Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Subject: History

Unit2 : Pre-Historic Hunter Gatherers

Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Author : Shibani Bose
College/Department : Ph.D Scholar, Department of History,
University of Delhi

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Table of contents

Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

 2.1: Telling our story: Hominid evolution and the stone age
 Summary
 Exercises
 Glossary
 Further readings

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

2.1: Telling our story: hominid evolution and the stone age
Understanding hominid evolution: in search of ourselves

In biological terms, evolution means that living organisms have their origin in other
pre-existing forms and biological changes in successive generations over time can
result in substantial differences and the emergence of new species. Zoologically
speaking, humans belong to a family called hominid with the genus or structural
characteristics called homo. So, when we refer to hominid evolution, we are
referring to the gradual process by which we developed as human beings from now
extinct primates. The tale begins when, along with apes, we formed a part of a
larger group called the primates, which was the earliest order of mammals. Over
time, for reasons uncertain, we diverged from the apes and moved towards
becoming what we are today through various, now extinct stages like Homo habilis
(handy man), Homo erectus (upright man) and Homo sapiens (thinking man).

Value addition: did you know?

The difference between species and genus
By species we mean a group of biological populations that can actually or
potentially interbreed and have fertile offspring and are reproductively
isolated from other species. Genus includes a group of closely related species.
For instance, Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo sapiens belong to the same
genus – Homo. The second word, in each case, for instance, habilis, erectus,
sapiens, represents the species. Hence, the genus is the same but differences
in physical aspects like height, body build, facial features etc. determine the
species.
Source: Original

What makes us human?

Human-ness, according to Singh (2009, 61) includes cultural as well as biological

characteristics and these have always been interdependent. The march of evolution is
characterised by crucial biological markers such as an increase in the brain size, changes in
the pelvic structure and the beginnings of bipedalism (walking upright on two legs) as well
as changes in the dental structure due to changing food habits. Bipedalism is the most
important and distinctive difference between humans and apes. The ability to walk erect on
two legs left our hands free to make and use tools while an increased brain size enabled us
to think, remember and plan better. The cultural implications of these changes then made
way for more complex behaviour that became evident with the emergence of ideas of social
organization, the beginnings of language and symbolic thought reflected in art.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Value addition: audio-visual clip with timeline

Walking tall
Source: www.teachersdomain.org/.../tdc02.sci.life.evo.lp_humanevo/

Figure 2.1.1: The 1 percent difference: humans are distinct from chimpanzees in a
number of important respects, despite sharing nearly 99 percent of their DNA. New
analyses are revealing what sets our species apart.
Source: www.scientificamerican.com

The trail begins

According to the Bible, God created nature and man to perfection in seven days as
per a divine plan. This view came to be sharply challenged in the 19 th century when
Charles Robert Darwin, a British scientist, laid the foundations of the theory of
evolution and transformed the way the natural world was seen. In his book On the
Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection (1859), he proposed a theory of
evolution occurring by the process of natural selection. He argued that the animals
and plants best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and
reproduce, passing on the characteristics which helped them survive, to their
offspring. Gradually, the species changes and improves over time.

Interestingly as well as ironically, though Darwin called his book On the Origin of
Species, the one thing he could not explain was how species originated. He only

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

suggested a mechanism for how a species might become better and fitter. He also
did not use the phrase ‗survival of the fittest‘, the expression being coined much
later in 1864 by Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology. Nor did he employ the
word ‗evolution‘ in print until the sixth edition of Origin, preferring instead ‗descent
with modification‘ (Bryson 2005, 482-489). In 1861, in his book, The Descent of
Man, Darwin announced, ―Man is descended from a hairy, tailed quadruped,
probably arboreal in its habits‖. In 1863, Thomas Henry Huxley extended Darwin‘s
idea of evolution to human beings in his work, Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature.

Figure 2.1.2: This caricature appeared in the satirical magazine The Hornet in 1871,
after Darwin's book, The Descent of Man, was published. In it, Darwin showed that
humans, like all other species, are "descended from some lower form."

Source:
http://www.time.com/time/photogallery/0,29307,1878478_1842307,00.html

Value addition: interesting details

About Darwin’s theory of evolution
For a long time, Darwin kept his theory to himself because he seems to have
anticipated the unrest it would create. Though an immediate commercial
success, On the Origin of Species was no less controversial because it went

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

against existing beliefs about how the world was created and was as a result,
violently opposed, particularly by the Church. An amusing remark attributed
to the wife of the Bishop of Worcester after Darwin‘s theory of evolution was
explained to her, said, ‗ Descended from the apes! My dear, let us hope that it
is not true, but if it is, let us pray that it will not become generally known.‘
Source: Bryson, Bill. 2005. A Short History of Nearly Everything.
London: Transworld Publishers, 520.

Keeping in mind that evolution works by infinitely slow stages, we travel back in time
to tell our story. The earth is nearly 4500 million years old. The evolution of its crust
shows four stages associated with the evolution of life forms: Primary (Palaeozoic),
Secondary (Mesozoic) and Tertiary and Quaternary which together form the Cenozoic
or the age of mammals, dated to about 100 million years ago (mya). The Cenozoic is
then divided into seven epochs: Palaeocene (65 mya), Eocene (54 mya), Oligocene
(38 mya), Miocene (25 mya), Pliocene (5.1 mya), Pleistocene (ice age—2 mya) and
Holocene (post ice age—0.01 mya). Though organic life on earth began as early as
3500 million years ago, the arrival of humans was much later. Hence, the human
story unfolds only in the Pleistocene and Holocene.
Palaeo-environment or the study of prehistoric environments is central to our
understanding of the forces that influenced our journey. It has helped us in
reconstructing the environment in which prehistoric people lived and the milieu in
which the drama of evolution unfolded.
In its long life span, the earth has experienced several ice ages and interglacials,
corresponding to alternating periods of cold and warmer climate. The colder periods
are termed ‗glacials‘ and the warmer ones ‗interglacials‘. During the cold phases, ice
sheets covered one-third of the earth‘s surface and sea levels fell drastically. When
the climate became warmer, the ice melted and sea levels rose. The most recent ice
age is what we call the Pleistocene, during which large areas of the landmass were
covered with ice, and there were successive glacial advances and retreats. The Lower
Pleistocene began around 1.6 million years ago, the Middle Pleistocene 730,000
years ago and the Upper Pleistocene about 127,000 years ago and ended about
10,000 years ago. The Pleistocene climate was extremely cold and arid. The flora
comprised of mainly hedges and bushes and the fauna of giant hairy animals. Within
the limits of the resources available, early humans could only resort to a hunting-
gathering and scavenging way of life.

Dramatic climatic changes around 10,000 years ago brought to an end the last ice age and
ushered in the Holocene or the present geological age, marked by the retreat of ice sheets
and rising temperatures throughout the world. The melting of several million square
kilometers of ice resulted in rising sea levels. The landscape changed, as areas previously
under ice became available for habitation. Similarly, the areas close to former ice-sheets
and glaciers also changed. The onset of the warmer and milder climate of the Holocene
permitted denser vegetation that provided shelter to a wider range of fauna that could now
be relied upon for subsistence.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Value addition: did you know?

How our subcontinent acquired its present form
Millions of years ago, the Indian peninsula was joined together with South
America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica as part of a huge landmass called
Gondwanaland. Sometime in the Mesozoic era (225mya–65mya), as a result
of movements in the earth‘s crust, the Indian landmass began to drift apart to
eventually join the Asian landmass between 50 and 35 mya. The impact of
the collision of the Indian and Asian plates resulted in the creation of the
Tibetan plateau and the Himalayas. The sediments brought down from the
mountains by the rivers created the fertile northern alluvial plain. The process
is still on, with the Himalayas and the Tibetan plateau continuing to rise at an
average of 5 – 10 mm per year.
Source: Singh, Upinder. 2009. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval
India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson
Longman, 65.

What fossils say: an overview

―Figuring out the story of human origins is like assembling a huge, complicated jigsaw
puzzle that has lost most of its pieces. Many will never be found, and those that do turn up
are sometimes hard to place. Every so often, though, fossil hunters stumble upon a
discovery that fills in a big chunk of the puzzle all at once —and simultaneously reshapes
the very picture they thought they were building.‖(TIME, October 1, 2009)

Palaeo-anthropology or the study of the earliest phases of human history, using fossil
evidence has greatly helped in putting together the story of human evolution. Other sources
that help us to reconstruct the picture include structural remains, plant and animal remains,
burials, rock art and most importantly stone tools. What unfolds, is a fascinating tale of
evolution and adaptation against odds like geological upheavals, climatic changes and
biological factors.

Value addition: audio-visual clip with timeline

http://www.becominghuman.org/
https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/lan/en/atlas.html
Source: Institute of Human Origins, Arizona State University and
National Geographic respectively.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Our story begins in Africa with the discovery of the remains of a hominid of the
Australopithecus genus that lived between 4.4 and 1.8 mya. Its upright position was
indicated by foot-prints found on cold lava-ash at Laetoli in Tanzania and the discovery at
Hadar (Ethiopia) in 1974, of a skeleton estimated to be 3.2 million years old, of a female
nicknamed Lucy. It is likely that the Australopithecines used naturally available material as
tools but there is no conclusive evidence to establish them as toolmakers.

Value addition: did you know?

How fossil Lucy got her name
As the retrieved fossil remains of what seemed to have been a woman were
being investigated, what played in the background on a tape recorder in the
camp was the song ―Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds‖ by the legendary
rockband of the 1960‘s, the Beatles. The fossil thus picked up the nickname
Lucy and has carried it ever since.
Source: Original

In this context, it is important to keep in mind the new discoveries of fossils from
Chad (Sahelanthropus tchadensis—7mya), Kenya (Orrorin tugenensis—6mya) and
Ethiopia (Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba—6mya). If these are considered, the
human record may go back to seven million years ago, revealing the earliest
hominids (Chakrabarti 2006, 20).

Value addition: new discoveries

Ardi fossil discovery: new human evolution puzzle piece
The beauty of Ardi are its good bones. The completeness of its skeleton allows
scientists to compare Ardipithecus directly with Lucy's genus,
Australopithecus, its probable descendant. Perhaps most important, Ardi
provides clues to what the last common ancestor shared by humans and
chimps might have looked like before their lineages diverged about 7 million
years ago.
Source:
http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1927200,00.html?
artId
=1927200?contType=article?chn=sciHealth

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Figure 2.1.3: The remains of Ardipithecus ramidus

Source:
http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1927200,00.html?artId=1927200
?contType=article?chn=sciHealth

The earliest stone tools found in association with hominid fossil remains at Hadar
have been dated to about 2.5mya. The sites of Koobi Fora in Kenya and the Olduvai
gorge in Tanzania yielded the fossil remains of the earliest representatives of the
genus Homo—Homo habilis, dated about 2mya. The species named by Louis
Leakey, was so called because it was the first hominid to use tools, though very
simple ones. Conventionally, the Homo line begins with Homo habilis and concludes
with us Homo sapiens sapiens. In between, there were half a dozen other Homo
species, opinions on which are divided. These include Homo ergaster, Homo
neanderthalensis, Homo rudolfensis, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo erectus and
Homo antecessor (Bryson 2005, 559).

Homo habilis seems to have merged into his successor, Homo erectus in the
evolutionary chain. According to Bryson (2005, 561), Homo erectus was the
dividing line: everything that came before him was ape-like in character;
everything that came after him was human-like. The species first emerged in east
Africa around 1.7 mya and is considered to have spread to various parts of Africa,
Europe, Asia and China, where they later on developed into various local species
such as ‗Java man‘ (Pithecanthropus), ‗Peking man‘ (Sinathropus) and the
‗Neanderthal man‘ of Europe. This suggestion was made on the basis of the

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

similarity between early stone tools found across the globe. However, some
scholars disagree with this view, arguing that the human mind is able enough to
produce similar cultural equipment (tools and weapons) even without any external
influence.

Homo erectus is credited with a technological advance from crude stones to hand axes,
picks and cleavers. The discovery of fire is also attributed to the species. Though there is
some debate about when and where fire came to be used first, this undoubtedly was a
remarkable achievement, crucial for survival. A lump of burnt clay from Chesowanga
(Kenya) dated 1.4 mya is argued to be the earliest evidence of the use of fire. The caves of
Swartkrans (South Africa) dated 1 mya is arguably another site that attests to the early use
of fire. However, in the absence of traces of a fire place at these places, the caves of
Choukou-tien (China) which yielded a piece of charcoal found in a 500,000 BC context, are
suggested to offer better evidence.

The first Homo sapiens appeared a little less than 500,000 years ago. Around
130,000 years ago appeared the Homo sapiens neanderthalis (Neanderthals) in
parts of western and central Asia and Europe. We however, do not know if this
species went on to become extinct or evolved into Homo sapiens and hence till
further evidence comes along, the ‗Neanderthal debate‘ over the fate that befell this
species will remain unresolved.

Apart from Africa and Europe, Asia has also yielded hominid remains. Homo erectus
remains from Java, dated between 1 to 2 mya were devoid of stone tools but
associated with animal bones of many species. The Zhoukoudian caves, 50 km
south-west of Beijing also yielded Homo erectus remains dated between 0.58 to
0.25 mya together with a large number of stone tools and animal bones.

Then sometime between 195,000 and 150,00 years ago in Africa, appeared the
modern day species of Homo sapiens sapiens, which eventually replaced all other
Homo species. In this context, the most important human fossil evidence found in
association with stone tools and animal bones comes from the site of Herto in
Ethiopia in levels dated between 160,000 to 154,00 years ago.

In view of the fossil finds discussed so far, it is hardly surprising that the story of
human evolution has mainly centred on Africa, where fossil finds go back almost to
the time when hominids separated from the chimpanzees. Even as far as the
beginning of modern humans or Homo sapiens is concerned, all the evidence put
together seems to point strongly to Africa.

This then leads us to the single centre and the multiregional theories of evolution
(Chakrabarti 2006,21). Those who support the single centre theory of evolution argue that
modern humans evolved in Africa and then migrated to various parts of Asia and Europe
and that they totally replaced the earlier populations including the Neanderthals.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

A minority opinion, however, supports the idea of a multiregional evolution of

modern humans. This theory traces modern populations back to the time when
humans first left Africa around two million years ago and spread out to different
continents where they independently evolved from Homo erectus and archaic Homo
sapiens into modern Homo sapiens sapiens more or less simultaneously.

Value addition: common misconceptions

About evolution
Evolution was not a neat process with one species making way for another.
There is evidence indicating the overlap and co-existence of species. For
instance, the Olduvai gorge in Tanzania gave evidence for the co-existence of
Homo habilis and Australopithecus and so did the eastern Mediterranean of
the co-existence of the Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans.
Source: Singh, Upinder. 2009. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval
India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson
Longman, 63-64.

In contrast to the wealth of fossil finds just discussed, the evidence for hominid fossil
remains in the Indian sub-continent is found seriously wanting, largely as a result of
inadequate investigations. Explorations in the outer range of the Himalayas, known as the
Siwaliks, from the nineteenth century onwards, yielded the remains of fossil apes with
names like Ramapithecus, Sivapithecus and Brahmapithecus. Of these, the Ramapithecus
was once thought to be the oldest direct ancestor of modern humans. This view, however,
now stands contested with new dating techniques and a review of the fossil evidence.

In 1966, Louis Dupree discovered early human skeletal remains for South Asia at
the cave-site of Darra-i-Kur in north-east Afghanistan from a deposit with a radio
carbon date of 30,000+ 1900 – 1200 BP (Before Present) or 28,950+ 1960 – 1235
BCE.The remains seemed to fit in with those of Neanderthals as well as
anatomically modern humans. The stone tools found in association seem to suggest
a middle palaeolithic context. Cave sites in Sri Lanka including Fa Hien Lena,
Batadomba Lena, Beli Lena and Alu Lena also yielded the remains of anatomically
modern humans in contexts dating between 37,000 – 10,500 BP.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Figure 2.1.4: Batadomba-lena cave, Sri Lanka (29,000–9,500 B.C.),

where the remains of prehistoric humans have been found.

Source: http://www.thehindu.com/.../20040618003109700.htm

On 5th December 1982, Arun Sonakia of the Geological Survey of India, found a
partially preserved hominid skull-cap along with some vertebrate fossils and a few
late Acheulian tools near Hathnora village on the northern bank of the river
Narmada, about 40 km north-east of Hoshangabad. It seemed to have belonged to
a woman about 30 years old and Sonakia, in view of her large brain capacity range
of 1155 to 1421 cc, suggested that she represented an advanced variety of Homo
erectus and hence named her Homo erectus narmadensis. Other scholars have
argued in favour of the skull having belonged to an early (archaic) variety of Homo
sapiens. Though its date remains uncertain, it is placed in the early part of the
middle Pleistocene, beginning around 500,000 BP.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Figure 2.1.5: Dr Arun Sonakia of the Geological Survey of India, displays the human fossil,
a skull, approx 6 lakh years old, which has been recovered from the right bank of Narmada
river in Madhya Pradesh, in New Delhi.
Source: www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20021116/nation.htm

As a result of the Hathnora discovery, a massive search for hominid fossils and tools was
launched between 1983 and 1992 in the central Narmada valley. By 1997, A.R. Sankhyan
had announced discoveries of hominid and animal remains along with late or middle
palaeolithic tools from the same deposit at Hathnora where the skull fragment had been
found earlier. The crucial find in terms of the human story was a right hominid collar bone.
The finds were dated between 0.5 and 0.2 mya. According to Sankhyan, the two sets of
human fossils at Hathnora might have belonged to the same woman.

Next was the discovery on 14th October 2001 of a complete fossilized human baby
skull at Odai in the Villupuram district of Tamil Nadu by P. Rajendran of Kerala
University. The skull was recovered from a deposit dated 166,000 BP, placing it in
the middle or upper Pleistocene.

There are also some hominid finds of uncertain antiquity. Overall, the scattered
nature of evidence clearly indicates the need for far more intensive investigations
that would enable us to put together the human story as it unfolded in the Indian
subcontinent.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Prehistory and the stone age

The story of the time when the earth was still taking shape and humans were
evolving biologically through various stages to acquire their present form is also
known as prehistory. The term prehistory was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851 and
has been used ever since to refer to the period of human history before the invention
of writing. Chronologically, it is the longest period of the human past. This period is
also called the stone age, as stone was the chief material used by early man for his
survival.
The idea of the existence of an age of stone tools followed by an age of bronze and
then iron, known as the three-age system, was first put forth by Danish scholars P.F.
Suhm and Christian J. Thomsen in the late 18 th and early 19th centuries. Jacob
Worsaae, another Danish scholar, re-inforced this theory through excavations. In
1865, British banker, magistrate and amateur archaeologist, Sir John Lubbock,
identified stages within the stone age by coining the terms palaeolithic and
neolithic, in his book, The Prehistoric Times. A few years later, Edouard Lartet
divided the palaeolithic into the lower, middle and upper on the basis of changes in
fauna and tool types. Later archaeological studies contributed in showing distinct
tool-making traditions within the palaeolithic and how the stone age can be divided
on the basis of significant changes in subsistence patterns. The term mesolithic to
denote the stage between the palaeolithic and the neolithic came into use much
later.
Even in the Indian context, based on the geological age, tool-making tradition and
the subsistence base, the stone age has been divided into the palaeolithic, mesolithic
and neolithic. Documentation of evidence began with the discovery in 1863, of the
first palaeolithic tool, a hand-axe at Pallavaram near Madras by Robert Bruce Foote,
called the Father of Indian Prehistory. The lower palaeolithic is generally dated from
about 2 mya to 100,000 years ago, the middle palaeolithic from about 100,000 to
40,000 years ago and the upper palaeolithic from 40,000 to 10,000 years ago.
Geologically, the palaeolithic cultures coincide with the Pleistocene while the
mesolithic and neolithic cultures fall within the Holocene era which continues to this
day.
Interdisciplinary palaeoenvironmental investigations undertaken by various
institutions for different regions have provided an environmental backdrop to the
history of these human cultures in the subcontinent. One of the earliest such studies
was conducted by H. de Terra and T.T. Patterson in 1935 on the Soan river in the
Potwar plateau. L.A. Cammiade and M.C. Burkitt worked on a similar study
correlating prehistoric tools and their environment in the Eastern Ghats of Andhra
Pradesh. Considerable amount of similar research has been conducted for the Son
valley in northern MP and Belan valley in southern UP and also for western India,
including Rajasthan. The structure of the Gangetic plain and the various formations
constituting it indicate a volatile history during stone age times.
Table 1: Important features of the stone age
Archaeolo Geological Associat Mode of
gical age age ed stone subsistence

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

tool
types
Lower Early to Pebble and Hunting,
palaeolithic middle core tools gathering and
Pleistocene like scavenging
handaxes,
cleavers and
chopping
tools.
Middle Late Flake tools, Hunting and
palaeolithic Pleistocene including gathering
those made
by prepared
core
techniques
such as the
Levallois
technique.
Upper Late Blade tools Hunting and
palaeolithic Pleistocene made on gathering
flakes like
parallel
sided blades
and burins.
Mesolithic Holocene Microliths Hunting,
like gathering, fishing
triangles, with evidence for
trapezes, animal
lunates, domestication
awls,
scrapers,
bladelets
and sickles.
Neolithic Holocene Celts Food production
(ground and based on animal
polished and plant
handaxes), domestication
adzes,
chisels,
grinding
stones,
mortar and
pestle. The
use of
microliths

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

and blades
continued.
Source: After Singh, Upinder. 2009. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval
India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson Longman,
67.

While studying stone age cultures, it is important to keep in mind that their features
vary from region to region and so do their dates. It is equally vital to remember that
these cultures do not evolve uniformly in a neat pattern all over the subcontinent
and an overlap and co-existence of cultures is hence not uncommon. Similarly, the
tools characteristic of a particular phase would not necessarily be absent in another.
For instance, microlithic tool types associated with the mesolithic continue well into
the early iron-using stage. Even with regard to subsistence activities, hunting and
gathering did not cease with the beginning of food-production and continued to
supplement the diet of agricultural and pastoral communities.

Summary

 The story of human evolution begins in Africa and spans millions of years. A
wealth of fossil finds support the story of our long journey but the evidence
from the Indian subcontinent is still scattered and wanting.

 Anatomically modern humans evolved through various stages- Homo habilis, Homo
erectus and Homo sapiens.

 A large brain size and bipedalism were crucial markers in our biological evolution.

 Human evolution is also characterised by a gradual improvement and refinement in

tool-types with each new species. This was largely in response to the need to adapt
to different subsistence strategies.

 The study of the environmental backdrop of human evolution also plays a crucial role
in shaping our understanding of the prehistoric past.

 Covering the largest chunk of the human past, the prehistoric period, also called the
stone age, is divided into the palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic, based on the
geological age, tool-making tradition and subsistence base.

 Human evolution does not unfold uniformly and it is not uncommon to find an
overlap and co-existence of species as well as cultures.

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Further readings

Bryson, Bill. 2005. A Short History of Nearly Everything. London: Transworld

Publishers.
Chakrabarti, D. K. 2006. The Oxford Companion to Indian Archaeology: The
Archaeological Foundations of Ancient India: Stone Age to AD 13 century. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press.
Jain, V. K. 2006. Prehistory and Protohistory of India: An Appraisal: Palaeolithic,
Non-Harappan Chalcolithic Cultures. New Delhi: D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd.
Singh, Upinder. 2009. A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone
Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson Longman.

2.1: Exercises

Essay questions

1) What do you understand by evolution? What does the fossil record tell us about
human evolution?
2) What is prehistory? Discuss the stages in prehistory and the characteristics that
define each stage.

3) Discuss the ways in which studies of ancient climate and geology contribute to
the study of hominid evolution.

4) Why do scientists consider Africa as the cradle of humankind?

Objective questions

Question Number Type of question LOD

1 True or False 1

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Question
In the Indian context, the first true hominid fossil came from the Potwar
plateau.

Correct Answer
False
/ Option(s)

Justification/ Feedback for the correct answer

The first hominid fossil came from near Hathnora village on the northern
bank of the river Narmada, about 40 km north-east of Hoshangabad.

Resource/Hints/Feedback for the wrong answer

Reviewer‘s Comment:

Question Number Type of question LOD

2
Match the following 2

Question
Hominid species Where they were first located

a) Australopithecus i) Olduvai gorge in Tanzania

b) Homo habilis ii) Laetoli in Tanzania
c) Ardipithecus ramidus iii) Central and Western Asia and Europe
d) Homo sapiens
Neanderthalis iv) Ethiopia

Correct Answer
a) and ii), b) and i), c) and iv), d) and iii)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

/ Option(s)

Justification/ Feedback for the correct answer

Fossil remains of Australopithecus have been retrieved from Laetoli in

Tanzania and Hadar in Ethiopia; Homo habilis from Koobi Fora in Kenya
and the Olduvai gorge in Tanzania; Ardipithecus ramidus from Ethiopia
and Homo sapiens neanderthalis from central and western Asia and
Europe.

Resource/Hints/Feedback for the wrong answer

Reviewer‘s Comment:

Question Number Type of question LOD

3 3
Multiple choice question

Question
The first hominids to use tools were:

a) Homo ergaster

b) Homo erectus

c) Homo neanderthalensis

d) Homo habilis

Correct Answer
d)

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

/ Option(s)

Justification/ Feedback for the correct answer

The species Homo habilis, meaning handy-man, was named by Louis
Leakey and was the first to use tools, though simple ones.

Resource/Hints/Feedback for the wrong answer

Reviewer‘s Comment:

Question Number Type of question LOD

4
Multiple choice question 3

Question
Which hominid species is said to constitute the dividing line between apes
and humans?

a) Homo sapiens

b) Homo habilis

c) Homo erectus

d) Homo heidelbergensis

Correct Answer
c)
/ Option(s)

Justification/ Feedback for the correct answer

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

Homo erectus first emerged in east Africa around 1.7 mya and constituted
the dividing line between humans and apes. It is also credited with
technological advance and the discovery of fire.

Resource/Hints/Feedback for the wrong answer

Reviewer‘s Comment:

Question Number Type of question LOD

5
Multiple choice question 3

Question
Which of the following disciplines have helped in the study of prehistory?

1) Geomorphology

2) Palaeobotany

3) Palaeoanthropology

4) Palaeoclimatology

Correct Answer
1), 2), 3) and 4)
/ Option(s)

Justification/ Feedback for the correct answer

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Chapter 1: Palaeolithic Cultures

An inter-disciplinary approach has greatly facilitated the reconstruction of

the beginnings of life on earth.

Resource/Hints/Feedback for the wrong answer

Reviewer‘s Comment:

Glossary

Acheulian: pertaining to, or typical of a lower palaeolithic culture characterized by

large hand axes and cleavers

Arboreal: living mainly on trees; for instance, arboreal quadrupeds are animals
that use all four limbs in walking and running on trees

Adze: tool like axe, with arched blade at right angles to handle

Fossil: impression, or trace of an animal or plant of a past geological age that has
been preserved in the earth‘s crust

Primate: member of highest order of mammals including man, apes and monkeys

Hominid: any primate of the family Hominidae, which includes modern man and
his extinct precursors

Quadruped: animals walking on four limbs

Vertebrate: having a backbone or spinal column

"The dates in modern historical writings are

generally given according to the Christian calendar. In recent years,
the use of AD (Anno Domini) and BC (Before Christ) has to some
extent been replaced by BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Common
Era). Both usages are acceptable, and both sets of
abbreviations have been used in these e-lessons."

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi