Unit one - they can move
chlamydomonas
1. Microorganisms
1.1. Bacteria
 micro-organism a very small organism,
usually having just one cell ,although
some do contain more than one cell
 There are five main groups of micro-
organisms, although each group can be
subdivided. These groups are
 Protozoa
 some fungi
 some algae
 viruses
 bacteria
 Protozoa are unicellular organisms that
lack a cell wall.
 Most of them are motile (able to
move), and include organisms such
as Amoeba, Plasmodium (the
organism that causes malaria), and
Paramecium.
 Fungus (plural fungi,) a eukaryotic
organism that obtains its nutrition using
extracellular digestion. A fungus is
neither a plant nor an animal
 The only unicellular fungi are the
yeasts.
 These include brewer’s yeast and
baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces)
 Although the yeasts are the only
unicellular fungi, other fungi are also
classed as micro-organisms.
 Many fungi produce a mycelium of
microscopic strands called hyphae
- mycelium the collection of very fine
strands that makes up a fungus
- Each strand is called a hypha
 Algae are an important group of
organisms
 a single-celled organism that
obtains its nutrition using
photosynthesis
 some algae are unicellular
 Some unicellular algae are motile
such as
What are bacterial cells like?
They have prokaryotic cells.
In prokaryotic cells there is no true
nucleus separated from the rest of the
cell by a membrane
not all bacteria have a capsule and a
flagellum
All bacteria do have a cell wall
some posses cell walls that is made
from a substance called
peptidoglycan, which makes it rigid
- peptidoglycan a complex
molecule made from sugars and
amino acids
Although bacterial cells vary a great
deal in size, they are usually much
smaller than eukaryotic cells.
Bacterial cells are usually between 1
and 10 pm long, whereas eukaryotic
cells are between 10 and 100 pm
long. (1 pm is 0.001 mm, one-
thousandth of one millimetre.
 Are all bacteria the same shapes
o No - there are several shapes,
sizes and arrangements.
Bacterial cells come in three
main shapes:
- cocci (singular, coccus) - spherical
bacteria
- bacilli (singular, bacillus) - rod-
shaped bacteria
- spirochaetes - spiral or corkscrew-
shaped bacteria
 Are there other ways of classifying
bacteria?
- Bacteria can be classified in other
ways, besides their shape
- One of these ways is whether or not
they are coloured by Gram’s stain.
- This test gives two categories
- Gram’s stain is types of differential
stain that produce different results
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 - Gram-positive - these bacteria are
stained purple by Gram’s stain
- Gram-negative - these bacteria are
stained pink by Gram’s stain
- The difference is due to the structure
of the cell wall of the different
bacteria.
- Gram-negative bacteria have much
less peptidoglycan in their cell
walls.
- This is the part of the wall that
absorbs the stain.
- They also have a membrane outside
the peptidoglycan cell wall, which
Gram-positive bacteria do not have.
- This outer membrane secretes
endotoxins (a type of toxin that is a
structural component of these
bacteria) and is also quite resistant to
many antibiotics
- This makes diseases caused by
Gram-negative bacteria more
difficult to treat.
- Gram-negative bacteria, on the
whole, cause more serious diseases,
although there are exceptions - the
bacterium that causes tuberculosis is
a Gram-positive bacterium.
1.2. The ecology and uses of bacteria
Where are bacteria found?
- Bacteria are found in every
ecosystem - they are pretty well
everywhere around you - and
everywhere inside you as well
Bacteria are important because they:
- cause diseases
- are used in many industrial processes
- recycle mineral elements such as
carbon, nitrogen and sulphur through
ecosystems
What is the role of bacteria and other
microorganisms in infectious diseases?
- As we have already learned, the theory
that some diseases are caused by the
invasion of the body by micro-organisms
- The theory that disease can be caused by
micro-organisms is called the germ
theory.
- Organisms that cause disease are called
pathogens.
- A disease that is caused by a micro-
organism infecting the body is an
infectious disease
How are disease-causing micro-organisms
transmitted?
- The origin of micro-organisms that
infect other people is called the
reservoir of infection.
- This is the principal habitat from which
an infectious agent may spread to cause
disease.
- Reservoirs of infection include:-
Human beings, other animals, soil, food,
air and contaminated objects
What other types of disease are there?
 Disease can be caused by a number of
other factors.
1. Human induced diseases are
diseases that arise as a result of a
person's lifestyle.
- Examples include many cancers,
together with some forms of heart
disease and fibrosis
2. Degenerative diseases often result
from the ageing process during which
the affected tissues deteriorate over
time due to simple 'wear and tea
Genetic diseases are diseases that
result from the action of mutated
genes
- Haemophilia and sickle-cell disease
are examples of genetic diseases
3. Deficiency diseases are diseases that
result from a lack of a nutrient in our
diet
- Including scurvy (caused by a lack
of vitamin C) and kwashiorkor
(caused by a lack of protein)
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4. Social activities can lead to disease.
Social diseases, including alcoholism
and drug addiction
The role of bacteria in an ecosystem
 The role of bacteria in recycling
minerals through ecosystems
 Many elements are recycled in this
way, including
- carbon
- nitrogen
- sulphur
- phosphorus
The nitrogen cycle
 The element nitrogen is found in many
important organic molecules in all
living organisms. These include:
- proteins
- DNA
- RNA
- ATP
 Several different types of bacteria are
involved in this recycling of nitrogen
The sulphur cycle
 Sulphur is found in fewer types of
organic molecule than nitrogen, but it is
found in many proteins.
How are bacteria used in industrial
processes?
Food and beverage fermentation
 Bacteria and other micro-organisms
have been used in manufacturing
processes for thousands of years
 They have been used to make:
alcohol, bread vinegar as well as
many other products
Genetically modified bacteria are also
- insulin
- human growth hormone
- antibiotics
- enzymes for washing powders
- human vaccines, such as the vaccine
against hepatitis B
- They have also been used in key
processes such as sewage treatment
Sewage treatment
 All types of sewage treatment rely on the
action of a range of microorganisms to
oxidise the organic matter present in
sewage
 There are two main methods
 The percolating filter method
- Sewage is screened to remove large
pieces of debris
- it stands in a large settlement tank to
allow suspended matter to settle out
 The activated sludge method
- activated sludge, rich in micro-
organisms, is added
- oxygen is blown through the
mixture
How bacteria are genetically modified?
 Genetic engineering the practice of
transferring genes from one
organism to another organism
(either belonging to the same species
or belonging to a different species)
 Genes are sections of the DNA of an
organism that code for a particular
protein.
So if a gene can be transferred
successfully from one organism into
a bacterium,
The genetically modified bacterium
will now make the protein that its
‘new gene’ codes for.
The development of three main
techniques made genetic engineering
possible.
 The discovery that genes can be
‘cut’ out of a DNA molecule using
enzymes called restriction
endonucleases
 The discovery that genes can be
inserted (‘tied’) into another DNA
molecule using a ligase enzyme.
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  Genes can be transferred into other
cells using vectors
 These are usually either plasmids
(small pieces of circular DNA
found in bacteria), or viruses.
Once the gene has been inserted into the
new bacterium, the bacterium becomes a
genetically modified or transgenic
1.3 What are viruses
 A virus particle (sometimes called a
virion) is nothing like either a
prokaryotic cell or a eukaryotic cell
 Viruses are much smaller than even
the smallest bacterium. Most are
between 0.01 and 0.1 pm in length or
diameter
 they do not have the major
organelles that are present in living
cells, virus particles can’t carry out
any of the normal metabolic
processes of cells, such as:
- respiration
- protein synthesis
- DNA replication
- photosynthesis
- active transport
- facilitated diffusion
- any other process requiring
control by enzymes or the
presence of proteins
Feature Virion (virus particle)
Size 0.01-0.1 pm
Nucleus Absent
Tiny amount of linear DNA in
DNA
some; others contain RNA but no
Absent
Other cell
organelles
Classifying viruses
It is difficult to classify viruses because,
even though they have a basic structure
they can be classified into three main
groups based on
The nature of their genetic material and
the way in which it is expressed. These
groups are:
 DNA viruses - contains genetic
information stored in the form of
DNA
 example, Herpes simplex (causes
cold sores)
 RNA viruses - contains genetic
information stored in the form of
RNA
 example, H1N1 virus (causes
swine flu)
 Retroviruses - an RNA virus that
converts its genetic information
from RNA into DNA after it has
infected a host
 example, HIV (causes AIDS)
Viruses can also be classified by the type
of organism they infect:
- animal-infecting viruses
- plant-infecting viruses
- bacteria-infecting viruses –
o bacteriophages a virus that
uses a bacteria to replicate its
genetic information
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Unit two
2. Ecology
 Ecology is the scientific study of
interaction between organisms and
their environment, focusing on energy
transformation
 It is the science of relationships
The common biological terms to be
understood under the concept of ecology
are:-
 Species – a group of organisms of
a single type that are capable of
producing fertile offspring in the
natural environment
 Population – all members of
species that live in the same areas
and make up a breeding group
 Community – refers to the
populations in one area
 Habitat – Physical area in which
an organism lives
 Niche – refers to the way of life of
a species
2.1. Cycling matter through ecosystems
 Biome – a geographic area
characterized by specific kinds of
plants and animals
 Biosphere – the area on and
around earth where life exists
 Biotic – refers to living component
of an ecosystem
 Abiotic – refers to a non-living
component of an ecosystem
 Cycle – a series of events that are
regularly repeated in the same
order.
 Succession – the process where
one ecosystem replaces another
ecosystem.
 Primary succession – ecological
succession of an area where no
community has been destroyed.
 Secondary succession:- ecological
succession on a surface where
original community has been
destroyed
 Pioneer organisms – the first
organisms colonizing an
ecological area
 Climax community – the last seral
stage in an ecological
succession .a stable community.
 Predator – an animal that captures
and feeds on another animal
 Prey – an animal being captured
to be eaten
 Sere – a complete orderly
succession
 Biodiversity – refers to the number
and variety of organisms in a
given area during a specific period
of time
 Demographic transition – a model
that seeks to explain the
transformation of countries from
having high birth and death rates
to low birth and death rates.
 Ecosystem – all the biotic and
abiotic components of an
environment
 All the organisms in the ecosystem
are interdependent and interact with
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 their physical environment
 Materials are moved around an
ecosystem when organisms:
- Feed
- Excrete
- respire and breathe
- die and are decomposed
 So, as materials are moved, energy is
transferred also
 The nutrients just keep on being
recycled
Recycling – returning to a previous
stage in a cycle process
It maintains homeostasis (balance) in
the environment
 decomposers (bacteria and fungi) are
key in returning nutrients to the
ecosystem
 Important mineral elements such as
nitrogen and phosphorus are returned to
plants as a result of the action of
decomposers
What are the main stages in the carbon
cycle?
Carbon cycle is the process where
carbon compounds are interchanged
among the biosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the
earth.
Following are the major steps involved
in the process of the carbon cycle:
1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is
absorbed by plants for photosynthesis
2. These plants are then consumed by
animals and carbon gets bio-
accumulated into their bodies
3. These animals and plants eventually
die, and upon decomposing, carbon is
released back into the atmosphere
4. Some of the carbon that is not released
back into the atmosphere eventually
becomes fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for
man-made activities, which pumps
more carbon back into the atmosphere
What are the main stages in the
nitrogen cycle?
 Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical
process which transforms the inert
nitrogen present in the atmosphere to a
more usable form for living organisms.”
 Process of Nitrogen Cycle consists of the
following steps:-
A. Nitrogen fixation process: it is the
initial step of the nitrogen cycle. Here,
Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) which is
primarily available in an inert form, is
converted into the usable form
-ammonia (NH3)
 Azotobacter and Rhizobium also have a
major role in this process
B. Nitrification: In this process, the
ammonia is converted into nitrate by
the presence of bacteria in the soil. 
 Nitrites are formed by the oxidation
of Ammonia with the help of
Nitrosomonas bacterium species
 The reaction involved in the process
of Nitrification is as follows:
2NH4+ + 3O2 → 2NO2– + 4H+ + 2H2O
2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–
C. Assimilation
 Primary producers – plants take in the
nitrogen compounds from the soil
with the help of their roots, which are
available in the form of ammonia,
nitrite ions, nitrate ions or ammonium
ions and are used in the formation of
the plant and animal proteins.
D. Ammonification
 When plants or animals die,
the nitrogen present in the organic
matter is released back into the soil.
 The decomposers, namely bacteria or
fungi present in the soil, convert the
organic matter back into ammonium.
This process of
decomposition produces ammonia,
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 which is further used for other made soil
biological processes. • Known as pioneer species
E. Denitrification • Soil starts to form as lichens and the
forces of weather and erosion help
 Denitrification is the process in
break down rocks into smaller pieces
which the nitrogen compounds
makes their way back into the • When lichens die, they decompose,
atmosphere by converting nitrate adding small amounts of organic
(NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). matter to the rock to make soil
 This process of the nitrogen cycle is Secondary Succession
the final stage and occurs in the
• Begins in a place that already has
absence of oxygen.
 Denitrification is carried out by soil and was once the home of living
the denitrifying bacterial species- organisms
Clostridium and Pseudomonas, • Occurs faster and has different
which will process nitrate to gain pioneer species than primary
oxygen and gives out free nitrogen succession
gas as a byproduct. Example: after forest fires
2.2. Ecological succession Climax Community
- Natural, gradual changes in the types • A stable group of plants and animals
of species that live in an area that is the end result of the
OR succession process
- The gradual replacement of one plant • Does not always mean big trees
community by another through – Grasses in prairies
natural processes over – Cacti in deserts
- The various stages in a succession are Threats to Climax Communities
called seres
• Forest Fires
There are two main types of Ecological
Succession • Humans building cities and roads
• Primary Succession: The process of • Flooding, Volcanic eruptions
creating life in an area where no life • Clearing a community for
previously existed. agricultural purposes
• Secondary Succession: The process • Anything that destroys the existing
of re-stabilization that follows a community, but much of the soil remains
disturbance in an area where life has A summary of changes that occur during
formed an ecosystem. succession:
Primary Succession • Pioneer species colonize a bare or
• Begins in a place without any soil: disturbed site. Soil building.
» Sides of volcanoes • Changes in the physical environment
» Landslides occur (e.g., light, moisture).
» Flooding • New species of plants displace
• First, lichens that do not need soil to existing plants because their
survive grow on rocks seedlings are better able to become
established in the changed
• Next, mosses grow to hold newly
environment.
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 • Newly arriving species alter the
physical conditions, often in ways
that enable other species to become
established.
• Animals come in with or after the
plants they need to survive
• Eventually a climax community that
is more or less stable will become
established and have the ability to
reproduce itself.
• Disturbances will start the process of
succession again
2.3. Biomes
A biome is a large geographical area of
distinctive plant and animal groups,
which are adapted to that particular
environment.
The climate and geography of a region
determines what type of biome can
exist in that region
To understand a world biome, you need
to know:
• What the climate of the region is
like.
• Where each biome is found and what
its geography is like.
• The soil order(s) that characterize the
biome and those processes involved
in soil development.
• The special adaptations of
vegetation.
• The types of animals found in the
biome and their physical and
behavioural adaptations to their
environment.
• Human adaptation
Biomes can be classified in to two main
types
 Terrestrial and Aquatic
A. Terrestrial
 Desert : Hot and Cold
 Tundra
 Taiga
 Temperate deciduous forest
 Tropical mountain forest
 Tropical rainforest
Tundra
 Tundra = extremely cold and dry
biome.
 Usually receives NO more
precipitation than a desert biome.
 Most soil is frozen all year long
(permafrost)
 During summer, the top layer of
soil thaws, but the rest remains
frozen.
BOREAL FOREST (Taiga)
– Mostly contains coniferous trees
Ex. Fir, Spruce, Hemlock…
– Very cold winters (a lot of snow).
– Warm and rainy summers
DECIDUOUS FOREST
• Deciduous trees= Trees that shed
their leaves and grow new ones each
year (Oaks, Maples…)
• Receive enough rain to support the
growth of trees and other plants (at
least 50 cm per year).
• Growing season is 5 to 6 months
the
long.
B. AQUATIC
 Marine
 Oceanic pelagic
 Oceanic abyssal
 Coral reef
 Estuarine
 Fresh water
 Ponds and Lakes
 Streams and rivers
 Wetlands
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 2.4. BIODIVERSITY
The variety of life in the world or in a
particular habitat or ecosystem
This is quite simply the number of
different species that are present in an
ecosystem
The Simpson’s Diversity Index takes
into account both the number
and abundance of species and is a
useful means of comparing
similar habitats in different areas
The equation for the Simpson’s
Diversity Index is:
N ( N  1)
D
n( n  1)
N = total number of organisms of all species
at a given site
n = total number of organisms of a particular
species
- Example
A higher diversity index suggests a
number of successful species and a more
stable ecosystem
So, biodiversity is a measure of the
overall variability of life on the planet
(or a local area) and it includes:
- the species richness and species
diversity of the planet (or the local
area)
- the ecological variability of each
species the genetic variability of each
species
Human influence on biodiversity
– Deforestation
– Agricultural practice
Deforestation is usually carried out for
one of two reasons.
- To clear land for human activities,
such as mining, agriculture or
house building.
- To obtain timber to make products
such as paper, charcoal, furniture
or to use as a building materials
Effects of agriculture on biodiversity is
that:-
- Large areas of land are given over
to the production of just one crop
plant such as maize or another
cereal.
Status of biodiversity in Africa
 A quarter (1229 spp)of the
worlds, approximately 4700
mammal spp occurs in Africa,
including:-
 960 species in sub-Saharan
Africa
 137 species in Madagascar
 Eastern and southern savannas
host large populations of
mammals including at least 79
species
 More than a fifth (10000) bird
species found in the world is
found in Africa and about 1600
bird species are endemic in SSA.
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  About 950 species of amphibians
are found in Africa.
Biodiversity in Ethiopia
 Better than most African countries
 Considered as important regional
center of biodiversity
 estimated as between 6500 and
6700 plant species are found in the
country
 represent the fifth most diverse
flora in Africa
 10-12%(1150)plant species are
endemic
 is one of the 12 centers of origin
of cultivated crops
 about 46 legumes are endemic to
Ethiopia
 ethiopia is also important center of
genetic diversity of forage plants.
 ex clover and vigna
 Orderly at about the following
numbers of vertebrates are endemic to
Ethiopia
o Birds-----------------27
o Mammals------------22
o Amphibians----------17
o Fish-------------------4
o Reptiles---------------3
Practices with direct effects
biodiversity
• deforestation
• Fuel wood collection and illegal
logging
• Overgrazing by stock animals
• introduction of improved
varieties
• Overhunting(poaching)
• introduction of alien invasive species
Practices with indirect effects on
biodiversity
• Governance systems, institutions and
values
• Economic development
• technological development
• Demographic trends
• welfare(poverty and equity)
 According to the 2005, ethiopian
institute of biodiversity conservation
in Addis Ababa put forward
recommendations of two categories
based on
- Ecological consideration
- Socioeconomic considerations
Why is biodiversity loss a concern?
 What are the main links between
biodiversity and human well-being?
–  Food security
–  Vulnerability
–  Health
–  Energy security
–  Provision of clean water
–  Social relations
–  Freedom of choice and action
–  Basic materials for a good life
and sustainable livelihoods
 We are losing 10% of our biodiversity
every 50 years.
 There are three guiding ideas of
conservation
on  Research
 Minimum intervention
 Repair rather than replace
POPULATION
- Population:
• All the individuals of a species that
crop live together in an area
- Demography:
• The statistical study of populations,
allows predictions to be made
about how a population will
change
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Factors affecting the size of population
There are three factors that directly
affect numbers:
– natality - birth rate
– mortality - death rate
– migration - movement into
(immigration) and out of
(emigration) the area
Other factors influence mortality and
natality
These factors can be divided into two  Arithmetic Growth:-a case in which
main categories: the numbers increase by the same
 Biotic factors - the effects of other fixed amount in each time period.Ex.5
organisms of the same species or of a 10 15 20…
different species
Example:-
- predation - the presence of a
carnivore (predator) or herbivore, in
the case of plants
- disease - infection by micro-
organisms can reduce productivity
and may be fatal
- intra-specific competition -
competition between members of the
same species
- inter-specific competition -
competition between members of  As a result of the combined influence of
different species some or all of the biotic and abiotic
 Abiotic factors - the effects of factors described above, most
factors in the physical environment populations develop through four main
(light, temperature, carbon dioxide stages
concentration, oxygen concentration, Phase What is happening Effect on population size
Lag Numbers remain low and static or
physical space, etc.) Population establishing
increase slowly.
itself; some organisms are
How Do Populations Grow? not adapted to the
environment and die,
 Idealized models describe two kinds of others reproduce.
Log All are adapted and Numbers increase rapidly.
population growth:
reproduce rapidly due to
 Exponential Growth: the population plentiful resources.
Stationary The carrying capacity is Numbers remain fairly constant;
doubles in each time period, reached; the same they fluctuate about a 'mean' level.
producing an ever increasing growth numbers are dying as are
produced in reproduction.
rate that is clearly not sustainable in
nature

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Phase What is happening Effect on population size
Decline Nutrients exhausted, a new Numbers decline rapidly.
disease strikes or toxic
excretory products
accumulate.

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