support competitive facility in a lined route system. Respectively, the main rise in 131
opposition occurred in insignificant and medium-sized marketplaces. Security Asset
z New Carriers: Deregulation did more than quick a reorganizing of facility by
present transporters. It unlocked the air company business to beginners just as
Government proposed. In 1978, a complete 43 transporters were specialized for
planned facility. Subsequently 1990, the industry has seen a trend of new air
company working different industry models extending from hub-and-spoke, low-
cost and point-to-point network workers to local transporters working on smaller
aircraft for their main network associates.
z Networks: A main progress that tracked deregulation was the extensive growth of
hub-and-spoke systems, which occurred on a more restricted base previous to
1978. Hubs are advantageously positioned airports used as transference points for
travellers and cargo going from one community to other. Airlines timetable sets of
flights in and out of their centres a number of times a day. Each bank comprises
lots of planes coming in minutes. When on the ground, the joining travellers and
shipment from those trips are transported suitably to other airplanes that will take
them to their last stop.
Transporters also found that combined hub-and-spoke organizations permitted
them to attain much load influences (percentage of seats filled) on trips to and
from small places.
z Frequent: Flyer Loyalty Programs: Deregulation also generated advertising
advances, the most notable being frequent-flyer dependability programs, which
reward consumer faithfulness with travel document, cabin advancements, urgency
check-in, urgency boarding, living room entrance and other assistances. Most
airlines have such a program and the essential elements are the same. When
consumers register, they can make ideas for the number of miles flown or the
number of journeys taken on the supporting carrier or its partners. These topics
are then converted for prizes that comprise tickets and upgrades. The first current
frequent-flyer driver was started in May 1981 by American Airlines, monitored
rapidly subsequently by packages from United Airlines, Delta Air Lines and
British Airways.
A further current growth has been the development of company marketing
provisions tied to frequent-flyer dependability programs. As of their wide
relationship rolls, frequent-flyer platforms are very gorgeous to nonairline
corporations who are ready to pay for the pleasure of contributing in them as
promoting partners. Moreover, the air company benefits as its constancy program
develops more attractive through its association with associates: it is now
probable to make frequent-flyer points by buying non-airline properties and
facilities and cash points for non-airline products. Normally, a partner corporation
will reimburse the host air company per mile received when a frequent-flyer
associate uses the partner’s possessions or service area, but such preparations
fluctuate by carrier and partner.
7.5 CONSEQUENCES OF 9/11 ON THE AVIATION

INDUSTRY
The attack of the terrorist on September 11, 2001 shook the United States in an
intense manner, severely disturbing the national awareness of security in U.S. borders.
No industry or sector of the economy touched the effects of these proceedings more
than the air company. Both the instant response to the occurrences and the long-term
consequences has destructively affected the business.
z Reduction in Passenger Demand: Straight afterward the terrorist attacks on 9/11,
the central government sealed airports, cancelling almost all of flights at a straight
132 cost to air company. On the other hand, even before the airports reopened,
Operations and Aviation Safety commuters were cautious of air travel, and air company practiced at least a 30%
decrease in request throughout the original shock period directly resulting the
reviving. Bankruptcy and Large-Scale Layoffs
The week subsequent the attacks, Government put forward a law that formed the
Air Transportation Stabilization Board, a body approved to give uncertain air
company up to $10 billion in loans. Although this government-funded quantity,
numerous noticeable American air company acknowledged insolvency not long
after the 9/11 attacks, along with US Airways and United Airlines. Because of the
huge monetary losses due to lack of commuter request, cancelled flights and
greater than before expenses for safety, even airlines that did not have previous
monetary issues were required to negotiate again labour agreements and lay off
high quantities of workers, such as the 7,000 workers laid off by American
Airlines.
z Indirect Effects of New Air Security Procedures: Formed on November 11,
2001, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) and its renovation of
airport safety procedures were one of the greatest instant and long-term
significances of the 9/11 attacks. Even though the sharp airport safety events do
not have impact on airline processes, the new development has produced a visible
separation of airline travellers who choose for dissimilar types of transport or
avoid travel completely. An profitable study from Cornell University in 2007
showed that federal baggage screenings brought about a 6 per cent reduction in
passenger volume across the board, with a 9 per cent reduction in the nation's
busiest airports, totalling a nearly $1 billion loss for the airline industry.
7.6 EMERGENCY FUNDING

Helps and relief organisations rose above $657 million in the 3 weeks followed by
September 11, 2001 attacks, the huge majority successful to direct survivors and
victims' relatives.
In the morning times of September 21, 2001, the Government accepted a bill to help
the air company and found a federal account for sufferers. The cost of the typically
open-ended account reached $7 billion. Victims of previous terrorist attacks,
comprising those connected to al-Qaida, were not comprised in the fund—nor were
those who would not submit the right to hold the air company officially accountable.
7.6.1 American Red Cross

From the contributions to the Emergency Relief Fund, as of 19 November 2001, the
American Red Cross granted 3,165 checks to 2,776 families totalling $54.3 million.
172,612 cases were referred to mental health contacts. The 866-GET INFO number
received 29,820 calls. As of 3:10 p.m. November 20, 2001, there had been 1,592,295
blood donations since September 11 Fire Donations took helpful assistances on behalf
of firefighters, EMS, and rescue workers.
7.6.2 Other Charitable Drives

z In the Washington, D.C. area (Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area), Giant
Food accessible to match donations completed in-store up to $1 million.
z Arista Records re-released singer Whitney Houston's recording of "The Star
Spangled Banner" as a charity single following the attacks, with all profits going
towards the firefighters and victims of the attacks. Mariah Carey also recorded a
charity single, "Never Too Far/Hero Medley", released on the Virgin Records
label.
z In Ireland, the National Fire Brigade Committee opened a disaster fund to raise 133
money for the families of those injured or killed in the attacks. Security Asset
z Pop singer Britney Spears donated $1 to the children of firefighters, police
officers and EMT's who were killed on 9/11 from every ticket sold from her
Dream within a Dream Tour in 2001 and 2002.
7.6.3 Emergency supplies

On Thursday and Friday, September 14–15 September 2001, numerous help
provisions for the World Trade Center help work were composed from the New York
City region, and fell off at the Javits Convention Center or at a performing area at
Union Square. By Saturday morning, sufficient provisions were composed.
7.6.4 Memorial funds

Many relatives and friends of sufferers have set up commemorative funds and plans to
give back to their groups and alter the domain in honour of their beloved lives. For
examples:
z Beyond the 11th
z Heroic Choices (originally the Todd M. Beamer Foundation)
z Our Voices Together
z September 11th Families for Peaceful Tomorrows
z The Peter M. Goodrich Memorial Foundation
7.7 PROTECTING PUBLIC IN AIR TRANSPORTATION

September 11, 2001—currently well-known as "9/11"—is a memorable day in the
history of the U.S. The terrorists smashed the twin towers of the World Trade Center
and brutally spoiled the Pentagon construction by means of hijacked commercial
aircrafts as weaponries of massive demolition. Thousands of innocent general public
were killed.
A few days after, bio-agent threats from local violence arise. Two packets having
anthrax bacteria were sent to the media by the U.S. Postal Service in New Jersey. Two
more anthrax mailings projected for U.S. Senators in Washington, D.C. were found on
October 9. The anthrax virus leads to certain deaths and contribute to the American
people's rising concern about terrorism.
General public in America were injured actually and mentally afterward these attacks
of the terrorist.
7.7.1 Fighting Back

Later "9/11", the government of U.S., identifying the limitation of its mother country
safety, revised the hazards and likely threats from global violence and local violence
in the future. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was formed by the
government so as to look after civil liberties efficiently in contradiction to violence
and terrorism.
In 2002, President George W. Bush signed Homeland Security Presidential Directive
3, making the Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS).
The risk levels from estimated possible fear threats are measured by five danger
stages, from Red (severe) down to Green (low condition). Every situation is
associated definite responsibilities and duties, and defined in Protective Measures [2].
Federal, state, and local governments, public agencies, and private companies are
responsible for training their employees to practice these measures.
134 Security of public transportation systems
Operations and Aviation Safety Public train transport schemes have been directed ever since 1990s:
z Tokyo underpasses suffered a poison-gas outbreak in 1995 when terrorists put
bottles of extremely poisonous Sarin nerve gas in three underpass night train at
rush hours. Though Tokyo Emergency Control Centre staff expected fears in
fifteen minutes, Sarin gas blowout rapidly at fifteen underpass places (carried
there by the trains).
z In 1997, Islamic extremists proposed to bomb New York's underpasses. Luckily,
this outbreak was stopped by people and police attentiveness.
z On March 11, 2004 four traveller trains were demolished by ten detonations that
happened in Madrid. The outbreak was the most horrible terrorist public attack in
modern Spanish history.
Figure 7.1: The Scene of one of the Madrid bombings

Meanwhile underpass places and airports have constructions with entrances, a useful
defensive method is to control arrivals and monitor structures inside and outside. Here
are specific tactics:
z More noticeable patrolling sniffing dogs, safety staff, and unplanned forms of
services.
z Recognition and analysis by closed-circuit television coverage, security cameras,
and sensors placed at arrivals, which can sense biochemical, biological, and
radiological materials.
z Crisis phones and fire sensors as well as rapid-response systems to minimalize
fatalities and damage.
z Release cars and unusual exits to assist removal from unsafe parts.
From September 2003 and May 2004, TSA had registers of 5.9 million barred things
from commuters at airports, comprising more than 400 guns along with 1.4 million
knives. Hidden centralized detectives told Government that airport screeners of air
travel safety were performing arts poorly; however most of these barred articles were
trapped by screeners. A college student in fact passed the spot check with barred
articles comprising box cutters, and carried them on six viable aircrafts in the seven
months of 2003. As a response to the criticism, by the end of 2004, TSA installed
Threat Image Protection (TIP) software on all scanners and initiated to assess their
performance.
7.8 HIJACKING
Aircraft hijacking (also known as skyjacking and sky controlling) is the illegal
capture of an aircraft by a single person or a group. In maximum circumstances, the
pilot is enforced to fly permitting to the guidelines of the hijackers. Infrequently, on 135
the other hand, the hijackers have flown the airliner themselves, for example the Security Asset
September 11 attacks of 2001. In at least one case, a plane was hijacked by the official
pilot.
Not like the classic hijackings of land automobiles or liners, skyjacking is not
commonly dedicated for theft. Most aircraft hijackers aim to use the commuters as
convicts, either for financial redemption or for some governmental or administrative
allowance by establishments. Reasons differ from challenging the announcement of
certain prisoners (notably IC-814) to emphasising the grievances of a specific
community (notably AF 8969).
Hijackings for criminals generally create an equipped deadlock in a period of
cooperation between hijackers and establishments, monitored by some method of
settlement. Settlements do not constantly see the hijackers' unusual difficulties.
7.9 SAFETY MEASURES

You are slightly exhausted, and even though you appreciate seeing the family yet
again, you must confess you're happy to be coming back home. You are nearly as
dead as your luggage, which is inactive around you irregularly as you are sitting at the
door, waiting for the scheduled carrier to begin boarding.
z Watch your bags and personal belongings at all times.
z Do not receive suites from outsiders. Giving a platform comprising a bomb or
some other such item to a foreigner is a favourite trick of a possible hijacker or
terrorist.
z Report any distrustful actions or persons in the airport or places lot to airport
safety.
Checking In
All over again, times have transformed. E-ticket travellers should form with their air
company to ensure they will have appropriate certification when they try to check in.
Automated kiosks are available for airlines that have appropriate security measures in
place. Interested travellers should check with their airlines.
Be ready to reply any and all queries about your bags. When requested who packed
your bags and if you influence left them unattended at any time, think judiciously and
answer the queries as reliably as you can. Again, hijackers and terrorists may well use
unsuspicious travellers to carry bombs or other unsafe items onto plane.
Be sympathetic and accommodating as screeners ask to hand-search your bags. Safety
workers should examine a bag if the x-ray scan cannot control its subjects.
On the Airplane
Attend wisely to the journey attendant's security directions. Ensure to note where the
neighbouring exit to your seat is situated. Wear your seat belt, and make sure to boom
unattended substances to your flight associated.
What to Wear
Passengers who wear clothing that permits for a variability of activities can decreases
their probabilities of serious damages in the improbable event of an emergency.
z Dress to cover as much skin as possible.
z Synthetics may melt when heated.
z Wear clothes made of natural fabrics such as cotton, wool, denim or leather.
136 z Wear clothing that is roomy, and avoid restrictive clothing.
Operations and Aviation Safety z Wear low-heeled, leather or canvas shoes.
In an alternative clearing leave your possessions behind. This prominence comes
straight from the DOT and FAA's reports.
Passenger Safety Information

z Be able to locate emergency exits both in front and behind you. Count the rows
between you and the nearest front and rear exits.
z Listen carefully to the safety briefing.
z Locate the flotation device.
z Make a mental plan of action in case of emergency.
z Review the passenger safety card before takeoff and landing.
Exit Row Seating

It's important that you be actually proficient and eager to achieve emergency
appointments when seated in emergency or exit rows. If you are not, ask for another
seat.
1. With the growing acceptance of logistics and supply chain management are
critical business concerns.
2. More investment is needed to develop appropriate managerial skills and
competencies.
3. Supply chain managers are a quite varied group and to an extent reflect the
disparate origins of the subject in terms of their functional background.
4. Van cock et al (2005) describes managers in the supply chain as 'the critical
dimension'.
5. Supply chain managers not only need to be equipped with the skills and
knowledge to manage logistics but also they must be relationship
managers.
7.10 INTERNATIONAL PROSPECTIVE OF HIJACKING

Today even Concorde commuters are enforced to eat their in-flight meals with
malleable instruments. In spite of everything, the risk that somebody may turn their
dinner knife into a makeshift deadly armament is not a risk any airline is ready to take.
The events in New York and Washington on September 11, 2001 have forever turned
the world onto the profits of being safe and protected in the skies.
Air Security - What Must Be Done
Let's begin at the top: the actual finest way to make sure flight security is to ensure the
air hub from which you are taking off has the most widespread, dependable, and
cultured air safety system in place. Ending the hijacker from receiving on the flat in
the first place has to be the highest technique of keeping passengers in the friendly
skies.
How significant this issue is can be understood by dealings that happened even after
the terrors of that September morning in America.
English Customs officers examining the men's baggage found they controlled a 137
clothed group of combat knives, stun guns and mace spray. Security Asset
"Yet these cases had been chequered in at Orlando Sanford Airport in Florida and
placed in the hold of an American Trans Air flight," BBC News was understandably
quick to report.
Past, Americans, need to see a little secret? Government officers saw all laterally that
the state's airport luggage showing system had long been "bad and getting worse," to
quote a story printed by the New York Times in late November 2001.
Screeners missed 20% of the clear pictures of bombs or guns ran over baggage
selection machines throughout safety examinations back in the late 1980s. Their
presentation has only fallen meanwhile, though officers won't say by how much: "the
figure has since been chosen sensitive security info," according to the Times, an
attractive reliable paper on these kinds of things.
Trends begin
Even though the state of carrier security is of sequence the main means to battle the
evil of carrier hijackings, we must face the possibility that no amount of safety can
make for every probable attack. The human mind is remarkably adaptable, and has
shown a breathtaking imagination when it originates to the numerous ways one can
damage others. If a hijacker is someway still capable to grab a plane, what should you
do? How can you safeguard that you – and hopefully everybody else on board - can
live such an event as a hijacking?
When you are making for your trip, think to pack smart and pack safe. Here's a list of
substances you cannot take on your individual or in carry-on luggage:
z All cutting and puncturing instruments. This includes pocketknives, carpet knives
and box cutters, ice picks, straight razors, metal scissors, and metal nail files.
z Athletic equipment that could be used as a weapon, such as baseball/softball bats,
golf clubs, pool cues, ski poles, and hockey sticks.
z Corkscrews.
z Fireworks – signal flares, sparklers, or other explosives.
z Flammable liquids or solids – fuel, paints, lighter refills, matches.
z Household items – drain cleaners and solvents.
z Knives of any length, composition, or description.
z Other banned hazardous materials include: gasoline-powered tools, wet-cell
batteries, camping equipment with fuel, dry ice or radioactive materials (except
limited quantities), poisons, and infectious substances.
z Pressure containers – spray cans, butane fuel, scuba tanks, propane tanks, CO2
cartridges, and self-inflating rafts.
z Remember, you must declare hazardous materials to airlines, express package
carriers or the Postal Service. Violations carry a civil penalty of up to $27,500 for
each occurrence and, in appropriate cases, a criminal penalty of up to $500,000
and/or up to five years imprisonment
z Weapons – For the most obvious reasons. Firearms, ammunition, gunpowder,
mace, tear gas, or pepper spray.
7.11 PROTECTION AGAINST TERRORISM

Terrorist acts arise at accidental and variably, making it unbearable to defend one
unconditionally. The first and best defense is to escape transportable to unsafe spaces
138 where there has been an insistent greatest of terrorist occurrences or hijacking. The
Operations and Aviation Safety huge mainstreams of distant conditions have good archives of preserving public order
and guarding residents and companies within their borders from violence.
Most terrorist attacks are the consequence of extended and cautious preparation. Just
like a car thief will mainly concerned to an unlocked car with the key in the start,
terrorists are observing defenseless, simply available objectives that trail expectable
designs. The probabilities that a tourist, traveling with an unpublished package or
program, would be the prey of terrorism are slight. The subsequent indicators may
help you escape becoming an objective of chance. These defences may deliver some
degree of defence, and can serve as applied and psychological preventions to would-
be terrorists.
z Plan direct air travel if possible and avoid stops in high-risk airports or regions.
z Think about other choices for travel, like trains.
z Be alert of what you discuss with foreigners or what may be heard by others.
z Try to reduce the time spent in the public area of an airport, which is a less
endangered area.
z Move quickly from the check-in counter to the safeguarded areas. On arrival,
leave the airport as soon as possible.
z As much as possible, avoid luggage identifiers, dress and behaviour which may
recognize you as an American.
z Keep an eye out for doubtful uncontrolled packages or briefcases. Report them to
airport safety or other authorities and leave the area quickly.
z Avoid obvious terrorist targets such as places where Americans and Westerners
are known to congregate.
7.11.1 Travel to High-Risk Areas

If you have to travel in a region where there has been a past of terrorist attacks or
kidnapping, remember these points:
z Avoid predictable times and routes of travel and report any suspicious activity to
local police, and the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate.
z Be sure of the identity of visitors before opening the door of your hotel room.
Don't meet strangers at unknown or remote locations.
z Check for loose wires or other suspicious activity on or around an aircraft, etc.
z Compare the face of the driver with the one posted on his or her license.
z Discuss with your family what they would do in the event of an emergency. Make
sure your affairs are in order before leaving home.
z Formulate a plan of action for what you will do if a bomb explodes or there is
gunfire.
z If possible, travel with others.
z If you are ever in a situation where somebody starts shooting, drop to the floor or
get down as low as possible. Don't move until you are sure the danger has passed.
If possible, shield yourself behind or under a solid object. If you must move,
crawl on your stomach.
z Keep a mental note of safe havens, such as police stations, hotels, hospitals.
z Leave no personal or business papers in your hotel room.
z Let someone you trust know what your travel plans are. Keep them informed if 139
you change your plans. Security Asset
z Refuse unexpected packages.
z Register with the U.S. embassy or consulate upon arrival.
z Remain friendly but be cautious about discussing personal matters, your itinerary
or program.
z Select your own taxi cabs at random. Don't take a vehicle that is not clearly
identified as a taxi.
z Watch for people following you or "loiterers" observing your comings and goings.
Fill in the banks:
1. A Supply chain management implies a ‘……………….’ organisational
orientation rather than a ‘……………….’ one.
2. Traditional businesses are organised on ………………. lines with strong
hierarchical underpinnings.
3. The managers will move ………………. through the hierarchy as they
demonstrate increasing capability in that narrow functional area.
4. Christopher's framework comprises both management skills and
……………….
5. The skills requirements for future supply chain managers are
……………….
7.12 LET US SUM UP

Airways or Aviation industry has grown tremendously with the advancement of the
technology. But everything has some benefits and drawback. This is the widely used
industry for daily transportation of the goods, passengers and for the trading. But due
to some uncivilised people it is facing the threats of the hijacking, bomb blast and
many other problems. In order to avoid the problems like hijacking one should take
the safety measures that are mentioned in the lesson and should be cautious during the
transportation in the airlines.

Have a discussion in your class on the topic of 9/11.
7.14 KEYWORDS
everyday life.
Tourism: The activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their
other purposes.
140 Visitor: Any person travelling to a place other than that of his/her usual environment
Operations and Aviation Safety for less than 12 consecutive months and whose main purpose of travel is not to work
World Tourism Organization (WTO): It is the major intergovernmental body

1. Write a short note on the importance of air transportation in the developing
countries.
2. Explain the development of the aviation industry.
3. What do you understand by the deregulation of the aviation industry?
4. Write the consequences of the 9/11 attack on the world.
5. What is air hijacking and what are its safety measures?

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. True
CYP 2
1. Horizontal, vertical
2. Functional
3. Upwards
4. competencies
5. wide

Kumar. Prasanna (2010), Marketing Of Hospitality & Tourism Services. Tata McGraw
Harry A. Kinnison, Aviation Maintenance Management, Mc Graw Hill
Alexender T. Wells Clarence, Commercial Aviation Safety
141
LESSON Conferences on Air Law
8
CONFERENCES ON AIR LAW
CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Diplomatic Conference on the Air Law
8.2.1 Main Topics of Discussion
8.3 Ministerial Conference on Terrorism
8.3.1 Adopting Internal Measures to Prevent Terrorism
8.3.2 Deterrence, Prosecution, and Punishment of Terrorists
8.3.3 Asylum, Borders, and Travel Documents
8.3.4 Strengthening International Cooperation to Fight Terrorism
8.4 Financing of Terrorism
8.4.1 Money Laundering
8.4.2 Suspicious Activity
8.4.3 Bank Processes
8.5 United Nation ICAO/ECAC
8.6 Let us Sum up
8.8 Keywords

z Discuss the various conferences that have occurred in the world to fight against
terrorism
z Describe bank guarantee
z Identify the financing of the terrorism
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Various measures are being taken by the world in order to avoid the terrorism in the
world and to make the world as the most safest place to live. America along with India
and Russia has taken various measure to stop or avoid terror after 9/11 the
142 government of the world are so cautious for the terrorist attack. The advancement in
Operations and Aviation Safety the technology has also helped the world to stop or reduce the terror attack like GDS
and many other techniques. In this lesson we will learn that measure and the
government is taking to avoid the terror attacks how the world has become a unit of
fight against the war of terrorism.
8.2 DIPLOMATIC CONFERENCE ON THE AIR LAW

Asia is the fastest developing air travel market across the world, and India is an
essential driver of that strong growth. Evidence and information about laws and
guidelines interrelated to air travel and space actions are vital to take advantage of on
the economic prospects being formed in this part of the world. It is in this context that
the International Foundation for Aviation, Aerospace and Development (IFFAAD),
the Institute of Air and Space Law of McGill University, and National Law University
of New Delhi, India have planned and are pleased to announce the opening of the Call
for Papers for the Third Annual International Conference on Law and Regulation of
Air Transport and Space Applications.
The International Foundation for Aviation, Aerospace and Development, placed in
Montreal with the host chapter in Delhi, works to enable the conversation of ideas and
endorse the public interest in problems relevant to the growth of the worldwide
aviation industry as well as space applications. The Institute of Air and Space Law of
McGill University in Montreal, Canada offers the world’s foremost educational and
research program in Air and Space Law. Partying its 60th anniversary this year, the
Institute has a rich past of research, allowance, and educational packages intended to
offer the best education offered to air and space legal representative anywhere. The
National Law University in New Delhi, India, established in 2008, is committed to
forming a legal organization within India to competitively formulate lawyers for
global legal jobs as agents of change for India.
International Conference is considerately designed to be useful to working legal
officers working for airlines, lawyers, and governmental aviation civil ministries and
managers, airport managers, as well law teachers and students. It will form
consciousness of developing subjects deliver networking prospects and encourage
cooperative business appointments between foreign and Indian air travel and space
industries. The program will comprise requested assistances from leading specialists
in the fields plus performances selected on the basis of summaries submitted in
response to this Call. We would raise the value of it if you would sympathetic pass on
this evidence to others within your organisation who may also be absorbed in
submitting an abstract. Announcers of papers will enjoy free registering, place and
meals for the days of the Conference.
8.2.1 Main Topics of Discussion

z Aircraft Manufacturer Liability
z Airline Liability and Insurance
z Aviation Safety
z Aviation Security
z Competition Law and Airline Alliances
z Emerging Environmental Issues
z Emerging Issues for Air Navigation Services and Liability
z Emerging Issues for Airports and their Economic Regulation
z Emerging Issues in Commercial Space Applications: Satellite Communications,
Navigation, and Remote Sensing
z Financing of, and Foreign Investment in, Aircraft, Airlines, Airports, Ground 143
Handling, MRO, Manufacturing Conferences on Air Law
z Government Regulation, Bilateral, and the Liberalization of Air Transport

z Regional Aviation Infrastructure
z Space Security: ASAT’s and Weaponization of Space, On-orbit Servicing, Dual
Use, Space Debris
8.3 MINISTERIAL CONFERENCE ON TERRORISM

Ministerial conference on the Terrorism has below points so as to increase the
Aviation industry.
8.3.1 Adopting Internal Measures to Prevent Terrorism

Improving counter-terrorism cooperation and capabilities:
We call on all States to:

z Strengthen internal cooperation among all government agencies and services
concerned with different aspects of counter-terrorism.
z Expand working out of workers associated with counter-terrorism to avoid all
methods of terrorist action, comprising those using chemical, radioactive,
biological, or toxic substances.
z In line with the pains approved out in the fields of air and maritime transport and
in view of general terrorist attacks on types of mass ground transport, like bus
transport systems, railway, mention that transport security executives of
concerned States immediately undertake discussions to recover the competence of
governments to avoid, examine, and respond to terrorist attacks on means of
public transport, and to work together with other commands in this respect. These
discussions should comprise calibration of passenger and cargo manifests and
acceptance of standard means of classifying vehicles to aid soundings of terrorist
bombings.
z Quicken research and progress of methods of detection of explosives and other
damaging constituents that can cause death or damage, and commence
conferences on the development of values for marking explosives in order to
classify their origin in post-blast soundings, and promote collaboration where
suitable.
8.3.2 Deterrence, Prosecution, and Punishment of Terrorists

z When adequate explanation exists permitting to national laws, explore the
manipulation of organizations, groups, or relations, comprising those with
generous, social, or cultural goals, by terrorist using them as a protection for their
own events.
z Note the danger of terrorist consuming electronic or wire communications
systems and linkages to carry out illegal actions and the need to find means,
reliable with national law, to stop such criminality.
z Adopt real national laws and guidelines comprising trade panels to administer the
production, trading, transportation, and export of firearms, explosives, or any
device planned to cause ferocious injury, damage, or destruction in order to stop
their use for terrorists' acts.
144 z Take stepladders within their control to directly review and alter as essential their
Operations and Aviation Safety domestic anti-terrorist legislation to make sure, inter alia, that terrorists' acts are
established as serious criminal offences and that the importance of terrorists' acts
is accordingly replicated in the decree helped.
z Bring to integrity any individual suspect of participation in the planning, research,
or performance of terrorist acts or contribution in supportive terrorist acts.
z Abstain from giving any form of provision, whether energetic or inactive, to
administrations or persons complicated in terrorist activity.
z Accelerate discussion, in suitable bilateral or multifaceted fore, on the use of
encryption that lets, when essential, legal direction admittance to data and
transportations in order, inter alia, to stop or investigate acts of terrorism, while
shielding the privacy of genuine communications.
8.3.3 Asylum, Borders, and Travel Documents

z Take strong actions to stop the programme of terrorist persons or groups by
reinforcement border controls and controls on issuance of individuality papers and
travel booklets, and through measures in place of preventing counterfeiting,
forgery, or use of false papers.
z While knowing that radical place of safety and the admission of refugees are
genuine rights preserved in global law, ensure that such a correct action should
not be taken benefit of for terrorist determinations, and seek extra global means to
speak the subject of refugees and asylum seekers who plan, fund, or commit
terrorist acts.
8.3.4 Strengthening International Cooperation to Fight Terrorism

Expanding international treaties and other arrangements

z Join global agreements and procedures designed to struggle terrorism by the year
2000; pass domestic legislation essential to tool them; affirm or lengthen the
capability of their judges to bring to test the writers of terrorist actions; and, if
required, offer provision and help to other administrations for these purposes.
z Develop if essential, specially by incoming into mutual and multidimensional
arrangements, common legitimate help actions aimed at facilitating and speedy
investigations and gathering signal, as well as collaboration between law
administration agencies in order to stop and detect terrorist acts.
z In cases where a terrorist action occurs in numerous countries, States with
authority should organize their examinations and the use of joint assistance
methods in a planned manner so as to be more effective in the fight compared to
terrorist groups.
z Grow extradition arrangements, as required, in order to make sure that those
answerable for terrorist acts are carried to justice; and think through the possibility
of expulsion even in the absence of a treaty.
z Encourage the attention and growth of a worldwide settlement on terrorist terror
campaign or other terrorist acts making combined danger for persons, to the
degree that the present multifaceted counter-terrorism conventions do not give for
cooperation in these areas.
z Examine, also, the need and possibility of enhancing present global instruments 145
and preparations to address other terrorist fears and accept new instruments as Conferences on Air Law
desirable.
z Accelerate in the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) discussions to
found unchanging and strict worldwide values for bomb recognition and the on-
going discussions to elaborate and adopt extra amplified security methods at
airports, and urge early execution of screening actions and all other ICAO values
previously agreed upon.
z We mention to States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention to authorize
at the upcoming Review Conference their assurance to make sure, through
acceptance of national measures, the actual fulfilment of their responsibilities
under the agreement to take any essential measures to forbid and stop the growth,
production, stockpiling, acquisition, or retention of such arms within their
territory, under their influence, or under their control everywhere, in order, inter
alia, to exclude use of those weapons for terrorist determinations.
Terrorist fund raising:

z Stop and take steps to respond, through suitable domestic methods, the backing of
terrorists and terrorist organisations, whether such financing is straight or indirect
through administrations which also have, or claim to have, generous, social, or
national goals, or which are also involved in illegal events like illegal weapons
trading, drug dealing, and racketeering. These local actions may comprise, where
suitable, checking and regulator of cash transfers and bank release actions.
z Strengthen evidence exchange regarding international actions of reserves sent
from one nation or established in another nation and projected for individuals,
relatives, or groups likely to carry out or support terrorist processes.
z Consider, where suitable, accepting controlling events in order to stop actions of
funds supposed to be envisioned for terrorist establishments, without delaying in
any way the self-determination of genuine capital movements.
Improving information exchange on terrorism:
z Simplify interchange of evidence and the communication of lawful requirements
through founding central establishments so prearranged as to deliver quick co-
ordination of needs, it being assumed that those central establishments would not
be the single network for joint help among States. Direct exchanges of
information among competent agencies should be encouraged.
z Strengthen interchange of basic info regarding people or organizations supposed
of terrorist-linked events, in specific on their construction, their modus operandi,
and their message systems so as to stop terrorist actions.
z Intensify interchange of working evidence, particularly as regards:
the actions and movements of persons or groups suspected of belonging to or
being connected with terrorist networks,
the threat of new types of terrorist activities including those using chemical,
biological, or nuclear materials and toxic substances,
the use of communications technologies by terrorist groups,
traffic in arms, explosives, or sensitive materials,
travel documents suspected of being forgeries or falsified,
146 z Find methods of quickening these interactions of figures and making them further
Operations and Aviation Safety straight, while at the same time conserving their privacy in conventionality with
the laws and regulations of the State providing the information.
8.4 FINANCING OF TERRORISM

Terrorism financing has come into attention in the United States after the terrorist
assaults in the United States on the 9/11 in 2001. The US Government accepted the
USA Patriot Act to, among other details, effort preventing the financing of terrorism
(CFT) and anti-money laundering (AML) ensuring these were specified some sort of
tolerable emphasis by US monetary organisations. The act also had extraterritorial
influence and non-US banks taking correspondent banking books or doing business
with US banks had to upgrade their AML/CFT processes. The Patriot Act has made an
excessive contract of disagreement in the United States as its representation.
Originally the emphasis of CFT efforts was on non-profit-making groups, unregistered
cash facilities businesses (MSBs) and the criminalization of the action itself. The
Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF) made 9 special references
for CFT. These nine references have become the worldwide standard for CFT and
their usefulness is measured almost always in combination with AML.
The FATF Blacklist (the NCCT list) device was used to force countries to take about
transformation.
8.4.1 Money Laundering

Often linked in legislation and regulation, terrorism financing and money laundering
are conceptual opposites. Money laundering is the process where cash raised from
criminal activities is made to look legitimate for re-integration into the financial
system, whereas terrorism financing cares little about the source of the funds, but it is
what the funds are to be used for that defines its scope.
An detailed training of the synergetic association between prearranged corruption and
terrorist organisations noticed within the United States of America and additional
parts of the realm mentioned to as crime-terror connection points has been available in
the scientific literature. The Perri, Lichtenwald and MacKenzie article highlights the
position of multi-agency employed groups and the implements that can be used to
classify, penetrate, and disassemble organisations working beside the crime-terror
connecting points.
Terrorists use low worth but high capacity scam action to fund their operations.
Paramilitary forces in Northern Ireland are using genuine trades such as pubs, hotels,
and taxi operators to wash money and account governmental actions. Even away from
Ireland, terrorists are controlling front-end trades particularly cash-intensive trades
comprising in some cases money facilities trades to move duties. Wholesale cash
trafficking and assignment through cash-intensive industries is one typology. They are
currently also affecting duties by the new operational payment organisations. They
also use trade related arrangements to wash duties. However, the older schemes have
not given way. Terrorists also last to change duties through MSBs/Hawalas, and
through global ATM businesses. Donations also last to be used in countries wherever
controls are not so rigid.
8.4.2 Suspicious Activity

Operation Green Quest, a US multi-agency job power set up in October 2001 with the
certified purpose of answering terrorism financing reflects the subsequent patterns of
action as pointers of the group and program of reserves that could be related with
terrorism financing:
z Account dealings that are unreliable with past payments or withdrawals like 147
cheques, cash, wire transfers, etc. Conferences on Air Law
z Industries linking a high volume of incoming or leaving wire transmissions, with

no rational or apparent purpose that originate from, go to, or transfer through
places of anxiety, that is allowed countries, non-cooperative nations and
sympathizer states.
z Unexplainable clearance or arbitration of third-party cheques and their credits in
remote bank accounts.
z Organising at multiple divisions or the same division with several activities.
z Commercial layering, assignments among bank accounts of connected objects or
assistances for no apparent reasons.
z Wire transferals by generous organisations to corporations positioned in republics
known to be bank or tax havens.
z Lack of obvious fund raising action, for instance a deficiency of small cheques or
typical assistances associated with generous bank deposits.
z Using numerous books of account to gather funds that are then transported to the
same foreign beneficiaries.
z Trades with no rational financial determination, that is, no connation among the
action of the group and other parties involved in the operation.
z Intersecting commercial officers, bank parties, or other recognisable comparisons
related with statements, orientations and financial activities.
z Cash withdrawing arrangements in which payments in the US associate straight
with ATM taking out in republics of concern. Reverse dealings of this nature are
also suspicious.
z Allotting cheques, cash orders or other financial instruments, habitually totaled
successively, to the same person or business, or to a person or business whose
name is suggested correspondingly.
It would be challenging to regulate by such action alone whether the specific act was
linked to terrorism or to organised crime. Consequently, these actions must be
inspected in perspective with other issues so as to control a violence financing
connection. Humble dealings can be start to be doubtful and money washing resulting
from violence will classically include examples in which unassuming jobs had been
achieved illuminating links using other countries comprising FATF blacklisted
countries. Certain of the clienteles may have police records, mainly for transferring in
narcotics and weaponries and may be related with distant terrorist sets. The reserves
may have stimulated through a state sponsor of terrorism or a republic where there is a
problem of terrorism. A link with a Politically Exposed Person (PEP) can eventually
tie up to a terrorism financing business. A help may be a connection in the operation.
Accounts (especially student) that only accept periodic credits reserved via ATM over
two months and are inactive at other times could specify that they are suitable active
to make for an attack.
8.4.3 Bank Processes

Along with usual AML panels, banks must emphasis on the CFT angle, via
knowledge resulting from the wide database of case studies now accessible. Banks
must emphasis on not just name matching with authorisations files but also with
additional know your customer (KYC) high-risk files of decent third party sellers.
They must use skills like connection examination to found second and third level
relations that classify dealings as potentially apprehensive from a CFT viewpoint.
Emphasis on avoiding identity theft is an essential part of any CFT package.
148 Recognition rules planned to capture the doubtful activity list assumed above, should
Operations and Aviation Safety be estimated. Panels out of the deal observing process, for instance, account starts by
groups of persons, are also significant to watch for. Any bank i.e. used for terrorism
financing will suffer terrific reputational destruction and also an actual business
influence in terms of share price and exclusive fines. To protect in contradiction of
this, financial institutions acquisition anti-money washing software from corporations
for example Lexis Nexis and C6 along with databases of high risk individuals and
organisations developed by companies such as World Compliance and C6.
1. Recognition rules planned to capture the doubtful activity list assumed
above, should be estimated.
2. Any bank i.e. used for terrorism financing will suffer terrific reputational
destruction and also an actual business influence in terms of share price and
exclusive fines.
3. It would be challenging to regulate by such action alone whether the
specific act was linked to terrorism or to organised crime.
8.5 UNITED NATION ICAO/ECAC

Three U.S. governmental organizations are enthusiastically involved in air travel
safety programmes from side to side co-operation and help. The U.S. Trade and
Development Agency (USTDA) have organised two-sided contracts with China, India
and Brazil for official co-operation in the air travel sector, and have delivered funding
for air travel welfare initiatives. In China, the USTDA is helping air travel workspaces
to offer technical, managerial, safety and operational training for officers from the
Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC) and for airport administrators. These
workspaces let governments from U.S. and China to cooperate on policy, principles
and best practices.
The USTDA also gave an allowance to the Airports Authority of India (AAI) for the
setting up and documentation of a ground-based increase system at Chennai
International Airport. In Brazil, the USTDA is backing the research of a chief
proposal for the growth of a local airport system, comprising reserves for runway
roadway, air map reading equipment and emergency response.
The Department of Transportation, through the Safe Skies for Africa inventiveness,
providing backing to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for an airstrip
security and airport roadway upkeep seminar for sub-Saharan African countries,
hosted by Nigeria.
The Safe Skies for Africa programme is also backing a multi-year flight
weathercasting distance-learning scheme for Africa that will support aeronautical
forecasters meet the future values set by ICAO and the World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO).
The FAA endures to deliver help to the Partner States of the East African Community,
and has posted two FAA aviation safety examiners in Entebbe, Uganda, to deliver
know-how and on-the-job-training.
Fill in the blanks:
1. The Safe Skies for Africa programme is also backing a multi-year flight
weathercasting distance-learning scheme for Africa that will support
Contd…
aeronautical forecasters meet the future values set by ICAO and 149
…………………. Conferences on Air Law
2. In Brazil, the …………………. is backing the research of a chief proposal

for the growth of a local airport system, comprising reserves for runway
roadway, air map reading equipment and emergency response.
3. It would be …………………. to regulate by such action alone whether the
specific act was linked to terrorism or to organised crime.
8.6 LET US SUM UP

Government is taking various steps or measures to reduce as much as they can the
threats that are facing by the travellers in the aviation industry. The governments of
the whole world are coming together in order to avoid all the problems and to
safeguard the commuters so that people feel that they are safe in the airplane and can
have a threat free journey.

Write down the measures taken by the Indian government to avoid any mishap in
airlines like hijacking.
8.8 KEYWORDS
Gross Domestic Product: Gross domestic product (GDP) is the market value of all
officially recognised final goods and services produced within a country in a year, or
other given period of time.
National Development: National development refers to the ability of a country or
countries to improve the social welfare of the people, for example, by providing social
amenities like good education, infrastructure, medical care and social services.
Host Country: A nation in which representatives or organisations of another state are
present because of government invitation and/or international agreement.
ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization.
DGCA: Director General of Civil Aviation.

1. What are the challenges that are faced by the aviation industry?
2. What are the measures that are taken by the government to control the threats
faced by the aviation industry?
3. Give a brief overview of the ministerial conference on the terrorism.
4. Discuss the diplomatic conference on the air law.

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
Contd…
150 CYP 2
Operations and Aviation Safety 1. the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
2. USTDA
3. challenging

Harry A. Kinnison, Aviation Maintenance Management, McGraw Hill
S. Patankar and James C. Taylor Aviation and Airport Security; Terrorism and safety
concerns, CRC Press
IATA Manual on Diploma in Travel and Tourism Management, Ashgate Publishing
Ltd.
151
Hijacking
UNIT 1
UNIT V
152
LESSON 153
Hijacking
9
HIJACKING
CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Aircraft as Missile: Early Hijacking
9.2.1 The Eiffel Tower
9.2.2 Bojinka
9.2.3 World Trade Centre
9.3 Terrorist Hijacking Spread
9.4 Initial Public Response on Hijacking
9.5 Cockpit Doors
9.6 Profiles of Hijackers
9.7 Sky Marshal Program/Federal Air Marshal Program
9.8 Let us Sum up
9.10 Keywords

z Define hijacking
z Understand the effects of hijacking
z Know the consequence of 9/11 hijacking
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Air travel is the development, design, production, process, and use of aircraft,
particularly heavier than air airplane. The term "Aviation" was invented by French
writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1873, from the verb "avier"
(synonymous flying), itself derived from the Latin word "avis" ("bird") and the suffix
"-ation".
Aircraft hijacking is an illegal accomplishment where people grasp control of an
aircraft. It is typically well-thought-out as an action of violence and transfers rigid
punishments in law. Also occasionally well-known as skyjacking, it poses a severe
danger to the security of societies on board the airliner, along with people on the
154 ground. The aim of airplane hijacking is typically danger and fear, rather than robbery
Operations and Aviation Safety of the aircraft.
9.2 AIRCRAFT AS MISSILE: EARLY HIJACKING

9.2.1 The Eiffel Tower
In 1994 an Algerian group hijacked an airliner, probably to smash it into the Eiffel
tower. The aircraft was hijacked in Algiers. But as there is less distance from Algiers
to Paris than the space through the United States, there may be less time to interrupt it
than is offered to interrupt an aeroplane hijacked in this nation state. It would,
consequently, not take many thoughts to handover the situation to the United States.
The Algerian hijackers had located explosives in important parts of the cabin. Though,
there was certain assumption in the mass media grounded on intelligences from a
commuter on-board the plane that the hijackers had deliberated crashing it into the
Eiffel Tower.
The incident is described as follows:
The captive drama instigated on Christmas Eve as Air France Flight 8969 ready for a
flight 11:15 a.m. departure for Paris. Most of the 227 travellers had settled on their
chairs in a nearly happy mood, as they observed joining family and friends for the
holidays. The entering of four armed men in blue attires with Air Algerie
identification marks caused no alarm. Elucidating that they were security agents, the
men continued to check the commuters' passports. Then they all of a sudden locked
the doors. It was criminal they screamed, 'Allah is great!' “recalled a 40-year-old
Algerian-born mechanic now living in France. Three men went in the cockpit; the
fourth controlled the people with his Kalashnikov. No one budged. Then the waiting
started.”
This state activated as a takeover on the ground, formerly, which is everywhere the
plane continued for more than a day. When the plane did depart, it was underneath the
control of the regular crew. The hijackers were misleading into authorising a landing
in Marseilles, in the appearance of a refuelling stop, where the airplane was captured
and the criminals freed.
This is obviously a very dissimilar circumstance to 9/11. The hijack was of the
unoriginal type; the terrorists were not ever going to fly the plane; interruption or
firing down the aeroplane wasn’t a subject at any time.
In place of waiting for a detective to realize a terrorist conspiracy and pass these facts
on to the suitable establishments, the aviation security scheme would be planned to
stop acts and prevent pressures. Failure to implement such a scheme can have dreadful
consequences. The December 1994 hijacking of an Air France flight from Algeria is a
case in point. Anyone who has checked the obverse page of a main newspaper in 1994
would remember that Algeria has been wracked for a number of years by a trend of
awful terrorist violence.
Plentiful of this ferocity has been approved out by fundamental Islamic groups
determined on expelling a worldly government. Anyhow the violence, the French
accepted the old-style method to aviation safety by depending on Algerian
establishments to preserve the suitable level of security. Four hijackers connected with
the Armed Islamic Group, disguised as airport safety executives, grabbed over the Air
France crew. After assassination of three commuters, comprising a French citizen, the
hijackers were permitted to take off and then land in Marseilles, France on December
26. As the condition sustained to weaken French commandos captured the airplane,
released the commuters and crew, and killed the hijackers. The world was horrified
when it cultured the hijackers had employed explosives on board the aero plane,
wished to blow it up in the air above Paris. Only in the aftermath of the hijacking and
narrowly prevented mid-air kamikaze attack on Paris did French safety executives 155
make tighter security on flights between Algeria and France and declare their right to Hijacking
observe Algerian and the airline compliance.
9.2.2 Bojinka
In early 1995, Abdul Hakim Murad Ramzi Yousef’s accomplice in the Manila air
company bombing plot said Philippine establishments that he and Yousef had
conversed flying an airplane into CIA headquarters”. This is occasionally estimated as
however it cancels NORAD all on its own, though, as we've seen, Myers told the 9/11
Commission he was aware of the plot:
Gen. Myers: I think it was rejected, and General Eberhart can be clearer on this, I
don't think it was by the commander, I think it was by the planning group that was
meeting because it did not fit the scenario at the time. But, the use of aircraft as a
weapon, as a missile, other than World War II and the Kamikaze situation, I'm not
aware, and I've tried to research this, and the best information I get, I am not aware
that an aircraft has ever been used as a weapon. Now, there have been landings on the
White House lawn, there was a landing in Red Square, there have been lots of stupid
things. There was talk about crashing airplanes into the CIA. But, in most of that
threat reporting leading up to 9/11, it was hijacking an airplane and in the normal
hijack mode, not in the mode of a weapon.
Nowadays, there were certain talks about in post hijack circumstances where they
spoke to about persons over the difficulties were completed that they were successful
to crash, one example, into the Eiffel Tower, but even the exertion that was completed
and the hijackings that were premeditated for the Philippines, which is a well-known
plan, they prearranged to hijack the aircrafts and setback them up mainly.
In addition, this story doesn’t fully satisfy Dr Griffin’s condition for denying
NORAD. It surely comprised suicide pilots, but how the additional stage might have
explained isn't completely clear. The option of hijacking profitable aircrafts was
reported later:
"Murad narrated to us about a plan by the Ramzi cell in the continental U.S. to hijack
a commercial plane and ram it into the CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, and
also the Pentagon," said Rodolfo Mendoza, a Philippine intelligence investigator.
Philippine investigators also found evidence targeting commercial towers in San
Francisco, Chicago and New York City.
However, this second phase may also not have involved hijacking, or commercial jets,
at all:
The Bojinka process named for a second, possibly even further determined phase, as
interrogators learned when they pushed Murad around his pilot's license. All those
ages in aircraft school, he admitted, had been in grounding for a recklessness mission.
There were minor targets the terrorists desired hit: U.S. Congress, the White House,
the Pentagon and possibly some towers. The only problematic, Murad protested, was
that they wanted more proficient pilots to transport out the plot.
9.2.3 World Trade Centre

In August of 1998, the intelligence public had established figures that a group of
Libyans wanted to bang an airplane into the World Trade Center (344-345). The
Command does not clearly say that the airplane would be hijacked from within the
United States, but it also does not openly say otherwise.
This isn’t accurately a whole opinion of the claim. The full judgement in the report,
for example, simply says "In August of the same year, the intellect public had
established info that a group of Libyans wanted to smash a plane into the World Trade
156 Center". No reference of hijacking at this time. A note from the 9/11 Commission
Operations and Aviation Safety report tells us more:
For the August report, see Intelligence report, "Terrorism: Alleged Threat by Arab
Terrorists to Attack the World Trade Center in New York," Aug. 12, 1998. An FAA
civil aviation security official supposed the strategy was unlikely as Libyan airplanes
were vital to operate within boundaries restrictions and the Libyans did not retain
aircraft with the essential range to brand good on the threat. Jack S. interview (June
13, 2004). On September 30, 1999, the FAA shut the file on the August report after
examination could not verify the report, and the source's trustworthiness was believed
suspect. Dr Griffin pays no attention to the discovery that this claim might not be
supported, and the source wasn’t believed to be reliable. This example fails Dr
Griffin’s test, then, as it isn’t essentially about hijacking, or profitable aircrafts, or
trips that created within the United States. It does comprise the danger of using
airplanes as arms, but this is reduced by the fact that it could not be supported. And if
the source wasn’t believed trustworthy then it’s hard to see why NORAD (or anyone
else) should have taken this particularly seriously.
9.3 TERRORIST HIJACKING SPREAD

Terrorism, the regular use of strength or threat of ferocity by prearranged sets to
accomplish particular goals, which may be administrative, spiritual, or philosophical,
to generate fear. Numerous terrorists are possessed by new actions that pursue to carry
a change in the government or overthrowing the administration to attain freedom.
Some seek to gain courtesy and provision for definite political attitudes or religious
ideas. Terrorist actions may be absorbed contrary to individuals, organizations, or
governments who are in contradiction of their reasons. Terrorists typically snatch or
kill commercial managers, diplomats, judges, police, and political leaders.
Places of devotion for example mosques, churches, synagogues, buses, trains,
airplanes, and nightclubs are also criticized by terrorists. Techniques used comprise
bombings, releasing harmful chemicals murder, torture, kidnapping, hijacking, and
biological materials and damage of property. The fresher approaches comprise
computer grounded terrorism and weapons of mass damage. In a suicide terror
campaign, a terrorist explodes explosives though wearing them in a public area, with
the intent of killing the people near. The terrorist in irresponsibility bombings takes
away his own life although leading the attack.
Homicides or kidnappings of key administration officers or other significant persons
are focused at making fear. Occasionally, terrorists also kidnap people and grip them
hostage until their stresses are met. Tourists are also criticized by terrorists to depress
others from travel.
Chemical attacks include planned release of damaging chemicals. Some chemicals
agents disturb the nervous system and can cause paralysis or even death. Others cause
injury to the nose, throat, skin, eyes or lungs. Some of the dangerous chemicals are
mustard gas which causes burns and blindness; hydrogen cyanide which is
occasionally used to perform criminals; and sarin which is an unsafe nerve gas.
Terrorists may try to steal, buy or produce chemical armaments and scatter them later
in occupied areas. Like the biological weapons, these weapons are also problematic
for terrorists to prepare and use.
Nuclear attacks have not ever taken place as of the government’s watchfulness to keep
the nuclear resources out of the reach of the terrorists. Counterterrorism experts on the
other hand, have analysed how in years to come terrorists might practice the nuclear
weapons or radioactive materials to transfer out nuclear attacks.
Computer-based terrorism or cyber terrorism refers to the disturbance of computer
information systems. Cyber terrorists may plan or socialize computer viruses to
disruption computer processes and destroy data. Cyber terrorists may also try to steal 157
or change imperative information, or to outbreak systems that deliver vital services. Hijacking
Other forms of terrorism may comprise any other form of strength or pressures of
ferocity to cause panic. Some managements use terrorist techniques like torture and
slaughter to scare opposition and increase their authority. These intense methods used
by the oppressive governments are recognized as state terrorism or state-conducted
terrorism. War crimes, killing, or any other worldwide destruction may come under
acts of terror.
Though individuals may conduct terrorist actions like bombings or delivery of
computer viruses, violence is usually working by prearranged networks or radical
groups in contradiction of recognized governments to find changes in policies, to
force the release of confined members of their governments, or to gain the care of the
update media. Numerous groups may function in one state or region. Others have
splits and processes in several nations. Guerilla warfare is a mutual tactic accepted by
the terrorists who cannot equivalent the power of military forces. It comprises attacks
by roaming groups of fighters who torment opponents with traps, bombings,
unforeseen raids, and other hit-and-run plans. The fighters intermingle with normal
citizens, attack abruptly, and try to avoid imprisonment. They may try to paralyze the
economy by defeating bridges, dams, telephone networks, or other significant
constructions or services. By doing so, they faith the overall public would misplace
their sense of security and their self-reliance in their administration or establishment.
All terrorist acts are well-thought-out crimes in the worldwide law. Many countries
fight terrorism by attaining figures or intelligence, by complaining up security at
airports, government offices, and other important buildings, and by cooperating with
global organizations and other countries facing terror threats. Special armed and law
implementation units are also ready by some countries to control terrorist attacks.
Activities planned to stop violence are called counterterrorism. Terrorism is chiefly
active for small sets with inadequate military and monetary resources, for example,
Kurd, Chechen Tamil, Basque, and Palestinian organizations have used terrorism.
There are on the other hand, some groups with global linkages that conduct terror
assaults in different parts of the world. Al-Qaida is one such big terror group which
wishes to approve the objectives of Islamic extremists. Religious fanatics of various
faiths use terrorism. Eco-terrorists like the Earth Liberation Front and the Animal
Liberation Front use terrorism in contradiction of lumber corporations and research
laboratory that manner research on animals to complaint the misappropriation of
natural resources and nature. The foundations of backing for the terrorist groups are
mainly indefinite. Some governments covertly deliver aid in the form of training,
weapons, and money to the terrorist. Money is also raised up through illegal activities
such as, theft or drug trafficking. In other cases, the terrorist groups use forged
communal service establishments to protect large contributions from ignorant donors.
Counterterrorism refers to a number of actions. Governments collect and analyse
evidence about doubted terrorists and terrorist groups. They spot possible terrorist
pressures and grow a wide variety of safety actions and emergency procedures.
Numerous countries turn down any cooperation with terrorists or countries that
funding terrorists. United States Department of Homeland Security and the United
Kingdom Security Services (MI5) are the noticeable nationwide security service area
established to counter terrorism. They get provision from intelligence services, like
Israel’s Mossad, the United Kingdom Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), and the U.S.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). International organizations such as the United
Nations (UN) and Interpol assist nations to counter terrorism.
Most governments defend likely terrorist marks, like airports, public meetings, and
government structures by involving real security systems and events as well as skilled
individual security. Tight security at airports and aircrafts can help in evading hijacks
158 and other terror outbreaks. Passengers frequently pass through numerous airport
Operations and Aviation Safety barriers. Guards search baggage and other items, and they may search travellers
before allowing them board the plane. Protected cockpit doors and armed air officers
are typically involved in safety measures on the airplanes.
Skyscrapers, administration structures, and numerous other buildings have corporal
barriers to keep cars or trucks from getting closer. Many buildings also have metallic
attackers or security checkpoints to sense dangerous constituents and to stop illegal
people from entering. Cameras are connected at packed places to shot people’s faces
and try to match them with pictures of doubted terrorists.
Cyber terrorism can be attempted with the assistance of safety events such as antivirus
sequencers and electronic barriers called firewalls. New technology would progress
with time to stand cyber terrorism more efficiently. One of the vital aspects of cyber
terrorism is safety of significant sites. In some cases on the other hand, target
hardening may cause objective movement which may cause the terrorists to handover
their strategies to other soft targets that are not appropriately endangered.
One of the main methods by which terrorism can be answered is through assistance
between organizations and governments. The UN and other worldwide activities assist
in the advancement of this cooperation. Numerous treaties and arrangements have
been in place to control terrorism. The extradition agreements, for example, let people
related to terrorism in one country to be prevented in another country and transported
back for trial. The global public may separate or punish countries, which deliver
provision to terrorism. Economic authorizations could be executed on such countries
till they change their rule on terrorism. Just in case sanctions and diplomatic pressure
fail, armed attacks on terror camps may also be launched.
In the early 20th century, terrorist approaches came to be recycled quite broadly by
the dictators Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy, and Joseph Stalin of
Soviet Union. In the late 20th century, General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte took over
Chile as an army dictator. Under his rule, over 3,000 Chileans left or were killed, and
numerous others tortured. A number of demanding governments still use state
terrorism to terrify and control the population.
Terrorist groups and movements have used strength to realize their objectives. The Ku
Klux Klan, an American group, has used terrorism to face the progression of African
Americans, Jews, and other minorities since the late 19th century. Roman Catholics in
Northern Ireland have used violence to put an end to British rule and to unite Northern
Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. Simultaneously, the Protestant extremists have
used terrorism to request for the continuance of the British rule.
The demand for an independent Basque state in Spain saw the emergence of a group
named Euskadi ta Askatasuna (Basque Homeland and Freedom), abbreviated ETA,
which used violence to meet its demand. In Chechnya, rebels have taken up terrorism
to gain independence from Russia. The rebel groups have taken hostages and carried
out suicide bombings against Russian targets.
Throughout the late 20th century, a number of terrorist groups functioned for the
damage of the political and monetary systems in their native land and the growth of
new political systems. Among these were the Red Brigades in Italy and the Red Army
faction or the Baader-Meinhof Gang in West Germany. Since the late 20th century,
Peru has witnessed attacks by Leftist terrorist groups called Shining Path and the
Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement.
A number of terrorist attacks have spiritual motives instead of political ones. In 1995,
12 people were destroyed and thousands wounded when the members of a Japanese
religious cult unconstrained the nerve gas sarin into the Tokyo Subway system.
Check Your Progress 1 159
Hijacking
1. A number of terrorist attacks have spiritual motives instead of political
ones.
2. Terrorist groups and movements have used strength to realize their
objectives.
3. Cyber terrorism can be attempted with the assistance of safety events such
as antivirus sequencers and electronic barriers called firewalls.
4. One of the main methods by which terrorism can be answered is through
assistance between organizations and governments.
5. Most governments defend likely terrorist marks, like airports, public
meetings, and government structures by involving real security systems and
events as well as skilled individual security.
9.4 INITIAL PUBLIC RESPONSE ON HIJACKING

9/11 Attacks: U.S. Reaction
Temporarily, people rotated to their faith to help them make sense of the attacks. "We
join with our fellow Americans in request for the murdered and injured," the imam at
the Al-Abidin mosque in Queens told his congregation. At the Washington National
Cathedral, the Reverend Billy Graham implored his listeners "not to collapse and
collapse emotionally and mentally as a people and a state" but to "choose to become
stronger through the entire struggle to rebuild on a solid foundation." And at Grace
Church in Manhattan, the Reverend Bert Breiner asked parishioners to "please go
forth into this world with love as though everything depended on it, because as we
now know, everything does depend on it. Americans tried to bolster the rescue effort
in any way they could. Cities and towns sent firefighters and EMTs to Ground Zero.
Lines to donate blood at Red Cross offices and other blood banks were incredibly
long–an entire day's wait in Madison, Wisconsin. New and established charities raised
money for the victims and rescue workers. It was possible to donate to the Red Cross
with just one click on Amazon.com, and the organization raised $3 million that way in
just two days.
But for some Americans, their grief manifested itself as anger and frustration, and
they looked for someone to blame for the attacks. Reverend Jerry Falwell made news
by saying on his television program "The 700 Club" that "I really believe that the
pagans, and the abortionists, and the feminists, and the gays and the lesbians who are
actively trying to make that an alternative lifestyle, the ACLU, People for the
American Way–all of them who have tried to secularize America–I point the finger in
their face and say, 'You helped this happen.'" And sadly, some anger erupted into
attacks on people of Arab and Muslim descent, with nearly 600 incidents in the first
10 days after the attacks. Five hundred furious people mobbed a Chicago-area mosque
and refused to leave until they were forced out by police. A Pakistani grocer was
murdered in Texas. A man on an anti-Arab rampage in Arizona fatally shot a gas
station owner who was an Indian-born Sikh. FBI Director Robert Mueller said over
and over again that "vigilante attacks and threats against Arab-Americans will not be
tolerated," but harassment and violence at mosques and in Arab-American
neighbourhoods continued for months.
Political leaders urged calm and promised aid. New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani,
who rose to national prominence thanks to his leadership in the wake of the attacks,
urged decisive action against terrorism and encouraged New Yorkers to try to return
to their normal lives. He appeared on "Saturday Night Live" with several firefighters
160 on September 29 (in the opening monologue, Lorne Michaels asked if it was okay to
Operations and Aviation Safety be funny at such a sad time; Giuliani replied, "Why start now?") and orchestrated a
major promotional campaign designed to lure tourists back to his beleaguered city.
New York Governor George Pataki activated the state's Emergency Operations
Center; created a new Office of Public Safety to check on the state's bridges, tunnels
and water supplies; and won bipartisan support for a plan to establish a Lower
Manhattan Development Corporation and a state-run World Trade Center Relief Fund.
Meanwhile, President George Bush was able to win a broad mandate to act in the
nation's defense. In a speech on September 20, he asked citizens to be "calm and
resolute, even in the face of a continuing threat" and promised that the United States
would triumph over terrorism–"stop it, eliminate it, destroy it where it grows." After
the United States began military operations in Afghanistan in October, the president's
approval rating soared to 90 per cent. Congressional leaders responded too: They
passed a $40 billion disaster relief bill in September and, the next year, the USA
Patriot Act, which gave investigators a great deal of leeway in their domestic
surveillance activities and made immigration laws more stringent.
Despite such anti-terrorist measures, many Americans continued to feel uneasy.
According to a study in the New England Journal of Medicine, nearly half of all
Americans reported symptoms of stress and depression after the attacks. Many
thousands of Americans lost loved ones on September 11. Millions more watched the
unrelenting news coverage of the attacks, looked at the wrenching photographs in the
newspaper and listened to heart-breaking interviews with firefighters, survivors and
relatives of victims, feeling that, at least in some small way, the trauma of the day was
theirs too. Memorials, commemorative ceremonies and time have helped many to
begin to heal, but for others the shock and horror of that day in September remains
painfully fresh.
9/11 Attacks: International Reaction

"Today," the French newspaper Le Monde announced on September 12, 2001, "we are
all Americans." People around the world agreed: The terrorist attacks of the previous
day had felt like attacks on everyone, everywhere. They provoked an unprecedented
expression of shock, horror, solidarity and sympathy for the victims and their families.
Citizens of 78 countries died in New York, Washington, D.C., and Pennsylvania on
September 11, and people around the world mourned lost friends and neighbours.
They held candlelight vigils. They donated money and goods to the Red Cross and
other rescue and relief organizations. Flowers piled up in front of American
embassies. Cities and countries commemorated the attacks in a variety of ways: The
Queen Mother sang the American national anthem at Buckingham Palace's Changing
of the Guard, while in Brazil, Rio de Janeiro put up huge billboards that showed the
city's famous Christ the Redeemer statue embracing the New York City skyline.
Even leaders of countries that did not tend to get along terribly well with the
American government expressed their sorrow and dismay. The Cuban foreign minister
offered airspace and airports to American planes. Chinese and Iranian officials sent
their condolences. And the Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat, visibly dismayed, told
reporters in Gaza that the attacks were "unbelievable, unbelievable, unbelievable."
"We completely condemn this very dangerous attack," he said, "and I convey my
condolences to the American people, to the American president and to the American
administration."
On September 12, the 19 ambassadors of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) declared that the attack on the United States was an attack on all of the
member nations. This statement of solidarity was mostly symbolic–NATO did not
authorize any specific military action–but it was still unprecedented. It was the first
time that the organization had ever invoked the mutual defense section of its charter
(intended to protect vulnerable European nations from Soviet invasion during the Cold 161
War). NATO eventually sent five airplanes to help keep an eye on American airspace. Hijacking
Likewise, on September 12 the United Nations Security Council called on all nations
to "redouble their efforts" to thwart and prosecute terrorists. Two weeks later, it
passed another resolution that urged states to "suppress the financing of terrorism" and
to aid in any anti-terrorism campaigns.
But these declarations of support and solidarity didn't mean that other countries gave
the United States a free hand to retaliate however, and against whomever, it pleased.
Allies and adversaries alike urged caution, warning that an indiscriminate or
disproportionate reaction could alienate Muslims around the world. In the end, almost
30 nations pledged military support to the United States, and many more offered other
kinds of cooperation. Most agreed with George Bush that, after September 11, the
fight against terrorism was "the world's fight."
9.5 COCKPIT DOORS

After 9/11, the FAA instructed new, thicker, bulletproof doors for airline cockpits
across the U.S. profitable air fleet. All commercial airliners now have them installed.
While encouraged doors are a dramatic improvement, associated to before existing
ones, they are far from a panacea against a motivated terrorist team.
z Soon after 9/11, an original, encouraged cockpit door was penetrated by a drunken
passenger on a worldwide flight.
z A few months later, an after-hours housework crew effortlessly broke one off its
hinges on a bet, by organisation a heavy snack cart into it, rapidly attainment
access to the cockpit.
z Some intercontinental flights are up to six hours from the adjacent point of
landing in a crisis, if ample time for a terrorist team to work on breaking the door.
Flight Attendants must also be capable of gain access to the arena in order to do their
jobs. It is indeed easy to appreciate how a flight associated with a knife at his or her
throat, and under threat of a horrifying death or torture, might give a terrorist
admittance to the cockpit, although being trained not to.
On all but a tiny fraction of airliners, the encouraged cockpit door is all that stands
among a terrorist and anther 9/11. An unprotected flight crew would find it difficult to
retain control of the aircraft once the cockpit has been breached.
The dependability of an encouraged door in avoiding terror attack is 15%, if the
terrorists exploit its intrinsic weaknesses, which we expect they will do.
9.6 PROFILES OF HIJACKERS

The hijackers in the September 11 attacks were 19 men associated with al-Qaeda, and
15 of the 19 were citizens of Saudi Arabia. Others were from Egypt, Lebanon, and the
UAE. The hijackers were prearranged into four teams, each commanded by a pilot-
trained hijacker with four "muscle hijackers" who were skilled to help reduce the
passengers, pilots, and crew.
The first hijackers to reach in the United States were Khalid al-Mihdhar and Nawaf al-
Hazmi, who established in the San Diego area in January 2000. They were tracked by
three hijacker-pilots, Mohamed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi, and Ziad Jarrah early in the
summer of 2000 to take on flight preparation in South Florida. The fourth hijacker-
pilot, Hani Hanjour, arrived in San Diego in December 2000. The rest of the "muscle
hijackers" arrived in the spring and early summer of 2001.
162 The 2001 attacks were headed by the fewer famous Bojinka plot which was intended
Operations and Aviation Safety in the Philippines by Ramzi Yousef (of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing) and
Khalid Shaikh Mohammed. Its aim was to blow up twelve airliners and their roughly
4,000 commuters as they flew from Asia to the United States. The plan comprised
deafening a plane into the CIA headquarters, prominent credence that Khalid Shaikh
Mohammed changed this plot into the September 11 attacks. The plot was disturbed in
January 1995 after a biochemical fire drew the Filipino police and investigation
authorities' attention, consequential in the capture of one terrorist and removal of a
laptop comprising the plans. One person was killed in the course of the plot — a
Japanese passenger seated near a nitroglycerin bomb on Philippine Airlines Flight
434. The money given down to the conspirators originated from Al-Qaeda, the
worldwide Islamic jihadi organization then based in Sudan.
Khalid al-Mihdhar and Nawaf al-Hazmi were both practiced and valued jihadists in
the eyes of al-Qaeda leader, Osama bin Laden. Mihdhar and Hazmi both had previous
experience fighting in Bosnia, and had accomplished during the 1990s at camps in
Afghanistan. When Bin Laden dedicated to the September 11 attacks plot indication,
he allocated both Mihdhar and Hazmi to the plot. Both were so keen to join in
processes within the United States, that they got visas in April 1999. Once carefully
chosen, Mihdhar and Hazmi were sent to the Mes Aynak training camp in
Afghanistan. In late 1999, Hazmi, Attash, and Yemeni went to Karachi, Pakistan to
see Mohammed, who taught them on Western culture and travel; however, Mihdhar
did not go to Karachi, in its place returning to Yemen.
As for the aviators who would go on to take part in the attacks, three of them were
unique members of the Hamburg cell (Mohammed Atta, Marwan al-Shehhi and Ziad
Jarrah). Following their training at Al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan, they were
selected by Osama Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda's military wing because of their
widespread knowledge of western culture and language skills, growing the mission's
working safety and its probabilities for achievement. The fourth planned pilot, Ramzi
bin al-Shibh, a member of the Hamburg cell, was also chosen to participate in the
attacks yet remained incapable to get a visa for admission into the United States. He
was future interchanged by Hani Hanjour, a Saudi national.
Origins of the 19 hijackers
Nationality Number
Saudi Arabia 15
United Arab Emirates 2
Egypt 1
Lebanon 1
Beforehand the attacks, FBI agent Robert Wright, Jr. had written vigorous criticisms
of FBI's alleged incompetence in investigating terrorists residing within the United
States. Wright was amount of the Bureau's Chicago counter-terrorism mission force
and involved in project Vulgar Betrayal which was connected to Yasin al-Qadi.
Conferring to James Bamford, the NSA had nominated communications of al-
Mihdhar and al-Hazmi back in 1999, but had been hindered by core administrative
struggles between itself and the CIA, and did not do a complete examination of the
info it passed on to the agency. According to the 9/11 Commission Report, 26 al-
Qaeda terrorist conspirators attempted to enter the United States to carry out a suicide
mission. In the end, the FBI reported that there were 19 hijackers in all: five on three
of the flights, and four on the fourth. On September 14, three days after the attacks,
the FBI announced the names of 19 persons. After a controversy about an earlier
remark, U.S. Homeland Secretary Janet Napolitano stated in May 2009 that the 9/11
Commission found that none of the hijackers entered the United States through 163
Canada. Hijacking
Nawaf al-Hazmi and Hani Hanjour, attended the Dar al-Hijrah Islamic Center in Falls
Church, Virginia in early April 2001 where the Imam Anwar al-Awlaki preached.
Through interviews with the FBI, it was discovered that Awlaki had previously met
Nawaf al-Hazmi several times while the two lived in San Diego. At the time, Hazmi
was living with Khalid al-Mihdhar, another 9/11 hijacker. The hijackers of the same
plane often had very strong ties as many of them attended school together or lived
together prior to the attacks.
Cases of Mistaken Identity

Soon after the attacks and before the FBI had unrestricted the portraits of all the
hijackers, numerous reports seemed claiming that certain of the men termed as
hijackers on 9/11 were alive and were feared to have been victims of identity theft.
9.7 SKY MARSHAL PROGRAM/FEDERAL AIR MARSHAL

PROGRAM
Federal Air marshals were first working by the United States in the 1970s, under the
Sky Marshal program, when hijacking of airplanes to Cuba had become common.
Today, the renamed Federal Air marshal program employs distinct government agents
who travel incognito as ordinary passengers on routes measured high-risk. They are
approved to carry firearms and to make seizures without warrants.
According to the Transportation Security Administration:
The Federal Air Marshal Service promotes confidence in the nation’s civil aviation
system through the effective deployment of Federal Air Marshals (FAMs) to detect,
deter, and defeat hostile acts targeting U.S. air carriers, airports, passengers, and
crews.
Federal Air Marshals must operate independently without backup, and rank among
those Federal law enforcement officers that hold the highest standard for handgun
accuracy. They blend in with passengers and rely on their training, including
investigative techniques, criminal terrorist behaviour recognition, firearms
proficiency, aircraft specific tactics, and close quarters self-defense measures to
protect the flying public.
Federal Air Marshals have an ever expanding role in homeland security and work
closely with other law enforcement agencies to accomplish their mission. Currently,
air marshals staff several positions at different organizations such as the National
Counterterrorism Center, the National Targeting Center, and on the FBI’s Joint
Terrorism Task Forces. In addition, they are also distributed among other law
enforcement and homeland security liaison assignments during times of heightened
alert or special national events.
On January first, 1914, eleven years after the Wright brothers’ creation of the first
airplane, pilot Tony Jannus conducted the United States’ first commercial airline
flight. The 23-minute flight travelled from St. Petersburg, Florida, to Tampa,
maintaining an average height of 50 feet carrying just one passenger (Flightglobal).
Jannus and his passenger stepped directly onto the plane without spending a single
minute being searched for potentially dangerous items. 35 years later at the dawn of
the Jet Age, when the world was already well into commercial aviation, passenger
screening was still virtually non-existent—those were the days when you could arrive
at the airport half an hour before your flight and kiss your family goodbye at the gate.
Now, arriving at the airport two hours in advance gives you just enough time to make
your flight. Rather than walking straight to your gate with minimal security screening,
164 you have to submit to full-body scans, send all your bags through an x-ray machine,
Operations and Aviation Safety take off your shoes, and throw away liquids, among a plethora of other regulations.
Quite a polar change from 60 years ago. So what happened in between that spurred
this process of such radical changes?
Hijackings, Bombings, Terrorist attacks, Hostage situations. Threats to safety that date
back to the first U.S. plane hijacking in 1931. But there is no single event that caused
every change in the system; rather, there were several key incidents that prompted fast
and extreme action in the security department. World War II, the numerous hijackings
of 1972, the September 11 Al Qaeda attacks, and several individuals’ plots in the
years following 9/11 were all events that resulted in a paradigm shift of the world’s
view on what was necessary to keep air travellers safe.
World War I
The profitable air travel industry leaped to life after World War I, when the end of the
war gives rise to in a surplus of new engines and aircraft. Anyone could own a plane
and didn’t even need a pilot’s license (Heppenheimer, 5). In 1921 reforms were
instituted that required pilots to have 500 practice hours in the air and pass a
succeeding exam as well as meet medical requirements (Heppenheimer, 10). These
were the first footsteps taken in the aviation business to progress the security of flight.
But real modifications did not come about until post-WWII. Associated to today’s
security events, those of the 1950s were minimal. But compared to what was literally
nothing before WWII, security measures were considered enhanced. Though there
were no physical transmission devices, workers began examining baggage and
passengers that seemed “suspicious” in any way (Thayer, 55). Conversely, the
changes were due extra to the public’s overall nervousness and the rising Cold War
with Russia, rather than in response to WWII, as there were no direct attacks on
commercial airlines.
September 11th Al Qaeda Attack

September 11, 2001. The Pearl Harbor of the 21st century. An event so sad that every
single child identifies that date, knows at least the basics of what occurred. 19 Al
Qaeda terrorists hijacked four American flights, colliding one into each tower of the
World Trade Center, one into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., and commuters who
fought back against the terrorists on the fourth plane (intended to destroy the White
House) brought down the last hijacked plane in Somerset County, Pennsylvania
(Sweet, 96). 2977 people died that day. That such a radical attack could flourish was a
main mistake in the United States’ security, for which the U.S. instantly compensated.
A new division of federal security, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA),
was designed to supervise security for all modes of travel and directly took action. All
U.S. airports began selection 100% of checked baggage; passengers were exposed to
much more thorough screening processes; valid identification became needed to fly;
cockpit doors were held together and bulletproofed; and passenger summarizing,
which will be addressed later, was taken up a notch (Flightglobal).
Recent Hijackings
The last specific hijackings and bombings conversed will be those accountable for
today’s main, and most problematic security measures. Luckily these efforts were all
foiled, but only after the committer passed security. The first is Richard Reid’s try to
destroy a passenger liner from Paris to Miami using shoes crowded with explosives on
December 22, 2001. In response, passengers need now eliminate their shoes and show
them through the x-ray machine along with their bags when flying on planes (Engle).
Next, on August 9, 2006, a plot to concurrently blow up numerous 10 U.S.-bound
passenger jets with liquid explosives hidden in carry-on luggage was blocked with the
arrest of 24 suspects (Anderson and DeYoung). This too-close incident caused the 165
TSA to ban carrying on any amount of liquids larger than three ounces. Hijacking
The last incident is the Nigerian underclothing bomber on Northwest Flight 253 from
Amsterdam to Detroit on December 25, 2009. After the passenger tried to set off
plastic explosives masked in his underclothing, the TSA mounted about 500
Advanced Imaging Technology units, or full-body scanners, to screen passengers for
both metal and non-metallic fears. Passengers who decline full-body scanning are
given advanced pat down procedures (Engle). The following timeline briefly
summarizes the main turning points in the development of airline security and their
causes.
Source: http://www.personal.psu.edu/~users/b/g/bgr5040/Extend%20pics.html
Effect outside of the aviation industry

All of this is evidence that a paradigm shift occurred—but what effect does this have
on anything other than the aviation industry? The technique of passenger profiling is
an area of debate because “racial minorities repeatedly complain that they are unfairly
singled out for question and searches” (Sweet, 457). And some argue that certain
safety procedures are a violation of privacy and personal rights. That security has
continued developing despite these debates shows how the paradigm shift in airport
security also caused shifts in other areas, such as what policies are considered racially
acceptable and justified.
Passenger Profiling
The question of security is further debated when it comes to the preparation of
passenger profiling. Passenger profiling is designed to detect certain patterns and
behaviours that identify a traveller as needing closer scrutiny. Valid explanations for
such labelling could be religious ethnic, economic, or ideological (Sweet, 457). And
as estimated, labelling someone as a possible terrorist as of their religion or ethnicity
is offensive and unfairly discriminatory. In 2000 airlines began using the Computer
Assisted Passenger Screening (CAPS) system to collect and screen the information
that commuters deliver for explanations unconnected to security, such as name,
telephone number, method and date of payment. However, despite the potential for
refinement, the system of classifying types of travellers is still used, though it is not
trusted on as heavily as in the late 20th century since terrorists knowledgeable to spoil
the system, taking events to make sure they blend in.
1. The ………………….. promotes confidence in the nation’s civil aviation
system through the effective deployment of Federal Air Marshals (FAMs)
to detect, deter, and defeat hostile acts targeting U.S. air carriers, airports,
passengers, and crews.
2. The technique of ………………….. is an area of debate because “racial
minorities repeatedly complain that they are unfairly singled out for
question and searches”.
3. Federal Air marshals were first working by the United States in the 1970s,
under the Sky Marshal program, when ………………….. to Cuba had
become common.
9.8 LET US SUM UP

Hijacking is one of the most serious crimes in every country all over the world. As
this can create a serious problem in a country, government is taking various measures
in order to avoid this. The history of the hijacking is very interesting. It made us to
understand the various ways to stop the hijacking as it is most hated crime. It not only
disturb the functioning of the government but also it make the people scared of
transportation industry though it is the most convenient way to travel all over the
world.

Have a discussion on the topic of people reactions on the hijacking.
9.10 KEYWORDS
AGM: It is a meeting that official bodies, and associations involving the general
public, are often required by law to hold.
Aviation: It is the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft,
especially heavier-than-air aircraft.
Cargo: It is goods or produce transported, generally for commercial gain, by ship or
aircraft, although the term is now extended to intermodal train, van or truck. In
modern times, containers are used in most long-haul cargo transport.
Clearing House: It is a financial institution that provides clearing and settlement
services for financial and commodities derivatives and securities transactions.
Governance: It is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations,
grant power, or verify performance.

1. What are the steps taken by the government to stop hijacking?
2. Give an overview on the history of the hijacking since 1972.
3. Explain the profile of hijacker in the 9/11 attack.
4. What is cockpit door?
5. Explain air marshal program.
Check Your Progress: Model Answers 167
Hijacking
CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
4. True
5. True
CYP 2
1. Federal Air Marshal Service
2. passenger profiling
3. hijacking of airplanes

Pvt. Ltd.
Forum.
168
LESSON
10
TERRORISM
CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Terrorism: Middle East
10.2.1 Middle Eastern Terrorist Groups and the Use of Information Technology
10.3 Rival Claim
10.4 Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)
10.5 Abu Nidal
10.6 Hamas
10.7 Iranian Support of Terrorism
10.7.1 Hezbollah
10.8 Afghanistan: Osama Bin Laden
10.8.1 Osama and the 9/11
10.9 Europe
10.9.1 Japan
10.9.2 Peru
10.9.3 Russia
10.10 US: Domestic Terrorism
10.10.1 Terrorist organizations
10.11 Nuclear Terrorism
10.11.1 Scope
10.12 Let us Sum up
10.14 Keywords

z Discuss Middle East terrorism
z Describe Palestine Liberation Organization
z Explain Iranian support of terrorism
z Know about Osama bin Laden 169
Terrorism
z Describe US domestic terrorism and nuclear terrorism
10.1 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson you will study about the Middle East terrorism, Palestine Liberation
Organization and about Abu Nidal and Hamas. Further you will study about Iranian
support of terrorism, Hezbollah, Osama bin Laden from Afghanistan, terrorism
activities in Europe, Japan, Peru and US domestic terrorism and the nuclear terrorism.
10.2 TERRORISM: MIDDLE EAST

Terrorist groups in the Middle East have diverse origins, philosophies, and
organisational structures, but can be roughly categorised into traditional group and
new-generation groups. Traditional groups date back to the late 1960s and early
1970s, and the majority of these were (and some still are) formally or informally
linked to the PLO. Usually, they are also relatively bureaucratic and maintain a
nationalist or collective agenda. On the other hand, most new-generation groups came
into existence during the 1980s and 1990s, and comprise more fluid organisational
forms, and trust on Islam as a basis for their essential belief.
The traditional, more bureaucratic groups have survived to this day somewhat by
support from states for instance Iran, Syria and Libya. The groups retain an ability to
train and prepare for terrorist missions; though, their participation in real actions has
been limited in recent years, relatively owing to successful counterterrorism
movements by Western agencies and Israelis. While on the other hand, the newer and
less hierarchical groups, such as Hamas, the Egyptian Islamic Group (IG), Hizbullah,
Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ), Algeria’s Armed Islamic Group (GIA), and Osama bin
Laden’s Arab Afghans, have turn out to be the most active organizations in and
around the Middle East.
The Traditional terrorist groups in the Middle East take account of the Popular Front
for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), the Abu Nidal Organisation (ANO) and three
PFLP-related splinters—
1. The PFLP-General Command (PFLP-GC),
2. The Palestine Liberation Front (PLF), and
3. The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP).
The Abu Nidal Organisation was an integral part of the PLO until it became
independent in 1974. It has a bureaucratic structure composed of many functional
committees. The activism it displayed in the 1970s and 1980s has lessened
considerably, owing to a lessening of support from state sponsors and to effective
counterterrorist campaigns by Israeli and Western intelligence services. The very
existence of the organization has recently been put into question, given uncertainty as
to the whereabouts and fate of Abu Nidal, the leader of the group. George Habash as a
PLO-affiliated organization founded the PFLP in 1967. It has traditionally embraced a
Marxist ideology, and remains an important PLO faction. However, in recent years it
has suffered considerable losses from Israeli counterterrorist strikes. The PFLP-
General Command split from the PFLP in 1968, and in turn experienced a schism in
the mid-1970s. This splinter group, which called itself the Palestine Liberation Front,
is composed of three subgroups, and has not been involved in high-profile acts since
the 1985 hijacking of the Italian cruise ship Achille Lauro. The PFLP was subjected to
another split in 1969, which resulted in the Democratic Front for the Liberation of
Palestine. The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine resembles a small
army more than a terrorist group—its operatives are organized in battalions, backed
by intelligence and special forces. Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine
170 strikes has become less frequent since the 1970s, and since the late 1980s it has
Operations and Aviation Safety limited its attacks to Israeli targets near borders. What seems evident here is that this
old generation of traditional, hierarchical, bureaucratic groups is on the wane. The
reasons are varied, but the point remains—their way of waging terrorism is not likely
to make a comeback, and is being superseded by a new way that is more attuned to the
organisational, doctrinal, and technological imperatives of the information age.
The new generation of Middle Eastern groups has been active both in and outside the
region in recent years. In Israel and the occupied territories, Hamas, and to a lesser
extent the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, have shown their strength over the last four years
with a series of suicide bombings that have killed more than one hundred people and
injured several more. Exploiting a strong presence in Lebanon, the Shi’ite Hizbullah
organization has also staged a number of attacks against Israeli Defense Forces troops
and Israeli cities in Galilee.
The al-Gama’a al-Islamiya, or Islamic Group (IG), is the most active Islamic
extremist group in Egypt. In November 1997 Islamic Group carried out an attack on
Hatshepsut’s Temple in Luxor, killing 58 tourists and 4 Egyptians. The Group has
also claimed responsibility for the bombing of the Egyptian embassy in Islamabad,
Pakistan, which left 16 dead and 60 injured. In Algeria, the Armed Islamic Group
(GIA) has been behind the most violent, lethal attacks in Algeria’s protracted civil
war. Approximately 70,000 Algerians have lost their lives since the domestic terrorist
campaign began in 1992.
Recently, the loosely organized group of Arab Afghans—radical Islamic fighters from
several North African and Middle Eastern countries who forged ties while resisting
the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan—has come to the fore as an active terrorist
outfit. One of the leaders and founders of the Arab Afghan movement, Osama bin
Laden, a Saudi entrepreneur who bases his activities in Afghanistan, is suspected of
sending operatives to Yemen to bomb a hotel used by U.S. soldiers on their way to
Somalia in 1992, plotting to assassinate President Clinton in the Philippines in 1994
and Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak in 1995, and of having a role in the Riyadh
and Khobar blasts in Saudi Arabia that resulted in the deaths of 24 Americans in 1995
and 1996.18 U.S. officials have pointed to bin Laden as the mastermind behind the
U.S. embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania, which claimed the lives of more than
260 people, including 12 Americans.
To varying degrees, these groups share the principles of the networked organization—
relatively flat hierarchies, decentralization and delegation of decision-making
authority, and loose lateral ties among dispersed groups and individuals. For instance,
Hamas is loosely structured, with some elements working openly through mosques
and social service institutions to recruit members, raise funds, organize activities, and
distribute propaganda. Palestinian security 250 M. Zanini sources indicate that there
are ten or more Hamas splinter groups and factions with no centralized operational
leadership. The Palestinian Islamic Jihad is a series of loosely affiliated factions,
rather than a cohesive group. The pro-Iranian Hizbullah acts as an umbrella
organization of radical Shi’ite groups, and in many respects is a hybrid of hierarchical
and network arrangements. Although the formal structure is highly bureaucratic,
interactions among members are volatile and do not follow rigid lines of control.
According to the U.S. Department of State, Egypt’s Islamic Group is a decentralized
organization that operates without a single operational leader, while the GIA is
notorious for the lack of centralized authority.
Unlike traditional terrorist organizations, Arab Afghans are part of a complex network
of relatively autonomous groups that are financed from private sources forming “a
kind of international terrorists’ Internet.” The most notorious element of the network
is Osama bin Laden, who uses his wealth and organisational skills to support and
direct a multinational alliance of Islamic extremists. At the heart of this alliance is his
own inner core group, known as Al-Qaeda (“The Base”), which sometimes conducts 171
missions on its own, but more often in conjunction with other groups or elements in Terrorism
the alliance. The goal of the alliance is opposition on a global scale to perceived
threats to Islam, as indicated by bin Laden’s 1996 declaration of a holy war against
the United States and the West. In the document, bin Laden specifies that such a holy
war will be fought by irregular, light, highly mobile forces using guerrilla tactics.
Even though bin Laden finances Arab Afghan activities and directs some operations,
he apparently does not play a direct command and control role over all operatives.
Rather, he is a key figure in the coordination and support of several dispersed
activities. For instance, bin Laden founded the “World Islamic Front for Jihad against
Jews and Crusaders.” And yet most of the groups that participate in this front
(including Egypt’s Islamic Group) remain independent, although the organisational
barriers between them are fluid. From a netwar perspective, an interesting feature of
bin Laden’s Arab Afghan movement is its ability to relocate operations swiftly from
one geographic area to another in response to changing circumstances and needs. Arab
Afghans have participated in operations conducted by Algeria’s GIA and Egypt’s IG.
Reports in 1997 also indicated that Arab Afghans transferred training operations to
Somalia, where they joined the Islamic Liberation Party (ILP). The same reports
suggest that the Arab Afghan movement has considered sending fighters to Sinkiang
Uighur province in western China, to wage a holy war against the Chinese regime.
This group’s ability to move and act quickly (and, to some extent, to swarm) once
opportunities emerge hampers counterterrorist efforts to predict its actions and
monitor its activities. The fact that Arab Afghan operatives were able to strike the
U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania substantiates the claim that members of this
network have the mobility and speed to operate over considerable distances. Although
the organisational arrangements in these groups do not match all the basic features of
the network ideal, they stand in contrast to more traditional groups. Another feature
that distinguishes the newer generation of terrorist groups is their adoption of
information technology.
10.2.1 Middle Eastern Terrorist Groups and the Use of Information

Technology
Information technology (IT) is an enabling factor for networked groups. I posit that:
z The greater the degree of organisational networking in a terrorist group, the higher
the likelihood that IT is used to support the network’s decision making.
z Recent advances in IT facilitate networked terrorist organizations because
information flows are becoming quicker, cheaper, more secure, and more
versatile.
There is some evidence to support these hypotheses. For example, the most active
groups—and therefore the most decentralised groups—appear to have embraced
information technology to coordinate activities and disseminate propaganda and
ideology. This is consistent with the rise in the Middle East of what has been termed
techno-terrorism, or the use by terrorists of satellite communications, e-mail, and the
World Wide Web. Arab Afghans, for instance, appear to have widely adopted
information technology for organisational purposes. According to reporters who
visited bin Laden’s headquarters in a remote mountainous area of Afghanistan, the
terrorist financier has computers, communications equipment, and a large number of
disks for data storage. Egyptian “Afghan” computer experts are said to have helped
devise a communication network that relies on the World Wide Web, e-mail, and
electronic bulletin boards so that the extremists can exchange information without
running a major risk of being intercepted by counterterrorism officials. Hamas is
another major group that uses the Internet to share operational information. Hamas
activists in the United States use chat rooms to plan operations and activities.
172 Operatives use e-mail to coordinate activities across Gaza, the West Bank, and
Operations and Aviation Safety Lebanon. Hamas has realized that information can be passed securely over the Internet
because it is next to impossible for counterterrorism intelligence to monitor accurately
the flow and content of Internet traffic. Israeli security officials have difficulty in
tracing Hamas messages and decoding their content.
Likewise, during a recent counterterrorist operation, several GIA bases in Italy were
uncovered, and each was found to include computers and diskettes with instructions
for the construction of bombs. It has been reported that the GIA uses floppy disks and
computers to store and process instructions and other information for its members,
who are dispersed in Algeria and Europe. Further M. Zanini more, the Internet is used
as a propaganda tool by Hizbullah, which manages three World Wide Web sites—one
for the central press office (at www.hizbollah.org), another to describe its attacks on
Israeli targets (at www.moqawama.org), and the last for news and information (at
www.almanar.com.lb).42 The presence of Middle Eastern terrorist organizations on
the Internet is also suspected in the case of the Islamic Gateway, a World Wide Web
site that contains information on a number of Islamic activist organizations based in
the United Kingdom. British Islamic activists use the World Wide Web to broadcast
their news and attract funding; they are also turning to the Internet as an
organisational and communication tool. While the vast majority of Islamic activist
groups represented in the Islamic Gateway are legitimate, one group—the Global
Jihad Fund—makes no secret of its militant goals. The appeal of the Islamic Gateway
for militant groups may be enhanced by a representative’s claim, in an Internet
Newsnet article in August 1996 that the Gateway’s Internet Service Provider (ISP)
can give “CIA-proof” protection against electronic surveillance.
10.3 RIVAL CLAIM

This can be understood by studying the following article on Kerry Sees Syrian
Retaliation Against Rivals in Talks.
Washington — The State Department accused the Syrian government on Wednesday
of retaliating against the Syrian opposition’s representatives to the Geneva peace talks
by arresting their family members.
There have been two rounds of unproductive talks in Geneva between the Syrian
opposition and a delegation from the Syrian government, which is led by President
Bashar al-Assad.
Secretary of State John Kerry has blamed the Assad government for the deadlock in
the talks and said that it had undermined them by putting opposition delegates on a
terrorist list and seizing their assets. On Wednesday, the State Department asserted
that the Syrian government had also been detaining some of the delegates’ relatives.
“The United States is outraged by reports that the Assad regime has arrested family
members of the Syrian Opposition Coalition delegation to the Geneva II peace talks,
designated delegates as terrorists and seized delegates’ assets,” Jen Psaki, the State
Department spokeswoman, said in a statement.
Palestinians from the Yarmouk camp, on the outskirts of Damascus, waited for food 173
aid in the city in a Jan. 31 photograph released Wednesday by the United Nations. An Terrorism
agency official visiting the camp this week said he was shaken by the deprivation
there. Credit United Nation Relief and Works Agency
“We call on the regime to immediately and unconditionally release all those unfairly
arrested, including Mahmoud Sabra, brother of Geneva delegation member
Mohammed Sabra,” she added. According to a statement issued last week by the
Syrian opposition, Mohammed Sabra said his brother had been detained at a
checkpoint in the town of Jaramana.
In Syria on Wednesday, government forces killed scores of rebels in an ambush east
of Damascus, opposition activists and the government said, dealing a major blow to
efforts by rebels to open a supply line to a besieged area. The exact toll remained
unclear, with the government claiming it had killed more than 175 rebels, many of
them non-Syrian jihadists, and an opposition activist in the area saying more than 40
fighters were killed, with dozens more unaccounted for.
10.4 PALESTINE LIBERATION ORGANIZATION (PLO)

Palestne Liberation Organization (PLO), Arabic Munazzamat al-Tahrir Filastiniyyah,
umbrella political organization claiming to represent the world’s Palestinians—those
Arabs, and their descendants, who lived in mandated Palestine before the creation
there of the State of Israel in 1948. It was formed in 1964 to centralize the leadership
of various Palestinian groups that previously had operated as clandestine resistance
movements. It came into prominence only after the Six-Day War of June 1967,
however, and engaged in a protracted guerrilla war against Israel during the 1960s,
’70s, and ’80s before entering into peace negotiations with that country in the 1990s.
Foundation and early development
After the Arab-Israeli war of 1948 the Arab states, notably Egypt, took the lead in the
political and military struggle against Israel. The Palestinians themselves had been
dispersed among a number of countries, and—lacking an organized central
leadership—many Palestinians formed small, diffuse resistance organizations, often
under the patronage of the various Arab states; as a result, Palestinian political activity
was limited.
The PLO was created at an Arab summit meeting in 1964 in order to bring various
Palestinian groups together under one organization, but at first it did little to enhance
Palestinian self-determination. The PLO’s legislature, the Palestine National Council
(PNC), was composed of members from the civilian population of various Palestinian
communities, and its charter (the Palestine National Charter, or Covenant) set out the
goals of the organization, which included the complete elimination of Israeli
sovereignty in Palestine and the destruction of the State of Israel. Yet, the PLO’s first
chairman, a former diplomat named Aḥmad Shuqayrī, was closely tied to Egypt, its
military force (the Palestine Liberation Army, formed in 1968) was integrated into the
armies of surrounding Arab states, and the militant guerrilla organizations under its
auspices had only limited influence on PLO policy. Likewise, although the PLO
received its funding from taxes levied on the salaries of Palestinian workers, for
decades the organization also depended heavily on the contributions of sympathetic
countries.
10.5 ABU NIDAL

Abu Nidal born Sabri Khalil al-Banna, was the founder of Fatah – The Revolutionary
Council a militant Palestinian splinter group also known as the Abu Nidal
Organization (ANO). At the height of his power in the 1970s and 1980s, Abu Nidal,
or "father of [the] struggle", was widely regarded as the most ruthless of the
174 Palestinian political leaders. He told Der Spiegel in a rare interview in 1985: "I am the
Operations and Aviation Safety evil spirit which moves around only at night causing ... nightmares."
Part of the socialist Palestinian rejectionist front, so called because they reject
proposals for a peaceful settlement with Israel, the ANO was formed after a split in
1974 between Abu Nidal and Yasser Arafat's Fatah faction within the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO). Setting himself up as a freelance contractor, Abu
Nidal is believed by the United States Department of State to have ordered attacks in
20 countries, killing or injuring over 900 people. The group's most notorious attacks
were on the El Al ticket counters at Rome and Vienna airports in December 1985,
when Arab gunmen opened fire on passengers in simultaneous shootings, killing 18
and wounding 120. Patrick Seale, Abu Nidal's biographer, wrote of the attacks that
their "random cruelty marked them as typical Abu Nidal operations".
Abu Nidal died of between one and four gunshot wounds in Baghdad in August 2002.
Palestinian sources believe he was killed on the orders of Saddam Hussein, but the
Iraqi government insisted he had committed suicide. The Guardian wrote on the news
of his death: "He was the patriot turned psychopath. He served only himself, only the
warped personal drives that pushed him into hideous crime. He was the ultimate
mercenary."
10.6 HAMAS
Hamas is the Palestinian Sunni Islamic or Islamist organization, with an associated
military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, located in the Palestinian
territories.
Since June 2007 Hamas has governed the Gaza Strip, after it won a majority of seats
in the Palestinian Parliament in the January 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections
and then defeated the Fatah political organization in a series of violent clashes. Israel,
the United States, Canada, the European Union, and Japan classify Hamas as a
terrorist organization, while Iran, Russia, Turkey, and Arab nations do not.
Based on the principles of Islamic fundamentalism gaining momentum throughout the
Arab world in the 1980s, Hamas was founded in 1987 (during the First Intifada) as an
offshoot of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. Co-founder Sheik Ahmed Yassin
stated in 1987, and the Hamas Charter affirmed in 1988, that Hamas was founded to
liberate Palestine from Israeli occupation and to establish an Islamic state in the area
that is now Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. However, in July 2009, Khaled
Meshal, Hamas's political bureau chief, said the organization was willing to cooperate
with "a resolution to the Arab-Israeli conflict which included a Palestinian state based
on 1967 borders", provided that Palestinian refugees hold the right to return to Israel
and that East Jerusalem be the new nation's capital.
The Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, the Hamas affiliated military wing, has launched
attacks on Israel, against both military and civilian targets. Attacks on civilian targets
have included rocket attacks and, from 1993 to 2006, suicide bombings. Military
targets included Israeli outposts and border crossings and rival Palestinian militias in
the occupied territories.
In the January 2006 Palestinian parliamentary elections Hamas won a decisive
majority in the Palestinian Parliament, defeating the PLO-affiliated Fatah party.
Following the elections, the Quartet (United States, Russia, United Nations, and
European Union) conditioned future foreign assistance to the PA on the future
government's commitment to nonviolence, recognition of the state of Israel, and
acceptance of previous agreements. Hamas resisted such changes, leading to Quartet
suspension of its foreign assistance program and Israel imposing economic sanctions
against the Hamas-led administration. In March 2007 a national unity government,
headed by Prime Minister Ismail Haniya of Hamas was briefly formed, but this failed
to restart international financial assistance. Tensions over control of Palestinian 175
security forces soon erupted into the 2007 Battle of Gaza, after which Hamas retained Terrorism
control of Gaza while its officials were ousted from government positions in the West
Bank. Israel and Egypt then imposed an economic blockade on Gaza, on the grounds
that Fatah forces were no longer providing security there.
In June 2008, as part of an Egyptian-brokered ceasefire, Hamas ceased rocket attacks
on Israel and made some efforts to prevent attacks by other organizations. After a
four-month calm, the conflict escalated when Israel carried out a military action with
the stated aim of preventing an abduction planned by Hamas, using a tunnel that had
been dug under the border security fence, and killed seven Hamas operatives. In
retaliation, Hamas attacked Israel with a barrage of rockets. In late December 2008,
Israel attacked Gaza, withdrawing its forces from the territory in mid-January 2009.
After the Gaza War, Hamas continued to govern the Gaza Strip and Israel maintained
its economic blockade. On May 4, 2011, Hamas and Fatah announced a reconciliation
agreement that provides for "creation of a joint caretaker Palestinian government"
prior to national elections scheduled for 2012. According to Israeli news reports
quoting Fatah leader Mahmoud Abbas, as a condition of joining the PLO, Khaled
Meshaal agreed to discontinue the "armed struggle" against Israel and accept
Palestinian statehood within the 1967 borders, alongside Israel.
10.7 IRANIAN SUPPORT OF TERRORISM

Today, Iran feels itself under increasing pressure from the international community by
both diplomatic and economic sanctions. From the Stuxnet virus to the assassination
of Iranian scientists and the defection of Iranian agents, Iran feels increasingly
targeted by Western intelligence services in general and Israel and the United States in
particular. Hezbollah and Iran each have their own reasons for executing terrorist
attacks targeting Israeli or other Western targets—Iran seeks to avenge attacks on its
scientists and sanctions targeting its nuclear program, and Hezbollah seeks to avenge
Mughniyeh’s death. This convergence of interests strengthens their long-standing and
intimate relationship, making their combined operational capabilities that much more
dangerous. Over the past seven months, a spate of terrorist plots targeting U.S. and
Israeli foreign interests has illustrated Iran’s propensity for sponsoring attacks abroad.
Some were thwarted, including plots in Thailand, Bulgaria, Singapore, Kenya,
Cyprus, and Azerbaijan. Others were not, including bombings in India and Georgia.
Some of these operations were carried out by Iranian agents, others by Iran’s primary
proxy, Hezbollah. A few were joint operations executed by Hezbollah operatives
working with Iranian intelligence or members of the Qods Force, an elite branch of
Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). Consider that a plot in Turkey
involving four members of the Qods Force targeting diplomatic missions in Istanbul
was reportedly foiled by Turkish security authorities this March. Some, like one of the
plots in Azerbaijan, leveraged relationships with local criminal networks to execute an
attack.
The most brazen, and bizarre, was the October 2011 plot to assassinate the Saudi
ambassador to Washington. This Qods Force plot against the Saudi diplomat, Director
General of MI5 Jonathan Evans told a crowd in June 2012, 2 “leads straight back to
the Iranian leadership.… [A] return to State-sponsored terrorism by Iran or its
associates, such as Hezbollah, cannot be ruled out as pressure on the Iranian
leadership increases.” Of the more recent attacks in India, Azerbaijan, and elsewhere,
he noted, “we also face uncertainty over developments in Iran. In parallel with rising
concern about Iran’s nuclear intentions, we have seen in recent months a series of
attempted terrorist plots against Israeli interests.” Most recently, Israeli officials have
linked Hezbollah and Tehran to the suicide bombing that left six Israelis and one
Bulgarian dead in Burgas, Bulgaria, last week. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin
Netanyahu told reporters, “We have unquestionable, fully substantiated intelligence
176 that this was done by Hezbollah backed by Iran.” He highlighted the similarities
Operations and Aviation Safety between the Bulgarian bombing and a plot foiled in Cyprus earlier this month in
which Cypriot authorities arrested a Hezbollah operative conducting preoperational
surveillance on Israeli flights and tour buses. This should not surprise as Iranian
agents have traditionally supported the efforts of trusted proxy groups in attacks
spanning the globe, especially when Tehran was under serious international or
domestic pressure. Consider that Iran’s record of supporting terrorist attacks includes
the 1983 and 1984 bombings targeting U.S. and French forces in Beirut, the 1992 and
1994 attacks against Israeli interests in Argentina, the 1996 bombing against U.S.
forces in Saudi Arabia, and a host of other attacks targeting American, French,
German, British, Kuwaiti, Bahraini, and other interests in plots from Europe to
Southeast Asia to the Middle East.
10.7.1 Hezbollah
Hezbollah is a Shi'a Islamic militant group and political party based in Lebanon. Its
paramilitary wing is regarded as a resistance movement throughout much of the Arab
and Muslim worlds, and is considered more powerful than the Lebanese Army. The
governments of the U.S., Netherlands, France, Gulf Cooperation Council, U.K.,
Australia, Canada, the European Union and Israel classify Hezbollah as a terrorist
organization, in whole or in part.
Hezbollah was conceived by Muslim clerics and funded by Iran following the Israeli
invasion of Lebanon, and was primarily formed to offer resistance to the Israeli
occupation. Its leaders were followers of Ayatollah Khomeini, and its forces were
trained and organized by a contingent of 1,500 Iranian Revolutionary Guards that
arrived from Iran with permission from the Syrian government. Hezbollah's 1985
manifesto listed its objectives as the expulsion of "the Americans, the French and their
allies definitely from Lebanon, putting an end to any colonialist entity on our land",
submission of the Phalangists to "just power" and bringing them to justice "for the
crimes they have perpetrated against Muslims and Christians", and permitting "all the
sons of our people" to choose the form of government they want, while calling on
them to "pick the option of Islamic government".
Hezbollah, which started with only a small militia, has grown to an organization with
seats in the Lebanese government, a radio and a satellite television-station, and
programs for social development. The organization has been called a state within a
state. Hezbollah maintains strong support among Lebanon's Shi'a population.
Hezbollah fought with Israel in 2006 Hezbollah-Israel War. After 2006–2008
Lebanese political protests and clashes. A national unity government was formed in
2008, giving Hezbollah and its opposition allies control of eleven of thirty cabinets
seats; effectively veto power.
Hezbollah receives military training, weapons, and financial support from Iran, and
political support from Syria. Following the end of the Israeli occupation of South
Lebanon in 2000, its military strength grew significantly. Despite a June 2000
certification by the United Nations that Israel had withdrawn from all Lebanese
territory, in August, Lebanon's new Cabinet unanimously approved a draft policy
statement which secures Hezbollah's existence as an armed organization and
guarantees its right to "liberate or recover occupied lands". After the death of Abbas
al-Musawi in 1992, the organisation has been headed by Hassan Nasrallah, its
Secretary-General.
Check Your Progress 1 177
Terrorism
1. Hezbollah receives military training, weapons, and financial support from
Iran, and political support from Syria.
2. Hamas is the Palestinian Sunni Islamic or Islamist organization, with an
associated military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, located in the
Palestinian territories.
3. A national unity government was formed in 2008, giving Hezbollah and its
opposition allies control of eleven of thirty cabinets seats; effectively veto
power.
10.8 AFGHANISTAN: OSAMA BIN LADEN

Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden was the founder of al-Qaeda, the Sunni
militant Islamist organization that claimed responsibility for the September 11 attacks
on the United States, along with numerous other mass-casualty attacks against civilian
and military targets. He was a Saudi Arabian, a member of the wealthy bin Laden
family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite.
He was born in the bin Laden family to billionaire Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden in
Saudi Arabia. He studied there in college until 1979, when he joined the mujahideen
forces in Pakistan against the Soviets in Afghanistan. He helped to fund the
mujahideen by funneling arms, money and fighters from the Arab world into
Afghanistan, also gaining popularity from many Arabs. In 1988, he formed al-Qaeda.
He was banished from Saudi Arabia in 1992, and shifted his base to Sudan, until US
pressure forced him to leave Sudan in 1996. After establishing a new base in
Afghanistan, he declared a war against the United States, initiating a series of
bombings and related attacks. Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of
Investigation's (FBI) lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives and Most Wanted Terrorists
for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings.
From 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, as the FBI
placed a $25 million bounty on him in their search for him. On May 2, 2011, bin
Laden was shot and killed inside a private residential compound in Abbottabad,
Pakistan, by members of the United States Naval Special Warfare Development
Group and Central Intelligence Agency operatives in a covert operation ordered by
U.S. President Barack Obama.
10.8.1 Osama and the 9/11

After his initial denial, in 2004 Osama bin Laden finally claimed responsibility for the
September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States. The attacks involved the hijacking of
four commercial passenger aircraft and flying them into the Twin Towers of the
World Trade Center in New York City, New York and The Pentagon in Arlington,
Virginia, destroying the former, and severely damaging the latter. It resulted in the
deaths of 2,973 people and the nineteen hijackers. In response to the attacks, the
United States launched the War on Terror to depose the Taliban regime in
Afghanistan and capture al-Qaeda operatives, and several countries strengthened their
anti-terrorism legislation to preclude future attacks. The CIA's Special Activities
Division was given the lead in tracking down and killing or capturing bin Laden.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation has stated that classified evidence linking al-
Qaeda and bin Laden to the September 11 attacks is clear and irrefutable. The UK
Government reached a similar conclusion regarding al-Qaeda and Osama bin Laden's
culpability for the September 11 attacks, although the government report noted that
the evidence presented is not necessarily sufficient to prosecute the case.
178 Bin Laden initially denied involvement in the attacks. On September 16, 2001, bin
Operations and Aviation Safety Laden read a statement later broadcast by Qatar's Al Jazeera satellite channel denying
responsibility for the attack. In a videotape recovered by U.S. forces in November
2001 in Jalalabad, bin Laden was seen discussing the attack with Khaled al-Harbi in a
way that indicates foreknowledge. The tape was broadcast on various news networks
on December 13, 2001. The merits of this translation have been disputed. Arabist Dr.
Abdel El M. Husseini stated: "This translation is very problematic. At the most
important places where it is held to prove the guilt of bin Laden, it is not identical
with the Arabic."
Figure 10.1: 2001 Picture of Bin Laden

In the 2004 Osama bin Laden video, bin Laden abandoned his denials without
retracting past statements. In it he said he had personally directed the nineteen
hijackers. In the 18-minute tape, played on Al-Jazeera, four days before the American
presidential election, bin Laden accused U.S. President George W. Bush of negligence
in the hijacking of the planes on September 11. According to the tapes, bin Laden
claimed he was inspired to destroy the World Trade Center after watching the
destruction of towers in Lebanon by Israel during the 1982 Lebanon War.
Through two other tapes aired by Al Jazeera in 2006, Osama bin Laden announced, "I
am the one in charge of the nineteen brothers. [...] I was responsible for entrusting the
nineteen brothers [...] with the raids" (May 23, 2006). In the tapes he was seen with
Ramzi bin al-Shibh, as well as two of the 9/11 hijackers, Hamza al-Ghamdi and Wail
al-Shehri, as they made preparations for the attacks (videotape broadcast September 7,
2006). Identified motivations of the September 11 attacks include the support of Israel
by the United States, presence of the U.S. military in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,
and the U.S. enforcement of sanctions against Iraq.
10.9 EUROPE
Terrorism is mostly related to the immigrant population from the Muslim world in
Europe, their offspring and a minority of converts. In the 1960s and 1970s Europe’s
industrialisation attracted many immigrant workers. The offshoots of this population,
from second and third generations, have many problems related to their integration
within European countries.
In Europe, radical Islam has different origins, mainly related to the colonial
background (France, England) or to the immigration of Muslims in the last few
decades from the Moslem world (Germany, Spain). Still, each country has its specific
history and its culture of “integration” and radicalisation is related as well to the local,
regional history as to the global.
One major factor, besides the discontent of part of the Muslim youth in Europe for
social reasons is the crisis of the Muslim countries which is reported in real time by
the television and the utopia of a neo-umma carried out by it. Two distinct groups 179
appear on the scene. The first is made by a new Muslim middle class who is a Terrorism
minority among the immigrants from Muslim countries in Europe. This new middle
class has everything to lose if radicalisation occurs among the Muslims in Europe and
a more negative image of Islam and Muslims is widespread among the people. Still, a
tiny minority of its members opt for radicalisation and separate from the mainstream
Muslim middle class in Europe. The main reason is their identification with the neo-
umma in the world at large and in Europe in particular. Seeing their fellow Muslim
people downtrodden and stigmatized through racism in Europe and looking on the TV
the faith of Muslims in the world at large and the crisis of Muslim societies, they
come to the firm belief that Islam is being repressed as much within Europe as without
it and in both cases, the oppressors are the “white” Europeans and more generally, the
wicked West, mainly America. Compassion, in this situation goes to this imaginary
neo-umma rather than to their compatriots: their sufferings in connection with terrorist
attacks are minimized in comparison to the plights of the Muslims all over the world.
For the excluded and “disaffected” youth in Europe, the combination of economic
deprivation and cultural stigmas makes it much easier for them to become radicalized
in the name of Allah. In this case, they come to the conclusion that their sufferings
and those of the Muslims in other parts of the world, Palestine, Bosnia, Iraq or
Chechnia have the same roots: western fight against Islam. Their enrolment in terrorist
networks is based on a strong feeling of victimization which is rooted in their
dramatic situation in Europe: in France in the so-called “banlieues” (poor suburbs), in
England in poor districts and in many European countries, their segregation in
enclaves or ghettoes (or perceived as such by many of them) and the absence of any
prospect for a brighter future, all these factor go hand in hand to make this population
a fertile ground for radicalisation and in few cases, terrorism. Even though many do
not get involved in terrorist activities due to the renewed vigilance of the police and
the secret services, still their world outlook is that of deep victimisation and a negative
perception of the “white” man.
The two groups, either from the Middle classes or from the excluded categories of
people, find a common language through networks and their opposition to the West.
The military actions in Afghanistan, Iraq and the Palestinian and Chechnian problems
are reminders of the West’s involvement in the fight against Muslim countries.
The predicament of Muslims all over the world is seen through the looking glass of
this neo-umma: in countries like Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Turkey and elsewhere, the
governments are considered as the “puppets” of the West and should be fought
against. In the West itself, the struggle should go on in order to punish both, the
Western governments and their “lackeys” in Muslim countries. The globalized neo-
umma, unlike the real Muslim communities, does not recognize either frontiers or
nations and the ideal is not so much to topple a specific government in a particular
country but to set ablaze the entire world in order to promote the neo-califat and bring
about the neo-umma within this institution.
In the same fashion as the leftists of the 1970S were self-proclaimed avant-garde of
the proletariat, the new radicalized Muslims believe to be the vanguard of the Muslim
umma (community) but this creed is not grounded in reality and is simply a mental
and imaginary construction with no support in the real world. Therefore the majority
of the Muslims who suffer from terrorist acts like Egyptians (terrorism in Charm el
Cheikh in August 2005) reject these acts to the utmost but the terrorist groups are a
tiny minority who do not follow the majority of Muslims.
Another category of people who become Jihadists in Europe are the converts. Most of
the converts adopt a spiritualist Islam which has nothing to do with terrorism. But a
tiny minority of them espouses the radical Islam and engages in terrorist activities in
order to be part of the neo-umma at war with the perfidious and depraved West. To
180 these people the West is treacherous and anti-islamic in essence. Their new identity as
Operations and Aviation Safety Muslims is offended by the lot of many Muslims all over the world and the partial and
antagonistic attitude of the Western countries towards the plight of the Muslims. They
have to prove to themselves and to the others the sincerity of their faith by opposing
their former societies and by declaring war to the very same countries where they
were born and raised. The chasm between their new faith and the societies into which
they were born finds a sacred legitimacy through their identification with the neo-
umma. By fighting an impious West they underline their rupture with it and their ties
to a new imaginary Islamic community for which they are ready to sacrifice their life
and to put to death their fellow countrymen.
10.9.1 Japan
Japan has actively contributed to the Bush administration's war on terrorism, going far
beyond the financial support it provided during the first Gulf War in 1991 and testing
the limits of post-war constitutional prohibitions on the deployment of military forces
overseas. This has led some observers to suggest that Japan might be positioning itself
to become a more active supporter of U.S. global strategy, a "Britain of Asia." This
study challenges this view and finds that less has changed in Japan's overseas
deployments than is often claimed. This study identified public opinion, an under-
studied factor, as the reason for the modest expansion of Japan's overseas
deployments since 9/11 and brings to bear a wealth of data to back up this conclusion.
Applying modified conceptions of defensive and offensive realism to public attitudes
regarding the use of force for the first time, this study finds that the Japanese "mass
public" has increasingly recognized the need to prepare to meet military threats, but
views military power as useful only for homeland defense. The public has been
consistently skeptical about the utility of offensive military power for promoting
democracy or suppressing weapons of mass destruction proliferation or terrorist
networks. The invasion of Iraq, for reasons viewed with great skepticism, has caused
the Japanese public, like publics in many other countries, to become increasingly
distrustful of U.S. foreign policy. This, combined with a growing willingness to
provide for its own defense, suggests that Japan may be less willing to support far-
flung U.S. military operations in the future and concentrate more on increasing its
defense autonomy.
10.9.2 Peru
Two major domestic terrorist groups have plagued Peru over the past 20 years, the
Sendero Luminoso or "Shining Path" (SL) and the Revolutionary Movement Túpac
Amaru (MRTA). On 28 August 2003, the Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission
reported that an estimated 69,280 persons were killed in the internal conflict in Peru from
1980 to 2000. Most of the victims were farmers (56%), most attacks occurred in rural
settings (79%), and the SL was responsible for most of the deaths (54%). Aggressive anti-
terrorism efforts by police and military during this period, often at the expense of basic
human rights, also contributed to this large burden of terrorism on Peru. During the 1990s,
terrorist attacks in Peru had spread to its urban areas. On 17 December 1996, 22 members
of MRTA took over the Japanese ambassador's residence in Lima, holding 72 hostages
until the grounds were stormed by Peruvian Special Forces on 23 April 1997. Until
recently, emergency planning and preparedness for terrorism-related events in Peru were
largely underdeveloped. In the last five years, Peru has taken two key steps towards
developing a mature emergency response system, with the establishment of the country's
first emergency medicine residency training program and the construction of the first
dedicated trauma center in Lima.
10.9.3 Russia
Terrorism in Russia has a long history starting from the times of the Russian Empire.
Terrorism, in the modern sense, means violence against civilians to achieve political
or ideological objectives by creating fear. Terrorism tactics, such as hostage-taking, 181
were widely used by the Soviet secret agencies, most notably during the Red Terror Terrorism
and Great Terror campaigns, against the population of their own country, according to
Karl Kautsky and other historians of Bolshevism.
Starting from the end of the 20th century, significant terrorist activity has taken place
in Moscow, most notably apartment bombings and the Moscow theatre hostage crisis.
Many more acts of terrorism have been committed in Chechnya, Dagestan, and other
parts of the country. Some of them became a matter of significant controversy, since
journalists and scholars claimed them to be directed by the Russian secret services,
often through their Chechen agent provocateurs.
10.10 US: DOMESTIC TERRORISM

The statutory definition of domestic terrorism in the United States has changed many
times over the years; also, it can be argued that acts of domestic terrorism have been
occurring since long before any legal definition was set forth.
According to a memo produced by the FBI's Terrorist Research and Analytical Center
in 1994, domestic terrorism was defined as "the unlawful use of force or violence,
committed by a group(s) of two or more individuals, against persons or property to
intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in
furtherance of political or social objectives."
Under current United States law, set forth in the USA Patriot Act, acts of domestic
terrorism are those which: "(A) involve acts dangerous to human life that are a
violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State; (B) appear to be
intended— (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy
of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a
government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and (C) occur
primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States."
10.10.1 Terrorist Organizations

Animal Liberation Front
Animal Liberation Front (ALF) is a name used internationally by activists who engage
in direct action against persons and/or organizations that the activists perceive are
harming animals. This includes removing animals from laboratories and fur farms,
and sabotaging facilities involved in animal testing and other animal-based industries.
According to ALF statements, any act that furthers the cause of animal liberation,
where all reasonable precautions are taken not to endanger life, may be claimed as an
ALF action. The group is listed by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security as a
domestic terrorist organization.
Alpha 66 and Omega 7

Alpha 66 (still existent) and Omega 7 (now defunct) were two affiliated Cuban exile
action groups who have carried out many bombings and acts of sabotage. While many
of these attacks have historically been directed at Cuba and the Castro government,
many of them occurred domestically, especially during the period of Cuba-US
diplomacy and negotiations in the 1970s known as "el Diálogo" (the dialogue) when
powerful anti-Castro figures in Miami attempted to terrorize those in their community
who favoured a more moderate approach. Luciano Nieves, for instance, was killed for
advocating peaceful coexistence with Cuba. WQBA-AM news director Emilio Milian
lost his legs in a car bomb after he publicly condemned Cuban exile violence. These
cases of terrorism were documented extensively in the book Miami by Joan Didion.
Human Rights Watch released a report in 1992 in which they claimed that the more
182 extreme exiles have created a political environment in Miami where "moderation can
Operations and Aviation Safety be a dangerous position."
Army of God
The Army of God (AOG) is a loose network of individuals and groups connected by
ideological affinity and the determination to use force to end abortion in the United
States. Acts of anti-abortion violence increased in the mid-1990s culminating in a
series of bombings by Eric Robert Rudolph, whose targets included two abortion
clinics, a gay and lesbian night club, and the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. Letters sent to
newspapers claim responsibility for the bombing of the abortion clinics in the name of
the Army of God.
Aryan Nations
Aryan Nations (AN) is a white nationalist neo-Nazi organization founded in the 1970s
by Richard Girnt Butler as an arm of the Christian Identity group known as the
Church of Jesus Christ–Christian. As of December 2007 there were two main factions
that claimed descent from Butler's group. The Aryan Nations has been called a
"terrorist threat" by the FBI, and the RAND Corporation has called it the "first truly
nationwide terrorist network" in the USA.
Black Liberation Army

A splinter group made up of the more radical members of the Black Panther Party, the
Black Liberation Army (BLA) sought to overthrow the US government in the name of
racial separatism and Marxist ideals. The Fraternal Order of Police blames the BLA
for the murders of 13 police officers. According to a Justice Department report on
BLA activity, the group was suspected of involvement in over 60 incidents of
violence between 1970 and 1980.
The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord

The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord (CSA) was a radical Christian
Identity organization formed in 1971 in the small community of Elijah in southern
Missouri, United States.
Earth Liberation Front

The Earth Liberation Front has been classified as a top "domestic terror" threat in the
United States by the Federal Bureau of Investigation since March 2001.
Jewish Defense League

The Jewish Defense League (JDL) was founded in 1969 by Rabbi Meir Kahane in
New York City. FBI statistics show that, from 1980 to 1985, 15 terrorist attacks were
attempted in the U.S. by JDL members. The FBI’s Mary Doran described the JDL in
2004 Congressional testimony as "a proscribed terrorist group". The National
Consortium for the Study of Terror and Responses to Terrorism states that, during the
JDL's first two decades of activity, it was an "active terrorist organization." Kahane
later founded the far right Israeli political party Kach.
Ku Klux Klan
During reconstruction at the end of the civil war the original KKK used domestic
terroristic methods against the Federal Government and freed slaves. During the 20th
century, leading up to civil rights movement, unrelated Ku Klux Klan (KKK) groups
used threats, violence, arson, and murder to further its anti-Catholic, anti-Communist,
anti-semitic, and white-supremacist agenda. Domestic terrorists with agendas similar
to the KKK include neo-Nazis and white power skinheads.
183
10.11 NUCLEAR TERRORISM Terrorism
Nuclear terrorism denotes the explosion of a yield-producing nuclear bomb containing

fissile material by terrorists. Some meanings of nuclear terrorism comprise the
disruption of a nuclear ability and/or the explosion of a radiological scheme,
colloquially called a dirty bomb, but agreement is lacking. In legal terms, nuclear
terrorism is an offense committed if a person unlawfully and intentionally “uses in any
way radioactive material … with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury; or
with the intent to cause substantial damage to property or to the environment; or with
the intent to compel a natural or legal person, an international organization or a State
to do or refrain from doing an act”, according to the 2005 United Nations International
Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism.
The probability of terrorist groups consuming nuclear weapons has been a threat in
American rhetoric and culture. It is well-thought-out reasonable that terrorists could
attain a nuclear weapon. In 2011, the British news agency, the Telegraph, received
leaked documents regarding the Guantanamo Bay interrogations of Khalid Sheikh
Mohammed. The documents cited Khalid saying that, if Osama bin Laden is captured
or killed by the coalition of the willing, an al-Qaeda sleeper cell will detonate a
"weapon of mass destruction" in a "secret location" in Europe, and promised it would
be "a nuclear hellstorm". On the other hand in the face of some stated thefts and
marketing of small amounts of fissile material, there is no credible indication that any
terrorist group has ever prospered in gaining the essential multi-kilogram dangerous
mass quantities of weapons grade plutonium, required to make a nuclear weapon.
10.11.1 Scope
Nuclear terrorism could include:
z Acquiring or fabricating a nuclear weapon
z Fabricating a dirty bomb
z Attacking a nuclear reactor, e.g., by disrupting critical inputs (e.g. water supply)
z Attacking or taking over a nuclear-armed submarine, plane or base.
Nuclear terrorism, according to a 2011 report published by the Belfer Center for
Science and International Affairs at Harvard University, can be executed and
distinguished via four pathways:
z The use of a nuclear weapon that has been stolen or purchased on the black
market
z The use of a crude explosive device built by terrorists or by nuclear scientists who
the terrorist organization has furtively recruited
z The use of an explosive device constructed by terrorists and their accomplices
using their own fissile material
z The acquisition of fissile material from a nation-state.

Fill in the Blanks:
1. ........................... denotes the detonation of a yield-producing nuclear bomb
containing fissile material by terrorists.
2. The ........................... is a loose network of individuals and groups connected
by ideological affinity and the determination to use force to end abortion in
the United States.
3. ........................... were two affiliated Cuban exile action groups who have
carried out many bombings and acts of sabotage.
184
Principles of Travel and Tourism 10.12 LET US SUM UP
This review of patterns and trends in the Middle East substantiates the author’s
speculations that the new terrorism is evolving in the direction of netwar, along the
following lines:
z An increasing number of terrorist groups are adopting networked forms of
organization and relying on information technology to support such structures.
z Newer groups (those established in the 1980s and 1990s) are more networked than
traditional groups.
z A positive correlation is emerging between the degree of activity of a group and
the degree to which it adopts a networked structure.
z The likelihood that young recruits will be familiar with information technology
implies that terrorist groups will be increasingly networked and more computer-
friendly in the future than they are today.
This overview of Middle Eastern terrorist groups indicates that modern
communications technologies, especially the Internet and associated technical assets,
have facilitated the evolution of terrorist groups into multi-organisational networks
that use IT for decision making and other functional internal purposes. This, in and of
itself, has implications for counterterrorism efforts. Yet, the possibility that the
technical assets and know-how gained by terrorists for organisational support can
serve offensive purposes as well—an Internet connection can be used for both
coordination and disruption or destruction—has garnered much more public attention.
While that indeed poses a recognizable and frightening threat, the significance of the
evolution of the groups themselves, as made possible by the Internet and illustrated
above, must be neither overlooked nor underestimated.

Prepare a project on the various terrorist attacks including the reasons and source of
such attacks.
10.14 KEYWORDS
Hamas: It is the Palestinian Sunni Islamic or Islamist organization, with an associated
military wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, located in the Palestinian
territories.
Hezbollah: He is a Shi'a Islamic militant group and political party based in Lebanon.
Animal Liberation Front (ALF): It is a name used internationally by activists who
engage in direct action against persons and/or organizations that the activists perceive
are harming animals.
Army of God (AOG): It is a loose network of individuals and groups connected by
ideological affinity and the determination to use force to end abortion in the United
States.
Aryan Nations (AN): It is a white nationalist neo-Nazi organization founded in the
1970s by Richard Girnt Butler as an arm of the Christian Identity group known as the
Church of Jesus Christ-Christian.
Nuclear terrorism: It denotes the detonation of a yield-producing nuclear bomb
containing fissile material by terrorists.
185
10.15 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION Terrorism
1. Describe traditional group and new-generation groups.

2. Discuss the use of information technology by Middle Eastern terrorist groups.
3. Discuss Iranian support of terrorism.
4. Write short notes on Osama and the 9/11.
5. What are the various terrorist organizations in US?
6. What do you mean by nuclear terrorism? Discuss its scope.

CYP 1
1. True
2. True
3. True
CYP 2
1. Nuclear terrorism
2. Army of God (AOG)
3. Alpha 66 and Omega 7

Pvt. Ltd.
Forum.
Model Question Paper
MODEL QUESTION PAPER

BBA (Annual Pattern)
Third Year
Sub: Principles of Travel and Tourism Operations and Aviation Safety
Time: 3 hours Total Marks: 100
Direction: There are total eight questions, each carrying 20 marks. You have to
attempt any five questions.
1. What do you understand by tour and travel?

2. Describe the principles of the tourism.
3. Explain in details the scope and operation of the tourism.
4. What is the scope of the travel and tourism in India?
5. What is the importance of the travel agent and tour operator?
6. Discuss the use of information technology by Middle Eastern terrorist groups.
7. Explain Iranian support of terrorism.
8. Write short notes on Osama and the 9/11.
187
International Business
188

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Principles of Travel and Tourism Operations

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1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM

1.3 INDIA A TOURIST DESTINATION

1.4 INDIAN STATES, CAPITALS, PUBLIC HOLIDAYS,

1.4.2 Top Cities

1.4.3 Top Monuments

1.4.4 Top Religious Attractions

1.4.5 Top Wild Attractions

1.4.6 Top Hill Stations

1.4.7 Natural Attractions

1.5 PUBLIC HOLIDAYS AND BANKS IN INDIA

1.5.1 Public Holidays

15-August Independence Day

2-October Mahatma Gandhi's birthday.

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra (as Bhogi), Punjab (as

Andaman & Nicobar, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam (as Magh Bihu),

Thiruvalluvar Day Pondicherry, Tamil Nadu

Vasant Panchami (Aka,

Ratha Saptami Maharashtra, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka

Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chandigarh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat,

All states and territories except Kerala, Nagaland, Mizoram, Goa,

Maharashtra, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Pondicherry, Tamil

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,

Rath Jatra Orissa

Nag Panchami or Guga-Navami All states and territories except Goa

Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan,

Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat,

Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,

Onam Kerala, Pondicherry

Raja Parba Orissa

Mahalaya Karnataka, West Bengal, Assam, Orissa

Dhan Teras (aka Dhan

Maharashtra, Orissa, Assam,

Goverdhan Pooja all states

Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,

Uttarakhand,Uttar Pradesh,Bihar,and some parts of Rajasthan and

Visvakarma Puja Orissa, West Bengal

Chhath Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh

Bathukamma Andhra Pradesh

Bonalu Andhra Pradesh

Mawlid or Eid-e-Milād-un-Nabī being celebrated in a town in Uttar Pradesh.

1.5.2 Banks in India

Nationalised Banks/Public-sector Banks

SBI and Associate Banks

1.6 TOP FESTIVALS AND TOURIST ATTRACTION

Krishna Janmashtami, also known as Govinda, signifies the birthday of Lord

1.7 IMPORTANT TRAVEL AGENTS AND TOUR

1.8 LET US SUM UP

1.9 LESSON END ACTIVITY

Umbrella Industry: An umbrella company is a company that acts as an employer to

1.11 QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

Check Your Progress: Model Answers

2.2 THE SCOPE AND OPERATION OF THE TOURISM

2.3 IMPORTANT TRAVEL AGENT AND TOUR

2.3.1 Benefits of Booking Tours

2.3.2 Types of Tours

2.3.4 Marketing Yourself

2.4 PERCEPTION OF THE TOURISM WORLDWIDE

Finally, having standardized definitions enables tourism researchers to make

Principles of Travel & Tourism Operations & Aviation Safety

Principles of Travel & Tourism Operations & Aviation Safety