Theme 13.

GAS TURBINE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEMS

13.1. Fuel system designation.
13.2. Types of used fuels.
13.3. Requirements to fuel systems.
13.4. Construction of fuel systems.
13.5. Standard schemes of engine fuel systems.
13.6. Fuel system elements and their designation.
13.7. Selection of the plunger fuel pump parameters.
13.8. Selection of the gear fuel pump parameters.
13.9. Hydraulic calculation of double-jet nozzles.
13.10 Centrifugal pump parameters determination
13.11 Guided-vane pump parameters determination
13.12. Fuel flow metering

Literature: [1], p.418 – 448; [4], p.342–345; [6], p.506–518; [20], p.543–549,
557–586.

13.1. Fuel system designation

The GTE fuel systems serve for indispensable fuel supply from aircraft fuel
system to the engine combustion chamber in most useful kind for its complete
combustion. They also supply fuel (as working fluid) to hydromechanisms of
automatic control systems and (as cooling liquid) to fuel-oil coolers.

13.2. Types of used fuels

13.2.1. Feedstock for the production of jet fuels

In the early development of gas turbine engines, it was common belief that this engine could
use any fuel that would burn. This is true in theory, but not in practice. The modern turbojet engine
is quite particular about the fuel used due to the high rate of fuel flow and wide temperature and
pressure variations.
Jet fuel is refined from crude oil (crude petroleum). A typical unit weight of jet fuel might be
approximately composed of 16 percent hydrogen atoms, 84 percent carbon atoms, and a small
amount of impurities, such as sulfur, nitrogen, water, and sediment and other matter. There are
literally thousands of combinations that these carbon and hydrogen atoms may form. General
families include the paraffins (In modern aviation fuels from 35 up to 45 % of paraffin
hydrocarbons are contained, depending on oilfield and process of its distillation. Generally
speaking, the paraffins differ from other types of fuels by more high values of
hydrogen/carbon relation, by less densities and greater mass heating values. They possess a
high thermostability and do not form a carbon and smoke at combustion), naphthenes
(Naphthenes are contained in the distillate fuels approximately in the same proportion, that
paraffins are, i.e. in an amount of 35…45 %. They are very near to the paraffins in regard
to chemical stability, high heating value and small propensity to formation of soot
(carbon). On content of naphthenes in a fuel limitations usually are not set), olefins
(Usually olefins are not present in crude oil, however they are formed in the process of

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conversion at oil distillation. Olefins belong to a class of nonsaturated hydrocarbons; it
means, that their molecules contain less than theoretically admissible number of atoms of
hydrogen. Thereof they possess high chemical activity, easily enter into a reaction with the
big number of various compounds, forming thus resins and rubber-like substances (gums).
In this connection presence of olefins in GTE’s fuels is rather undesirable. As olefins are
formed usually only in cracking process then in distillates of their straight-run distillation
contains very little. Cracked fuels, however, can contain to 25 % of olefins), and aromatics
(Though on the structure the aromatic hydrocarbons are similar to naphthenes, they contain less
hydrogen, and accordingly their specific energy is much more low. It is necessary to regard the
appreciable propensity of aromatic hydrocarbons to formation of carbon and their big
hygroscopicity owing to which at fuel cooling there can be an ice crystals falling-out. Aromatic
hydrocarbons well dissolve mechanical rubber products and consequently can cause malfunctions in
fuel systems and the aeroplane fuel tanks covered with a layer of soft rubber. Though presence of
aromatic hydrocarbons in fuels for gas turbine engines is undesirable, in distillates of straight-run
distillation their maintenance is usually so great, that it is difficult to justify necessary for their
removal expenses. Modern technical specifications covering aviation fuels limit the content of
aromatic hydrocarbons within 22…25 % by volume).
Other components in the crude oil include asphalts, resins, organic acid material, and sulfur
compounds. Usually it contains also traces of various metals. Crude oil may vary greatly in
colour, appearance, and physical characteristics. Various grades of jet fuel have evolved during the
development of jet engines in an effort to ensure both satisfactory performance and adequate supply.
Hydrocarbon fuel is mainly applying in the GTEs. It is received by crude oil straight-run
distillation (by petroleum refining).

13.2.2. The physical process

The first step in the process of turning crude oil into gas turbine engine’s fuel is to allow the
physical impurities such as mud, water, and salts to settle out. Next, the crude must be separated into
its various fractions, which include gasoline, distillate fuels and black oil (mazut). These fractions
are an initial raw material for various fuels production.
This process uses heat and is called fractional distillation. Each of the various fractions or
families of hydrocarbons is of a different size and has a different boiling temperature. The lighter
fractions boil at lower temperatures, and as the molecule size increases, the boiling point becomes
higher. The asphalts and resins are very large in size and do not boil at all at the temperatures used
in the distillation process.
Distillation takes place in a “bubble tower”. The crude oil is first pumped through a furnace
in a rapid continuous flow, where it is heated quickly to a relatively high temperature. Almost all of
the crude oil is vaporized simultaneously. The vapours from the furnace are then piped to tall
condensers, which are the fractionating or bubble towers previously mentioned. As the vapours rise
in the towers, the highest boiling point material becomes liquid first, intermediate boiling point
materials liquefy next and the lowest boiling point material last. The towers are equipped with the
number of trays placed at different levels to catch the liquid that condenses as the vapours are rising.
The condensed liquid from each tray is drawn off, separating the crude into as many portions as
there are trays. In general practice there are only about seven trays for drawing off distilled fractions
of crude. Each of the fractions will have a range of boiling points, with the fractions and their ranges
dependent on the crude and the number of trays in the fractionating column.
In the beginning of crude oil heating it gaseous components, mainly methane, ethane,
propane and butane are taken. At more heating the another vapours will begine to form, which at
condensation form the easy fractions used at manufacture of gasolines. At the further rise of
temperature the kerosenes are rised above, and then the intermediate distillates used at gas-oil and

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diesel fuel manufacture. Residual products of this process are used for getting of luboils, paraffin
and bitumen.
For example, typical the USA midcontinent crude might yield the following approximate
percentages of the various fractions:
Gas = 3 percent;
Gasoline and naphtha = 18 percent;
Kerosene = 15 percent;
Gas-oil = 39 percent;
Luboil = 7 percent;
Residual material = 18 percent.
The percentages will vary depending on the source and type of the crude.
13.2.3. The chemical process
From the purely physical processes of separation, the products of distillation are further
refined to
– Remove undesirable components such as sulfur compounds (hydrogen sulphide,
mercaptans and pure sulphur), gums and resins by means of sulfuric acid and oilier chemicals, or by
a selective solvent extraction process.
– Split heavy molecules or combine lighter ones to obtain more of a particular fraction of the
crude. Thermal and catalytic cracking are two methods of splitting large molecules into smaller
ones. While in the process of polymerization, two lighter molecules are combined into one large
molecule.
– Impart to a fraction certain desirable properties with the inclusion of “additives”. Such
additives might include chemical compounds for inhibiting microbial growth. Other additives
reduce the tendency for the ever-present water in fuel to form ice crystals at the low temperatures
encountered at high altitudes, and also for improvement of colour, an odour and stability at storage
and transportation. Thus service performance of fuels is improved. Nature of particular processes,
which one are thus used, is determined by properties of crude oil, and they vary within wide range
of limits depending on places of its extraction. From some brands of crude oil the fuels, satisfying to
aviation specifications, can be received by straight-run distillation. At use of crude oils from other
fields for reaching of the same outcome it is necessary to execute two or three processes of special
refinement. Lubricating oils also contain many additives.
Step two represents processes performed mainly to develop more gasoline from a volume of
crude.
13.2.4. Demands to an aviation fuel
Although aviation gasolines for piston engines have reached a high state of
development and performance, these fuels are generally unsatisfactory for gas-turbine
engines. Physical and thermal properties of aviation gasolines are such that extensive
use of gasoline in gas turbine engines results in poor performance and possible engine
damage. These factors generally limit aviation gasoline (avgas) to the role of an
emergency fuel, for use in GTEs.
Fuels suitable for gas turbine engines have been in development for the number
of years. The first jet fuels were prepared for military use. Later, the advent of gas
turbine engines in commercial aircraft brought new demands for jet fuels. These
events generated extensive research to develop a fuel which embodied the properties
and performance characteristics for optimum gas turbine engine efficiency. In
development of a production fuel, however, some compromise in desired features was

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necessary to achieve a proper balance among fuel availability, economy, handling,
safety, and performance characteristics.
Specification on fuels for aviation gas turbine engines makes considerably
stricter demands, than for gas turbine engines of other types. The main demands
allowing for singularities of an airplane, fuel system of the engine and the
combustion chamber, are given below.
Airplane. To the fuels used by an airplane, following demands are made:
– Low cost and wide availability.
– A low fire hazard, i.e. low saturation vapour pressure, low volatility,
high flash point and high electroconductivity, at which the capabilities of static
electric charge accumulation in the fuelling procedure are reduced.
– The high calorific value ensuring the maximum flight range or the
maximum useful load. Depending on what constraints are imposed on the
airplane – on mass or volume – the calorific value at design evaluations relate
either to a mass unit, or to a volume unit.
– The high thermal stability precluding clogging of filters and formation
of deposits on valves, regulators and other members of fuel system.
– Low saturation vapour pressure that ensures decrease to a minimum of
evaporation losses at high-altitude flights.
– The high specific heat capacity ensuring effective heat absorption by
high-velocity airplanes.
Fuel system of the engine. For ensuring of fuel system normal work the
following performances of aviation fuels are important:
– Good pumpability. It means that they should be always in a liquid state and
with low friction feed on main lines to injectors. In essence this demand is a
requirement of low fuel viscosity.
– Lack of propensity to formation of solid matters clogging screens, including
crystals of ice and paraffins. The ice formation is eliminated by addition of additives
or fuel heating. Formation of solid paraffins is connected with low heat stability of
fuel and presence of asphaltogenic matters in it.
– Low saturation vapour pressure that decreases probability of vapour locks
formation.
– Good lubrication properties that decrease to a minimum the deterioration of
fuel pumps. These properties are ensured either presence, or by addition of high-polar
compounds to fuel.
– Minimum corrosive effect on elements of fuel system.
– Reducing of fire hazards to a minimum.
The combustion chamber. With reference to combustion chambers the aviation
fuels performances should meet following requirements:
– To have as high a calorific (heat) value as possible.
– To be pumpable and flow easily under all operation conditions.
– To give efficient combustion under all conditions.
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 – Lack of contaminating substances causing clogging of narrow channels in
fuel nozzles.
– Good capacity to an atomisation determined basically by fuel viscosity.
– Good vaporability in the combustion chamber and ensuring of effective
combustion at all conditions. Evaporation rate depends on fuel volatility and on a
fineness of an atomisation determining the total value of the atomised fuel surface
area. The maximum rate of evaporation is inherent to fuels with low viscosity and
high volatility.
– Minimum propensity to carbon formation that ensures low level of flame
radiation and lack of a carbon on surfaces and a smoke in exhaust gases.
– Minimum harmful effects on the combustion chamber and turbine blades.
– To permit engine starting under all ground conditions and give satisfactory
flight relighting characteristics. Operation performances of modern aviation
combustion chambers do not depend almost on properties of applied fuel. Evidently,
single exclusion when properties of fuel become essential, the engine restarting rating
after flameout at a high altitude is. At this rating the quality of atomization is a little
reduced, and consequently low viscosity and high volatility of fuel become rather
favorable factors promoting the best ignition and increase of fuel combustion
completeness.
– To reduce fire hazards to a minimum.
The wide use of jet fuels has brought with it certain new problem areas which
require diligent inspection and control to ensure safe and efficient aircraft
performance. Among these are water and microbiological fuel contamination, static
buildup and electric conductivity, and refueling hazards of intermixed fuels.

13.2.5. Jet fuel properties and characteristics, influencing on burning

process
Fuel should be injected, evaporated and mixed with air in the combustion
chamber prior to the beginning of burning process. Influence of these
processes on burning largely depends on physical properties of fuel. Physical
properties determine also stability and other operation properties of aviation
fuels in a broad range of pressure and environment temperature variations at
flights.
Fuel density. Density of fuel depends on mean boiling point and its
chemical composition. The greatest density an aromatic compounds have, as a
rule, and the least – paraffins. Between them naphthenes and olefins are
placed. Density is determined very simply. On its value it is possible to judge
by a hydrogen/carbon ratio, calorific value and propensity of fuel for carbon
formation.
Range of boiling. Simpl fluids, such as water, boil and turn into steam at
some fixed temperature. Crud oil fuels, however, represent mixtures of many

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compounds, each of which has own boiling point. Therefore oil fuels are
characterised not by boiling point, but range of boiling.
The greate importance of boiling range consists in it large influence on physical
properties and performances of fuels burning, as well as in their performance
attributes.
Saturated vapour pressure. Saturated vapour pressure of any fluid is a
pressure, with which a vapour exerts influence upon a surface of the fluid having the
set temperature in equilibrium system vapour-fluid. Pertaining to burning process it is
desirable to have high value of saturated vapour pressure since fuel evaporation in a
primary combustion zone is thus ensured. On the other hand, certain fuels with low
saturated vapour pressure have advantages since pressure in not drained fuel tanks is
thus reduced, and losses of fuel because of evaporation at high altitudes in drained
fuel tanks, as well as the fire hazard are reduced.
It is significant a sharp increase of saturated vapour pressure with temperature
rise. It explains why in engines of supersonic aeroplanes the fuels with low saturated
vapour pressure are used.
Flash point. A flash point is the minimum temperature, at which the quantity
of fuel vapour is enough for formation of a flammable mixture with ambient air. It is
natural, that flash point is directly depends on a saturated vapour pressure. The higher
this pressure, the lower flash point is. For kerosene the flash point is, generally
speaking, a measure of its flammability, whereas for heavy fuels is the performance of
their vaporability. Flash point might be used also for classification of a fire hazard of
fuels.
Volatility. Volatility (vaporability) of fuel can be estimated by known values of
boiling range, a saturated vapour pressure and flash point. Heightened volatility
positively influences on burning performances since ensures easier starting, increases
stability of burning and completeness of fuel combustion. These advantages are
specially obvious when burning performances are limited by a bad atomisation of
fuel.
Aside from its influence on engine performance, the volatility of a fuel is
important in its relation to vapour-air mixtures which develop in the space above the
fuel under various temperature and pressure conditions. Fuels with low volatility are
desirable because of low boiling losses and the narrower range of temperatures in
which ignitable fuel-air mixtures can be produced. Volatility is controlled by setting
limits on specifications such as flash point, vapour pressure, distillation, and boiling
point.
Viscosity. Viscosity depends primarily on chemical composition of the
hydrocarbon contained in fuel. Besides influence on the pump power, necessary for
fuel pumping through fuel system, quality of fuel atomisation and, hence, velocity of
its vaporisation and burning depend on viscosity. The greater viscosity, the lower
quality of an atomization is. Modern swirl-type (centrifugal) fuel nozzles depending
on a construction and available feed pressure ensure a satisfactory atomization of fuel
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with the viscosity reaching ~1510–6 m2/s. Essential advantage of air-atomising fuel
nozzles in comparison with the swirl-type nozzles consists in their performances
practically independence from fuel viscosity.
Viscosity of fuels for gas turbine engines strongly depends on temperature.
Increase of fuel viscosity at temperature decrease impose a restriction on low limit of
temperature, at which the satisfactory atomisation of fuel at engine starting rating can
be ensured. Marginal value of fuel viscosity from here can be indirectly determined at
environment temperature (now it equals 1210–6 m2/s at engine starting).
Freezing point. Airplanes powered by GTEs are most cost-effective at high-
altitude flights where the ambient temperature can be reduced to 193 K. Fortunately,
for appreciable decrease of fuel temperature during flight time the significant time is
necessary. Besides, dynamic heat of an airplane is reacted against this process.
Nevertheless at prolonged flight on a high altitude the fuel temperature, as measurings
have demonstrated, sometimes drops to 230 K. At this the viscosity of fuel increases
so, that there are difficulties of it pumping and atomization. Other problem, connected
with temperature decrease, consists in settling-out of a hydrocarbon solid particles or
ice, which can lead to clogging of filters or fuel feed system.
The temperature, at which the maiden ice crystals or solid particles will
originate in the process of fuel cooling, is called as freezing (crystallization) point. In
specifications on aviation fuels the maximum freezing points are limited by values of
227 or 215 K depending on operation conditions.
Obtaining of fuel with satisfactory freezing point generally does not create any
additional problems for rectification process, with the exception of possible decrease
of the distillation output of fuel with acceptable properties. However some difficulties
can originate at trying to increase an output of fuel by augmentation of temperature of
the end of boiling or at rectification of some special crude oil grades. Generally it
results in distillation of a hydrocarbons with the big molecular weight. They have, as
a rule, higher freezing points.
Heating value. An essential property of any fuel is high calorific or heating
value, since fuel is the basic source of energy. Calorific value of fuel is a measure of
heat which one is liberated at fuel complete combustion in standard conditions. For
fuels of gas turbine engines such performance is value of the lowest calorific value as
it is referred to a case of complete combustion with formation of water vapour H 2O
and carbon dioxide CO2.
The heating value depends primarily on the type of hydrocarbons present in the
fuel as determined in the refining process. Although the highest available heating
value would be desirable, some compromise is necessary to maintain volatility,
smoking, and other qualities within required ranges. Control of the heating value in jet
fuels is based primarily on the limits set on specific gravity and volatility factors.
Aviation fuel selection depends or on the limitations connected with a volume
of tanks, as for fighters, or on the admissible total mass of fuel defining a flight range,
as for passenger and transports airplanes.
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 Self-ignition temperature. The relevant factor, influencing on the fire risk and
explosion hazard of an airplane, is the propensity of fuel to spontaneous ignition. At
aircraft accidents fires originate routinely because of fuel ignition at its contact with
hot parts of an aircraft, especially which are disposed close to engines. This problem
is especially relevant for high-velocity airplanes in connection with dynamic heating
of a construction. At altitudes more than 11 km at M~2,7 the temperature of a leading
edge of a wing exceeds a self-ignition temperature of fuel Тi.
The fuel self-ignition temperature depends largely on its molecular structure as
the oxidative reactions, resulting in spontaneous ignition, begin only after the gap of
chemical bonds caused by a thermal excitation of atoms. From here follows, that fuels
with higher relative density possess lower temperature T i , because their molecules are
less compact and to a greater extent are subject to a gap. Paraffins with a straight
chain ignite easier, than branched paraffins or naphthenes with the same number of
carbon atoms. Strongly branched compounds and aromatic hydrocarbons are least
inclined to spontaneous ignition. For hydrocarbon fuels temperature T i , as a rule,
increase at pressure decrease.
Flame spread limits. Combustion gases and vapours can burn in air only in
stringently certain concentration limits. In the range of the concentrations, restricted
within these limits, the flame can be extended to any spacing interval from a firing
source. It is accepted to discriminate "rich" and "poor" limits of flame propagation
which correspond to the maximum and minimum fuel concentration ensuring flame
spread. The "poor" limit of flame propagation is intimately related to flash point. For
kerosene-type fuels extreme for flame spread values of a ratio fuel/air at room
temperature lie within the range of ~0,035 and 0,280 (by mass). Exact value depends
on sizes and the form of a volume of a vapour space in a fuel tank.
Flame spread limits slightly depend on pressure, except for area of very much
low pressures; with a pressure increase the limits are expanded usually a little.
Temperature effect is evinced more accurately. At low temperatures fuel can
produce insufficient quantity of vapour so its concentration in a mix will be lower
than "poor" limit of inflammability. At high temperatures owing to formation of
superfluous quantity of vapour its concentration in a mix can become more, than at
limit of inflammability for rich mixtures. Thus, mixes in which the flame can be
spread, are formed only in fixed temperature range. For usual kerosene and typical
wide-cut gasoline JP-4 temperature limits of flame spread at sea-level are equal to
accordingly from 254 up to 288 K and from 316 up to 338 K.
Fuel vaporisation is intensified at high altitudes, therefore at a high-altitude
conditions flammable mixes are formed at much lower temperatures, than on land.
Smoking dot. Probably, the smoking dot is most widely used parameter
characterising propensity of fuel to carbon formation (sooting). This parameter is
determined experimentally at burning of test fuel in the special wick lamp allowing
step-by-step to increase an altitude of a flame and to lead up it to value at which a
smoke will appear in it. A sootless flame maximal altitude (in millimetres) call as a
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smoking dot. The more this altitude, the less propensity of fuel to sooting is. It is
considered, that for aviation fuels the sootless flame altitude should be not less than
20 mm.
In spite of the fact that the smoking dot is not among fundamental properties of
fuel, this parameter is reliable enough index of fuel propensity to sooting.
Combustion characteristics of fuel are carefully considered so that optimum
benefit may be derived from the calorific value. Blowout limits, relighting, smoking,
combustion efficiency, carbon formation, and life of high-temperature engine
components are all directly or indirectly influenced by fuel hydrocarbon type and
volatility. Clean and efficient combustion is more difficult with fuels having high
molecular weights or high carbon-hydrogen ratios. Improvements in engine design
were specified by the earlier stringent requirements in this area.
The sulphur content of jet fuels is held to low values (sulfur and its
compounds always are present in crude oil and can hold to 5 % of its mass).
Some of them are corrosion-active, for example free sulphur, hydrogen
sulphide, mercaptans. Others do not call corrosion, for example the majority of
sulphides, polysulfides and thiophenes. Presence of sulfuric compounds in fuel
can call corrosion of the fuel system details сoated with cadmium, and also
swelling of rubber and elastomers. They call also a sulphurizing or jam of the
sliding parts of fuel pumps coated with silver and create a foul odour.
In the process of burning the most part of sulfer is transformed into S0 2 ,
and then at condensation on metallical surfaces owing to temperature and
pressure decrease – into the acids possessing corrosivity. The unique practical
way to eliminate sulfer effect consists of its removal in the process of crude oil
refining.
Natrium traces are founded in crude oil usually in the form of sodium
chloride. In the process of burning the sodium chloride is transformed into
vapours of hydrochloric acid, which call corrosion of the hot metallical
surfaces located more low on flow. They also can affect the chromium-loaded
an oxide layer of turbine blade surface and can make up ulcers of metal.
Vanadium. At temperatures more than 922 K traces of vanadium, which
are detected to a greater extent in some grades of black oils, create the liquid
compounds indurating at a contact with a surface of turbine blades. As a result
hard deposits are appeared and corrosion becomes stronger. With vanadic
corrosion it is possible to struggle by means of additives to fuel (of the
applicable magnesium compounds) intended for ash-fusion temperature rise to
level, exceeding gas temperature at turbine inlet.

13.2.6. Types of jet fuels

Liquid oil fuels are essentially differed in their physical and chemical
properties. However with reference to gas turbine engines all liquid oil fuels
can be subdivided in a broad sense on really distillate and ash-forming fuels.
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Distillate fuels almost do not contain ash-forming compounds and can be used
at once after distillation under condition of the correct use of them at storage,
transportation and pumping. Ash-forming fuels contain a significant amount of
ash-forming compounds, and use of such fuels in gas turbine engines is
possiblly only after carrying out of complex processes of their prerefining.
Process of crude oil distillation inherently does not allow to receive
products with stringently determined properties. Therefore to define distinction
between close grades of fuels it is possible only conditionally, being grounded
to a greater extent on features of their application, than on actual distinctions
of physical and chemical properties.
Fuels generally available for use in gas turbine engines may be broadly
categorized into two types: kerosene and wide-cut gasolines.
Kerosene-type jet fuels (T-1, Jet A, JP-5, Avtur). Kerosene appears to be the
more commonly available fuel for commercial aircraft. It is developed under the
number of specifications, although differences among the various products are only
slight.
Kerosenes consist of the refined hydrocarbons received at distillation of
crude oil or from their mixes with products of a cracking suitable on
properties.
Kerosene-type fuels consist essentially of the heavier hydrocarbon fractions and
are more dense than the wide-cut gasolines. Because of its greater density, kerosene
has a higher calorific or heating value per volume unit (approximately 3 to 5 percent)
than gasoline. However, the heating value of kerosene is slightly less than that of
gasoline (approximately 0,3 to 0,5 percent) when measured in Btu per pound.
They have best lubricating properties because of greater viscosity.
The freezing point of kerosene-type fuels varies somewhat with the type of
hydrocarbon fraction present. Solid, waxy particles capable of clogging fuel filters
begin to form at a temperature slightly above the pour point. For some kerosene, this
occurs at approximately – 40 °C and for others as low as – 50 °C.
The vapour pressure of kerosene-type fuels is extremely low, averaging about
0,8619 kPa. As a result, fuel boiling and evaporation losses are negligible for flight
conditions normally encountered. Also, the tendency to develop ignitable fuel-air
mixtures in the space above the fuel is less than with the gasoline-type fuels.
Wide-cut gasolines (T-2, Jet B, JP-4, Avtag). The wide-cut gasolines are
refined to contain various mixtures of gasoline and kerosene-type hydrocarbon
fractions. Contributing to the ready availability of this fuel is the fact that crude oils
may yield up to 50 percent of the wide-cut fractions.
Wide-cut gasolines are ordinarily less dense than kerosene-type fuels due to the
presence of the lighter hydrocarbon fractions. The weight is 0,024 to 0,060 kg/l less
than the average kerosene, but the density range of wide-cut gasolines is quite wide,
and a heavy fuel of this type could weigh more than a light kerosene. The heating

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value for an average wide-cut gasoline is slightly higher than that for an average
kerosene.
An advantage of wide-cut gasoline is its relatively low freezing point,
averaging less than –60 °C. In addition, the viscosity of wide-cut gasoline stays low in
colder temperatures. These fuels are suited to operation at high altitudes where low
temperatures prevail and in geographic areas subject to low-temperature ground
conditions.
The wide-cut gasolines have a vapour pressure varying between 13,8 and
20,7 kPa. They are less volatile than aviation gasolines (41,4 to 48,3 kPa of vapour
pressure) but somewhat more volatile than kerosene-type fuels. Compared with
aviation gasolines and kerosene, the wide-cut gasolines generally produce flammable
mixtures over a wider range of temperature and altitude conditions.
Owing to low viscosity bad lubricating properties is inherent to them.

13.2.7. Water in fuel
Although rigorous precautions are taken to ensure that fuel being pumped into an aircraft
contains as little water as possible, aircraft fuel containing no water is an impossibility.
All distillate fuels contain the dissolved water in the quantities depending on their structure,
temperature and time of storage. For example, fuels with the high content of aromatic hydrocarbons
can absorb and contain in the dissolved kind of more water, than fuel of paraffin type, and in warm
fuel more water is dissolved, than in the cold fuel. If water is in the dissolved kind it does not
influence any adverse effect on engine operation.
The affinity that fuel has for water varies with its composition and temperature. The
saturation level for a jet fuel in parts per million (ppm) by volume is approximately equivalent to
the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit; that is, a jet fuel at 50 °F [10 °C] may contain approximately
50 ppm of dissolved water. When the fuel is cooled, that water which is above the saturation level is
rejected as discrete water in minute particles. Until this water can collect and settle to the bottom of
the tank, it will be carried in the fuel. At temperatures below the freezing point, these minute
particles may be supercooled and will be deposited out only when they strike a solid obstruction and
freeze. When low temperatures are encountered, water droplets combine with the fuel to form a
frozen substance referred to as gel. The mass of gel, or “icing” that may be generated from moisture
held in suspension in jet fuel can be much greater than that in gasoline.
An aircraft, after a long flight at high altitudes, will have fuel tank surfaces and fuel that are
colder than the air being drawn into the tank during descent. When moisture-laden air enters the tank
space, condensation may occur in the tank. Because of the higher viscosity of cold fuel, this water
will not settle out readily and will be carried as dispersed water. Under these conditions, the
dispersed water in the fuel may reach 100 ppm.
As it was marked above, water droplets at temperature more low of 273 K turn into
crystals of ice and organise slush, which can deposit, collect and plug up partly or
completely the fuel filters. The problem of fuel filters icing up can be decided by means of
preheating of fuel that, however, is interconnected with mass increase and design
complicating, as well as with some increase of fuel consumption. This problem can also be
decided by addition to fuels of the additives precluding an ice formation.
Other relevant problem concerned with water coming into the fuel consists in
augmentation of corrosion of aluminium fuel tanks and aggregates of fuel-metering system.
This problem is especially important when fuel contains saline water. Besides that it is an

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initial source of fungi and bacteria calling corrosion, inorganic salts contained in this water
promote their accelerated evolution and breeding in aviation fuel tanks . The most effective
measures of prevention of such corrosion process consist in the strict check of fuel quality,
including the procedure implementation in routine preventing a capability of water
entrance from external sources at all stages of fuel transportation and storage .

13.2.8 Microorganisms in fuel
Microorganisms of various types can grow in the aircraft fuel tanks and in storage tanks if
water is present. Microorganisms grow in fuel usually when the fuel is not disturbed frequently. If
an airplane is stored with fuel and water in the fuel tank for an extended time, chances are that
microorganisms will grow and appear (to a greater extent on boundary of fuel and aqueous surfaces)
as a slimy deposit in the water. The colour will vary from brown to black, with all shades in
between, including red.
When fuel has been stored for a lengthy period, either in an aircraft or in a fuel storage tank,
the fuel and tank should be examined for signs of microbial contamination. If the fuel is discoloured
or has an abnormal smell, the tank should be drained and cleaned. Contaminated fuel should be
discarded.
Gas turbine-engine fuels are more likely than gasoline to be contaminated with
microorganisms. This is because gas turbine engine fuels can dissolve more water, and water is
harder to remove because of the viscosity of GTE’s fuels. Technicians who have the responsibility
of fueling and defueling of gas turbine engine powered aircraft must be alert to detect
microorganism contamination and take the required measures to eliminate it. Fueling procedures
established by airlines provide for protection against microorganism contamination and should be
followed carefully.
The effects of microorganisms in fuel are serious regardless of whether the organisms are
bacteria or fungi. Corrosive chemicals are formed which attack the metal walls and bottoms of fuel
tanks. Because of this, many aircraft have suffered structural weakening of the wings since fuel
tanks in large aircraft are usually integral with the wings. It has been the practice with integral wing
tanks (wet wings) to coat the interior surfaces of the tank sections with a corrosion-resistant
material. In some cases the microorganisms have penetrated the coating and caused severe
corrosion. New coatings have been developed that resist not only corrosion but also attacks by the
microorganisms. It is, therefore, important that the fuel tanks of aircraft which have been in service
for a substantial time be thoroughly inspected inside. If evidence of microorganisms or corrosion
exists, the interior of the tank should be cleaned, stripped, and recoated. If appreciable corrosion
exists, replacing or repairing sections of the tank walls and bottoms may be necessary.

13.2.9. Refueling precautions for intermixed jet fuels

A major consideration in servicing an aircraft with a different type of jet fuels is the fuel-air
mixture which develops in the space above the fuel. At normally encountered ground temperatures,
the vapour pressure of kerosene is too low to develop an ignitable mixture. Under similar conditions,
gasoline-type fuels produce an overrich mixture which will not ignite. However, when these two
fuels are mixed, the fuel-vapour mixture is in the ignitable envelope throughout a much broader
range of ground temperatures common at most operating locations. This condition exists when
wide-cut gasoline (Jet B) is added to a tank already containing kerosene (Jet A) or vice versa.
The extra hazard of an ignitable mixture resulting from intermixing of fuels calls for special
refueling procedures to minimize the buildup of electrostatic charges in the fuel. Precautionary
procedures include underwing refueling only and reduction of flow rates by using a single hose
attached to the fueling manifold.

350
 Certain facts about electrostatic buildup in fuels should be explained. Although the exact
nature of electrostatic buildup is not fully understood, recent tests and experience have yielded
information to aid in its control. Studies show that a charge potential can develop and produce high-
intensity sparks between the surface of the fuel and some point inside the tank structure, even
though all structural parts of the tank are electrically bonded together. Turbulence within the fuel,
high-velocity fuel flow, and fuel splashing tend to increase the static buildup.
A major factor in the development of charge potentials is the electric conductivity of the fuel.
Clean fuel is a relatively poor conductor of electric charges. Therefore, a considerable charge
potential may develop as a result of the slow dissipation or bleed-off rate of static charges in the
fuel. The presence of water, dirt, and other contamination in the fuel improves fuel conductivity and
aids in dissipating the static charge. However, use of contaminated fuel cannot be condoned even
though it may be of some value in reducing static buildup.
The solution to the static buildup problem may lie in the development of fuel additives.
Several patented additives are available which claim to reduce static buildup by improving fuel
conductivity.

13.2.10. Fuel additives
For the purpose of improvement or variation of oil fuels properties for
each concrete application small amounts of some matters are added to them
called as additives. There are a great many of various additives and activities on
creation of the new additives are continuously carried on. The main demand to
an additive consists in that it, executing the main assignment, should not
produce thus unfavorable side effects. Routinely it means, that the additive (as
well as its coproducts) should be non-toxic, water soluble and thermally stable .
The additives for jet fuels according to the destination are subdivided on
antioxidative, wear-preventive, anti-water-crystallization, antielectrostatic,
corrosion inhibitors, deactivators of metals, antismoke, antimicrobial (biocide),
the lubrication properties of fuels increasing. The multipurpose additives
possessing simultaneously, for example, antirust, antioxidative and wear-
preventive properties are known also. Combinations of properties routinely is
attained by development of an additives composition – synergists, affecting
against each other in a direction of intensification of effect of each separate
additive.
Most widely used additives for domestic and foreign fuels are introduced
in table 13.1.
Antioxidative additives. Among additives improving stability of fuels are oxidation
inhibitors (antioxidants), deactivators of metals and passivators of catalyzers (catalysts).
Oxidation inhibitors prevent processes of oxidation or preclude from their evolution in
unwanted quantities. Deactivators of metals suppress catalytic activity of metals,
converting them in organometallic compounds with the depressed level of activity.
Passivators (corrosion ingibitors) moderate the catalytic activity of metals, promoting
formation of film on their surface.
At storage and transportation of hydrogenation jet fuels these additives reduce
intensity of oxidising processes. Formation of the compacted products of oxidative

351
polymerization and intensity of oxidation products effect on polysulphide joint sealants
and sealing materials on the basis of nitrile rubbers as a result decrease.

352
 Table 13.1
The performance of additives to jet fuels

Secondary functional Concentration, Standard

Additive Mixture Field of application
properties % (by mass) (specification)
Antioxidant– Ionol 2,6- di-tret-butyl-4- methyl phenol Protective agent with respect PT, Т-8В, Т-6, foreign 0,003…0,004 ГОСТ 10894-76,
(Агидол-1) to mechanical rubber hydrogenation fuels ТУ 38.5901237-90
articles and sealing materials
Deactivators of metals – Ν,Ν'– disalicylide -1,2- propylene Corrosion inhibitor Allowed in foreign fuels 0,007 —
AW-50, diamine (50- or 80-percent solution in
AW-80 xylene or toluol)
Wear-preventive — — PT, Т-8В, Т-6, foreign 0,002…0,004 ГОСТ 13302-77
additive «К» fuels
Corrosion inhibitor – Mix of lyol acid dimer (40-percent) Wear-preventive Jp-4 as wear-preventive 0,0015 MIL -1-25017
Santolen C and esters of phosphoric acid additive (according to
specification
MIL-T-5624H)
Preventing of water
crystallization
fluid «И» (ethyl Diethylene glycol monoethyl ester Jet fuels 0,1…0,3 ГОСТ 8313-88
cellozolve) —
fluid «И-М» 50 % of fluid «И»+ 50 % of methanol — » 0,1…0,3 ТУ 6-10-1458-74
fluid «ТГФ» Tetrahydrofurfuryl spirit — » 0,1…0,3 ГОСТ 17477-86
fluid «ТГФ-М» 50 % of fluid TГФ + 50 % of methanol — » 0,1…0,3 ТУ 6-10-1457-74
AL-31 99,6 % of methylcellozolve+0,4 % of Bactericidal properties Jet fuels (all countries of 0,0…0,15 MIL-J-27686E
glycerin NАТО)
Antielectrostatic
Сигбол Wear-preventive (they Allowed for application in > 0,0005 ТУ 38.101741-78
are evinced at all domestic jet fuels with
concentration > 0,0005 %) flash point less than 60
C
ASA-3 33 % of chromic salt of mono- and — For all foreign jet fuels (1…3)10-4 The Shell
dialkylsalicylic acid + 33 % of pre- corporation
decyl- sulfo-succinite of calcium,
everything else – 50-percent
concentrated product of lauryl
methacrylate copolymer and methyl
vinyl pyridine in hydrocarbon solvent

353
 An oxidation inhibitor ionol add to the hydrofined fuel PT and hydrogenated fuels
Т-8В and Т-6 as at hydrogenation treating the natural antioxidants – heteroatomic
compounds are removed from the produced fuels.
The antioxidants mechanism of action consists in their interaction with alkyl
radicals giving origin of oxidative chain processes, and with hydroperoxide compounds.
An antioxidative additives do not add to stable at storage stright-run fuels, but
presence of antioxidant in fuels reduces formation of resins and acids at temperatures up to
150 °C. So, ionol improves filterability of fuels at 150  °С, but at 180 °C practically does
not exert influence. High-temperature sedimentation in fuel TC-I is reduced at
concentration of the most effective antioxidative additive (in the field of the examined
temperatures) – bisphenol – at concentration not less than 0,05 % (by mass).
The consumption of many antioxidative additives sharply increases in the presence of
oxidation catalysts – primarily copper and its alloys. Therefore abroad for suppression of
catalytic action of metals the deactivators of metals are mixed with fuels. In domestic jet
fuels the deactivators of metals are not applied.
Deactivators of metals. Catalysis of hydrocarbon fuels oxidation by metal ions
consists in generation of radicals, causing the development of oxidative circuits and
demanding of additional consumption of an antioxidant for a deactivating from sphere of
response of again organised peroxide radicals.
Metal recovery takes place only with the help of antioxidants, which are added to
the hydrofined fuels specially. In stright-run fuels phenols and the sulphur-containing
compounds (which are present in them) are such antioxidants. In the hydrofined not
inhibited fuels the metals in a homogeneous phase, i.e. in an ionic kind, are not proved as
deactivators.
Deactivators of metals, interacting with metals ions and forming with them
dissoluble complex compounds, deactivate a catalyzer main part from sphere of operation.
Thus heterogeneous catalysis of oxidation by juvenile surfaces of metals is not supressed
by deactivators of metals. Salicylates, aminophenols, etc. are the deactivators of metals.
With antioxidative additives they organise synergetic couples. Abroad for jet fuels AW-50,
AW-80 – (disalitsiliden-1,2-propilendiamin (see tab. 13.1)) are competent to application,
but their addition is not obligatory.
Corrosion supressing. Dissolved corrosion inhibitors are generally a hydrocarbons
which dissolving capacity in fuel combines with affinity to metallical surfaces. They are
adsorbed by metallical surfaces and organise on them a monomolecular film . Amines,
phosphates, sulphides and fatty acids are such corrosion inhibitors.
Wear-preventive additives are added to the hydrofined and hydrogenated fuels having
unsatisfactory wear-preventive properties. Action of wear-preventive additives is grounded
on forming in the conditions of high contact temperatures and loads on rubbing surfaces of
the haemosorption layer possessing by good friction qualities .
Domestic additives ПМАМ and "K" are designed and tested. However ПМАМ
additive is not applied now because of low performance attributes. Under test data for
application the additive "K" is recommended.
Abroad as the wear-preventive additive the corrosion inhibitor Santolen C is
applied. The produced additive is considered obligatory for fuel JP-4 having unsatisfactory
lubricating properties.
Prevention of water crystallization. The additives precluding ice formation, represent
the matters possessing by irreversible water-absorbing capacity . Owing to the water-
absorbing capacity they absorb a moisture contained in fuel, and thus preclude separation

354
of water and formation of ice crystals. As a basis for such additives the ethyl cellozolve,
tetrahydrofurfuryl spirit and their mixes with methanol are applied. Action of additives is
caused by water dissolubility increase at the expense of hydrogen bond between additive
and water molecules. Until water content in fuel does not exceed its dissolubility at the
given temperature then water in the presence of a additive is in a molecular unbound state.
Superfluous water separated at present conditions in a free state is associated by additive .
Thus the associate actuates a minimum four molecules of water. At the high content of free
water and insufficient concentration of an additive the part of water is liberated in a kind
of droplets together with an additive. As a result the water droplets are crystallized at low
negative temperatures.
Well-known preventing water crystallization additive is methyl ether of ethylene-glycol.
This additive has proved to be also by rather an effective remedy preventing growth of
corrosion-active bacteria.
In the USA one such additive is Prist, manufactured and marketed by the Houston Chemical
Co. Prist is designed to prevent ice and bacterial contamination in aviation fuel. It is sometimes
referred to as PFA 55MB and is covered by specification MIL-I-27686D. Pure EGME (ethylene
glycol monomethyl ether), the primary ingredient of Prist additive, is generally compatible with the
components of aircraft fuel systems. Prist is effective in preventing fuel ice because as the fuel
temperature decreases, the additive combines with the water in greater concentrations. This
combination will keep the freezing point of the water lower than the temperature of the fuel. Prist
additive should be protected from contact with oxidizing agents, including long-term contact with
air.
The recommended concentration of Prist in fuel is from 0,06 to 0,15 percent by volume. It
must be incrementally blended into the fuel because its solubility in fuel is limited. It is completely
soluble in water suspended in the fuel. Fuel-additive proportioners are engineered to blend the
additive into fuel during refueling so that the turbulence of the flowing fuel stream will provide a
mixing action. In all cases, additive must be used as directed by the manufacturer. No fuel additive
should be used in a particular system unless the system has been approved for it.
Static electricity neutralization. At fueling of an airplane by fuel such big charges of
a static electricity are sometimes accumulated, that the spark called by them can become a
cause of the fire or explosion. The greatest speed of charging is received at pumping with a
high speed of the fuels having low conductivity. In this connection in the capacity for
safety precautions against casual ignition some time ago the speed of fuel pumping was
limited.
The alternative solution consists in magnification of fuel conductivity to value, at
which the charge dissipation will originate as much rapidly as its building up. Conductivity
magnification is attained by the introducing of chromium salts.
Domestic additive Сигбол is enabled to application in all domestic jet fuels with
flash point more less than 60 °C at concentration of 0,0005 % (by mass).
Abroad with a view of fire safety guaranteeing (elimination of discharges of a static
electricity) at fueling and defueling operations antielectrostatic additives Stadis-450
(Innospec), ASA-3 (the Shell) are used (see tab. 13.1). Last has a synergistic composition
of complex salts of chromium and amines.
Studies in this direction were made by the Shell Co. It is established, that an additive
"Shell" АSА-3 in quantity, smaller than 0,0001 %, allows to increase conductivity of
kerosene to acceptable level. Such principal components enter in a composition of a
multicomponent additive "Shell" АSА-3, as chromium salt of alkylated salicylic acid,
calcium salt of organic acid and the non-metallic polymeric stabilizer.

355
 Ensuring of lubricating properties. Being aimed to receive high thermal stability,
fuels quite often subject to complex refinement processes even from small amounts of the
contaminants containing sulfer, nitrogen and oxygen. These processes can lead to essential
decrease of lubricating properties of fuel and complicate a problem of deterioration of fuel
pumps. It is established, that the active lubricating agent in aviation fuels are polar
compounds. At addition of these compounds it is possible to improve essentially
lubricating properties of high-purity fuels. Now it is not possible to identify those fuel
compounds, which absence reduces its lubricating properties with adequate accuracy. It is
established, however, that durability of fuel pumps is increased at use of dissoluble in fuel
corrosive inhibitors.
Antismoke additives. The additives decreasing smoking have the big interest. Most
effective of them are metallo-organic compounds of barium, manganese and iron . The
optimum consumption of an additive at calculation on the metallical basis equals ~25 10 -6
of a fuel consumption.
Test data of fuel with additive on the manganese basis demonstrate, that at its use the
carbon formation decreases, and transparency of exhaust gases flow increases. Thus at
nominal engine rating a distribution of carbon particles by sizes and its mean dimension in
exhaust flow (~0,5 microns) were not varied.
The indicated compounds of additives, being catalyzers of burning (oxidation),
negatively influence on antioxidative stability of fuels; besides, these additives are anti-
cindery.
Obvious deficiency of additives use on the metallical basis is that in the burning
process they form oxides, which can deposit on turbine blades. Besides, exhaust of these
oxides with exhaust gases can be for a surrounding environment even less acceptable, than
smoke exhaust. For the indicated reasons many designers consider, that the unique real
solution of a problem of smoke reduction is connected with improvement of the
combustion chamber design. Now antismoke additives are applied only on some industrial
gas turbine plants.
Biocidal additives are applied abroad in regions with a tropical and subtropical
climate, and they are intended for suppressing of microorganisms activity. Biocidal
additives sterilise aqueous phase in fuel, presence of what stipulates grow of
microorganisms. As biocidal additives the derived compounds of amines, copper sulphate,
potassium permanganate and other compounds can be applied. Additive Biobor is
marketable biocidal additive for jet fuels. Biocidal action at the content in an aqueous
sediment 15 % (by mass) the methylcellozolve has, representing additive for water
crystallization prevention referred to as AL-31.

13.2.11. The liquid fuels specifications

To design a stationary gas turbine engine, which would work practically on any hydrocarbon
fuel, present no difficulty. However in aviation the number of suitable fuel grades for use are
essentially narrow, that is caused by low temperatures and pressures at high altitudes. Light
distillates do not suit, as they stiffen at low temperature. For this reason in the majority of jet
aircrafts two fuels – the kerosene received from burning kerosene, and wide-cut gasoline, which is
received from accessible crude oil grades, are used only.
In the West the specifications on the aviation fuels developed by the British Ministry of
Defence (DERD) and the Defence Department of the USA (US-MIL) have received a wide
spreading. The analogous specifications developed by the ASTM (by the International Air Transport
Association (IATA)), various propulsion engineering corporations, airlines, and the governments of
the different countries are sometimes mentioned. All these manifold technical specifications and

356
requirement, in essence, are identical to the main British and American specifications for jet fuel of
military aviation and differ from them only kinds of the permited additives.
As it was already marked, the specifications of jet fuel have been developed by military
organizations in cooperation with represents of a commercial aviation and propulsion engineering
industry. Though the development of jet fuels in the USA and the Great Britain was conducted in
the beginning in a little bit different directions, in the course of time a specifications and demands
began to be close in more and more, primarily in the interests of military unification. The most
widespread now kerosene grade, corresponding to British specification DERD 2494 (Avtur), has
freezing point of 226 K. An equivalent of this fuel in the USA is Jet A-I (according to specification
ASTMD 1655). In the past the fuel JP-4 was applied almost by all airplanes of military aviation of
the USA and the West European countries that was connected with its wide accessibility. Now,
however, kerosene is applied to decrease a fire risk and explosion hazard on the majority of military
aeroplanes. The British equivalent of the fuel JP-4 is fuel Avtag (according to the specification
DERD 2486).
Table 13.2
Characteristic demands of a specifications of foreign aviation gas turbine engine fuels

Fuel
kerosene with
The demand wide-cut
kerosene high flash
gasoline
point
Notation
the Great Britain, military aviation Avtag Avtur Avcat
the USA, military aviation JP-4 JP-5
the USA, civil aviation Jet В JetA, Jet A-I
Acidity, mg КОН/g (max.) 0,015 0,015 0,015
Aromatic hydrocarbons, % (by volume, max.) 25 22 25
Olefins, % (by volume, max.) 5,0 5,0 5,0
Sulfer, % (by mass,  max.) 0,3 0,3 0,3
Boiling point of 10 %, К (max.) 478 478
Final boiling point, К (max.) 543 573 573
Vapour pressure at 311 К (by Raid), кPа (min.)/(max.) 14/21
Flash point, К (min.) 311 333
Density at 288 К, kg/l (min.)/(max.) 0,751/0,8020,775/0,830 0,788/0,845
Crystallization temperature, К (max.) 215 226 227
Viscosity at 253 К, 10-6 m2/s (max.) 8 8,8
The lowest calorific value, МJ/kg (min.) 42,8 42,8 42,6
Sootless flame altitude, mm (min.) 21 20 20
Naphthalenes, % (by volume, max.) 3,0
Test of corrosion of a copper strip, category (max.) 1 1 1
Thermal stability, mm of mercury (max.) 25,0 25,0 25,0
Resins, mg/100 ml (max.) 7 7 7
Velocity of establishment of an interfacial area, category 1 b) 1 b) 1 b)
(max.)
Separation, category (max.) 2 2 2
WSIM1) (min.)/(max.) а)
70 / 85 b)
70 / 85 b)
α)
70 / 85 d)
с)

Conductivity а) , pS/m (min.)/(max.) 50/450 50/450

357
 a) 
With additive increasing conductivity.
b) 
Without additive increasing conductivity.
c) 
With additive reducing corrosivity and improving the lubricating properties.
d) 
Without additive reducing corrosivity and improving the lubricating properties.
1)
the modified index of aqueous separation.

Fuel JP-5 (the USA fuel) with high flash point, intended for marine aircraft-carrier aviation,
agrees with fuel Avcat (specification DERD 2498). American fuel JP-6 is very close to Jet A-Ι, but
possesses higher heat stability and more low saturated vapour pressure. This fuel most of all
corresponds to supersonic airplanes. The specifications for the most widespread foreign aviation
fuels are shown in table 13.2. An approximate correspondence of the specifications of the USA and
the Great Britain is shown in table 13.3.

Table 13.3
Approximate correspondence of the USA and the England specifications
of some fuels

Fuel grade The England The USA

Avgas (Avgas) DERD 2485 MIL-G-5572E
Wid-cut gasoline (Avtag) DERD 2486 JP-4
Kerosene (Avtur) DERD 2494 ASTM type Jet A-I (JP-8)
Kerosene with high flash point (Avcat) DERD 2498 JP-5
Thermostable kerosene (М-3) Thermostable JP-6
kerosene (М-3–4) JP-7
High-density fuel («Shall-dine» mix) JP-9

The selection of fuel for the aviation gas turbine engines basically are guided by demands to
fuel system and burn performances at high altitudes. For ship engines and gas turbine plants the
main things, however, are fuel cost and service issues. As fuels of gas turbine plants should be low-
cost, they often contain great many of contaminations. Storage conditions and fuel
transportations, and also service of fuel systems in the industry mismatch demands to
aviation standards, therefore the hit in these liquid fuels of water, salts and sand is possible
to consider as an everyday occurrence. In this connection, for preparation of usual heavy
fuels for use in aviation gas turbine engines the carrying out of some prior operations is
required:
– ablution – for removal of tracks of metals (sodium and potassium) and anorganic
hard shots;
– addition of magnesian compounds – for vanadium neutralization in fuel;
– filtering – for removal of hard oxides, silicates and other compounds, which can
clog fuel pumps, valves and injectors.
Fuel grades
Such grades of fuel (manufactured in the USSR) are used depending on aircraft
type and its operation requirements (see Application B): kerosene Т-1, heavy
naphtha TC-1, fuels of broad fractional composition Т-2 (it has disposition to
evaporation and boiling at high-altitude flights) and РТ (including gasoline-naphtha
fractions), kerosene compositions with heightened content of heavy fractions –
Т-5, Т-6, Т-7, Т-8, Т-8В (for high-altitude flights with high speeds).

358
 The practice has demonstrated an impossibility to combine all demands to jet fuels of modern
aircraft in one fuel grade. Therefore some grades of fuels have been created, each of which has certain
advantages on performance attributes taking into account cost and resources of production. In the USSR
two main grades of jet fuel were manufactured: ТС-1 and РТ. Besides, in accordance with
ГОСТ 12308-89 fuel Т-6 was manufactured.
ТС-1 fuel is the jet fuel for the subsonic aircrafts and supersonic ones with the limited time of
supersonic flight.
РТ fuel completely meets the requirements, set up to the ТС-1 fuel, and can substitute it. At
the same time, being more thermostable, than ТС-1 fuel, the heating of РТ fuel in fuel system of a
power plant to higher temperatures is possible and consequently it is enabled to application in heat-stressed
engines of airplanes with the increased time of supersonic flight, during which owing to an aerodynamic
heating it is possible substantial increase of fuel temperature in airplane tanks.
Т-6 fuel is the high thermostable one, has heightened density and low saturated vapour pressure.
These qualities define fuel application by high-velocity airplanes with the big time of supersonic
flight.
In the presence of raw materials and in case of aviation necessity under the applicable specifications
the stright-run Т-1 fuel for a subsonic aircraft and hydrogenated Т-8 fuel for a supersonic aircraft can be
manufactured also.
Along with the main grades of jet fuels the reserved grades are manufactured. In relation to РТ
and ТС-1 fuels the Т-2 fuel is the reserved grade, and in relation to Т-6 fuel the Т-8В fuel is the
reserved grade.
Т-2 fuel is wide-cut fuel, boiling away over the temperatures range of 60…280 °С. Thanks to
wider (than ТС-1 fuel) fractional composition this fuel has in comparison with ТС-1 fuel a 1,3…1,8 times
greater output from crude oil.
Т-8В fuel is characterised by heightened density (not less than 800 kg/m3), approximately twice
smaller a saturated vapour pressure, than ТС-1 and РТ fuels have, and high thermostability.
The properties in accordance with government standards and specifications of the mentioned
fuels are shown in table 13.4. Here data for earlier applied Т-1 and Т-8 fuels are shown.
The average distillate fractions of crude oil are the main raw for jet fuels production, which
boiling away at temperature 140…280 °С.
Wide-cut Т-2 fuel is made with use the gasoline fractions of crude oil also. For receiving of jet
fuels Т-8В and Т-6, as the raw, the distillate fractions of separate crudes, the vacuum gas-oil, and
products of a rerunning of crude oil are used.
Various functional additives (see item 13.2.10) can be added into jet fuels.
On a way of making, the jet fuels are subdivided into stright-run and hydrogenation fuels. Stright-
run fuels (Т-1, ТС-1, Т-2) are received directly from the distillated fractions of crude oil without their
integrated treatment. The technology of hydrogenation fuels receiving (РТ, Т-8, Т-8В, Т-6) includes such
processes, as hydrofining (РТ, Т-8), high hydrogenation (Т-6), hydrocracking (Т-8В). Main content
of these processes is effect by hydrogen at high pressure and temperatures on a hydrocarbons and
heteroatomic compounds of crude oil.
At hydrofining the aggressive and unstable compounds including sulfer, nitrogen and oxygen
are removed from an oil distillate. At the same time the hydrocarbon structure of fuel practically
remains without variation. In hydrocracking and hydrogenation processes along with feedstock hydrofining
there is a variation of its hydrocarbon structure (transformation of unsaturated compounds in saturated
ones and aromatic hydrocarbons – in naphthenes). Application of hydrogenation processes for production
of jet fuels allows to receive premium fuels (with high thermooxidative stability, low corrosive
aggressiveness) at simultaneous expansion of a raw-material base of production. However, as a result
of hydrofining, the natural oxidation inhibitors are removed, chemical stability and antiwear properties

359
of fuels are degraded. For improvement of these performances the antioxidants and wear-preventive
additives are added into such fuels.

360
 Table 13.4
Comparative values of physical and chemical properties of jet fuels

ТС-1, РТ, Т-6 T-8, T-8B,

Т1, Т-2,
Parameters ГОСТ ГОСТ ТУ ТУ
ТУ ГОСТ 10227-62 ГОСТ 10227-62
10227-86 16564-71 ГОСТ 12308-89 38.1257-69 38.101560-80
38.101629- 82
Density at temperature of 20 °С,
kg/m3, not less 775 775 840 840 800 785 800 755

Fractional content, °С
temperature of distillation
beginning
not above 150 — — — 130 — 165 —
not below — 135 195 195 — 165 — 60
10 % (by volume), not above 165 175 220 220 175 — — 145
50 % (by volume), not above 195 225 255 255 225 — 195
98 % (by volume), not above 250 280 315 315 280 280 280 280
Kinematic viscosity, mm2/s

at temperature of 20 °С

not less 1,25 1,25 — — 1,50 1,45 1,50 1,05

not more — — 4,50 6,0 — — — —
at temperature of a minus
40 °С, not more 8 16 60 60 16 16 16 6

The lowest specific heating value,

kJ/kg, not less 42 910 43 120 42 900 42 900 42 900 43 120 43120 43 100

Sootless flame altitude, mm,

not less 25 25 20 20 20 24 24 25

361
 Expansion of a network of international air-routes and deliveries of the domestic
aeronautics engineerings abroad promotes magnification of an assortment and a volume of
the foreign jet fuels used by an aeronautics engineering of a domestic production. For
decision-making about the permission to application of this or that grade of foreign jet fuel
on a concrete domestic aircraft it is necessary to establish its equivalence to the suitable
grade of the domestic fuel applied on the given aircraft, i. e. to determine interchangeability
of domestic and foreign fuels.
There are many foreign fuel grades. Foreign fuel grades are used during international flights,
for example, Jet A-1, JP-5, Avtur-50 and another.
Abroad the widespread fuel used in a commercial aviation is Jet A-1 fuel (ASTMD 1655,
DERD 2494), which is similar to domestic fuels ТС-1 and РТ has weighted fractional composition
(flash point ≥ 38 °С) and high temperature of the beginning of crystallization ( –47 °С). Besides, in
the USA and in the Canada predominantly on internal airlines the Jet A fuel (ASTMD 1655) is used,
differing from ТС-1 fuel by high temperature of the beginning of crystallization ( –38 °C), and Jet B
wide-cut gasoline (ASTM D 1655). According to the indicated spesifications, the content of aromatic
hydrocarbons in fuels Jet A-1 and Jet A is permited up to 22 % (by volume), that at count by the
mass percents adopted in the Ukraine equals about 25 %. In military aviation the JP-4 fuel of wide
fractional composition is used also.
With a view of fuels unification the trend of transferring from JP-4 fuel to the JP-8 kerosene-
type fuel (MIL-T-83133) was outlined. Last fuel on the properties is practically analogous to fuel Jet A-1,
but the additive preventing an ice formation is added into it. In a number of the European countries of the
NATO this transferring to JP-8 fuel is executeed completely (the Great Britain, the France, the Belgium,
etc.). In shipborne aircrafts the JP-5 fuel (Avcat) with flash point above +60 °С is used.
The nomenclature of the main commercial jet fuels of the USA and the Great Britain and their
data in accordance with the respective spesifications are shown in table 13.5 (in other European
countries – in the France, the Belgium, the Germany, the Sweden, etc. – on the civil and military
engineering an analogous fuels are used with small distinctions).
Development of foreign jet fuels
Various grades of jet fuel have evolved during the development of jet engines in an effort to
ensure both satisfactory performance and adequate supply. The JP series has been used by the
military and its behaviour is outlined in the USA Specification MIL-J-5624. For commercial use, the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has Specification D-1655, which covers Jet A,
Jet A-l, and Jet B fuels.
JP-1 fuel
Grade JP-1 was the original low-freezing-point kerosene type fuel. Fuels of kerosene-type
like JP-1 have many disadvantages. Cold-weather starts were quite difficult (in part due to poor
ignition and early, less sophisticated fuel controls) and at high altitudes kerosene was prone to cause
engine flameouts and air starts were almost impossible. Kerosene has a tendency to hold both water
and solids in suspension, making filtration and ice formation a problem. In addition, the potential
supply of kerosene is more limited than gasoline since more gasoline than kerosene can be produced
from a volume unit of crude oil.
JP-2 fuel
This fuel was an experimental blend of gasoline and kerosene. A large percentage of the blend
was kerosene, and therefore it did not appreciable save enough crude oil to warrant its widespread
adoption.
JP-3 fuel
The fuel was a blend of 65 to 70 percent gasoline and 30 to 35 percent kerosene and had
hauling characteristics very similar to gasoline. Cold-weather starting was improved, as was chance
of an air restart at high altitude. Its chief disadvantages were high vapour locking tendencies and
height fuel losses through the aircraft’s fuel tank vents during high rates of climb because of both
evaporation of the lighter fractions and entrainment of the liquid fuel with the escaping vapour. JP-3
also had bad lubricating characteristics because of the high gasoline content.

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 Table 13.5
Data of foreign jet fuels of kerosene-type under specifications

Parameters Avtur DERD 2494* Jet A-l D 1655-81

Exterior Light transparent liquid, —
not containing of free
water and mechanical
impurities at standard
temperature
Acidity, mg of КОН/g 0,015 0,10
The content of
aromatic hydrocarbons, % (by volume) 22,0 20,0
olefines, % (by volume) 5,0 —
total sulphur, % (by mass) 0,30 0,30
sour sulfur, % (max.) 0,001 0,003
The doctor test The negative
The fractional content, °С
beginning of boiling It is pointed —
10 % (by volume) 205 204
20 % (by volume) It is pointed —
50 % (by volume) It is pointed
90 % (by volume) It is pointed
end of boiling 300 300
the residue, % (by volume) 1,5 1,5
the losses, % (by volume) 1,5 1,5
Flash point, °С 38 38
The density at 15 °С, kg/m3 775–830 775–840
Chilling point, °С –47 –47
The viscosity at temperature –20 °С, mm2/s 8,0 8,0
The heating value (lowest), kJ/kg 42 800 42 800
Tab. 13.5 completion
An aniline point (°F)  density (API) 5250 5250
The sootless flame altitude, mm or 25 (26) 25
lumi-metric number or 45 45
Тhe sootless flame altitude, mm and 19 (20) 20
the content of a naphthalene hydrocarbons, % 3,0 3,0
(by volume)
The content of hydrogen, % (by mass) 13,8 —
The corrosion of a copper stripe, point. 1 1
The corrosion of a silver stripe, point. 1 —
The thermal stability at dynamic conditions
measured with the help of the CFR Soker device
(the temperature of preheating equals of 149 °С,
the temperature of the filter equals of 204 °С,
during 5 h)
the pressure differential on the filter for 5 h, kPа — 10,13
the deposits on the heater tube, point. — 3
measured with the help of the IFTOT device (the
temperature of heater tube equals of 260 °С
during 2,5 h)

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 the pressure differential on the filter, kPа 3,33 3,33
the deposits on the tube (visually), point. 3 (at absence of deposits 3
of iridescent or another
unusual colour)
the deposits on the tube (instrumentally), point.  7 (at absence of deposits —
mentioned above)
The copper content, mg/kg 150 —
The content of existent gums, mg/100 ml 7 7
Interaction with water
state on interfacial area, point. 1 1
emulsifiability, point. 2 2
Modified index of separation (WSIM)
fuel with an antielectrostatic additive 70 —
fuel without an antielectrostatic additive 85 —
Electrical conductivity, pСм/m 50–450 50–450
(at the moment of fueling) (as agreed)
The content of additives, mg/l
of antioxidant in the hydrofined fuel
no less 17 (necessarily) It is enabled
no more 24 24
of antioxidant in the nonhydrofined fuel **), 24 24
no more
of metal deactivator**), no more 5,7 5,7
of corrosion inhibitor As agreed
of antielectrostatic ASA-3, no more 1,0 1,0
of anty-ice formation additive (methyl
cellosolve)**) [% (by volume)]
no less — 0,10
no more — 0,15
*) edition of 08.19.78 with addition I from August, 1980
**) the additives adding in fuel is not obligatory; here norms in case of their adding are indicated.

JP-4 fuel
One of the most commonly used fuels for military jet engines was JP-4, and now it may still
be in use. In 1987 the Air Force began to convert to the much safer JP-8 fuel, which is similar to
commercial Jet-A. JP-4 is a wide-blend of kerosene, with some naphtha fractions and gasoline. The
absence of the lighter fractions reduces not only vapour pressure but the combustion performance
during cold-weather and high-altitude starting. JP-4 is the most commonly used fuel for U.S. Air
Force jet engines. The U.S. Navy uses JP-5, a denser, less volatile fuel than JP-4, which allows it to
be safely stored in the skin tanks of the ships.
JP-5 fuel
JP-5 fuel was developed as heavy kerosene to be blended with gasoline to produce a fuel
similar to JP-4 for use on aircraft carriers. The gasoline is carried on board the ship for use in
reciprocating engine aircraft. Because of the low volatility it can be stored safety in the skin tanks of
the ship rather then in the high-priority, protected space in the centre of the ship that is required by
avgas. The mixed fuel requires only the protected service tank. Although cold-weather starts are
marginal, the altitude restarting problem appears to have greatly diminished because of the
development of high energy ignition systems.
JP-6/JP-7 fuel

364
 These fuel specifications were developed by the Air Force for use in supersonic aircraft. Their
low freezing point makes them suitable for use in cold climates and high altitudes. JP-6 is designed
as a wide cut kerosene. JP-7 is the fuel used in high-Mach-number aircraft.
JP-8 fuel
JP-8 fuel is essentially similar to commercial fuel Jet A-1 with a military additive package.
The fuel has been used in the United Kingdom since 1979, with its eventual adoption to the rest of
Europe, the Pacific and the United States. JP-8 is much safer fuel than JP-4. It is the goal of the Air
Force to operate with a single fuel (JP-8) by the year 2010 (JP-8 is expected to cost slightly more
than JP-4).
Jet A and Jet A-1 fuels
The most commonly used commercial fuels are Jet A and Jet A-1. Both are
kerosene type fuels, and both are alike except that Jet A has a freezing point below
– 40 C, and Jet A-1 has a freezing point below –50 C. Another kerosene
specification used by British manufacturers is D.Eng.R-D-2482 (D.Eng.R-D-2494).
Jet B fuel
Jet B fuel and JP-4 are basically alike. They are wide-boiling-range fuels
covering the heavy gasoline-kerosene range and are sometimes called gasoline-type
fuels. They have an initial boiling point considerably below that of kerosene. They also
have lower specific gravity.
Many aircraft engines are built to operate on any of these fuels. To do so, they must have a
special switch on the fuel control to allow it to compensate for differences in specific gravity which is
used in fuel metering calculations.
The low heating value of domestic used fuels averages Hu  = 43 MJ/kg, and density at the
temperature of 293 K lays within the limits =750...850 kg/m3 (see tab. 13.6…13.7).
Table 13.6
Density of jet fuels at temperature of 20 °C

Density, kg/m3
Fuel grade
in accordance with recommended
range
Government standard value*)
Т-1 >800 800—821 810,0
ТС-1 >775 775—785 779,6
РТ >775 777—782 778,0
Т-8 >785 785—790 789,5
Т-8В >800 802—806 804,0
Т-6 >840 840—842 841,0
Т-2 >755 758—773 766,3

*) These values of density as the most probable are indispensable for adjustment of the fuel-metering
devices, estimation of the engine specific fuel consumption, definition of the aircraft flight endurance and in a
number of other cases.

The flight performances of aircraft with other things being equal essentially depend on
properties of fuel: its heating value, density, evaporability and heat stability. For example, when Т-2
fuel (with density of 755 kg/m3) is replaced with Т-1 fuel (with density of 800 kg/m3), despite some
decrease in heating value (on 200 kJ/kg), the range at the same fueling (in terms of volume) can be
increased approximately by 6 % (at the expense of fuel weight increase).

365
 Table 13.7
Heating value, power intensity and the hydrogen content in jet fuels

QH, kJ/kg
in accor-
dance with The content of
Fuel Q H *),  Q L *), Q V *), НL,
recom- Government hydrogen, %
grade range kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/l kJ/kg
mended standards (by mass)
(Specifica-
tions)
Т-1 42960-43100 43000 42900 46100 43000 35045 2754 13,7

ТС-1 43210-43370 43290 42910 46470 43280 34100 2752

14,1

РТ 43330-43500 43370 43120 46550 43360 34170 2758 14,1

Т-8.В 43270-43310 43290 43120 46440 43275 34620 2759 14,0

Т-6 43120-43210 43160 42900 46220 43150 36245 2768 13,5

Т-2 43120-43400 43230 43100 46550 43230 32640 2739 14,6.

)
* Experimental values

The fuel Т-2 is prone to evaporation and boiling-up at high-altitude flights, which can result
in its large losses because of evaporation and aggravation of fuel system operation owing to
cavitation without applicable measures to increase fuel system height. At supersonic flights the
warm-up of fuel in tanks up to high temperature, close to skin-temperature of an airplane is possible,
therefore it should has heightened heat stability. Fuel should not extract indissoluble precipitations
and resins at a high temperature (up to 420 К). The fuels with heavy fractional composition, for
example Т-6, Т-8, etc. have this property.

13.2.13. Influencing of operation conditions on work of fuel systems

By selection of fuels for aviation gas turbine engines it is necessary to allow for a
broad range of pressures and temperatures at which airplanes are operated. At the altitude of
12  km an ambient pressure a 4 times more low, than at sea-level. In some extreme
conditions air temperature at the altitude can drop to 193  K whereas in tropical conditions
near the ground or at flights with a supersonic speeds air temperature can be very high.
Influencing of atmospheric pressure decrease. All hydrocarbon fuels contain air in the
dissolved kind. Quantity of air dissolved in fuel is proportional to partial pressure of air, i.e.
differentials between atmospheric pressure and a fuel saturated vapour pressure. At atmospheric
pressure decrease the dissolubility of air in fuel is reduced. Thus, in process of the airplane climb the
air dissolved in fuel begins to move away from fuel and through vent valves of fuel tanks to flow out
in an atmosphere, carrying away with itself of fuel vapours. At use of kerosenes these losses are
insignificant, and they can be neglected. Besides, in modern aircraft systems the booster pumps are
established, thanks to which air is escaped only in tanks, instead of in fuel system where formation of
"vapour locks" is possible. Under some conditions, however, air dissolution in fuel can become
oversaturated. In this case superfluous quantity of air can suddenly be discharged, for example, at the
moment of switching on of the pump when there is an intensive turbulent mixing of fuel in tanks.
Fuel boiling. At gradual increase of flight altitude in some instant the fuel saturated vapour
pressure becomes equal to atmospheric pressure, and fuel begins to boil. Before this moment the fuel
losses because of vaporization are routinely negligiblely small, however at boiling they can become
significant. The airplane fuelled by gasoline, at flight at the altitude of 12 km can lose because of

366
vaporization up to 10 % of the fuel. Other problem, connected with fuel boiling, consists in that
formed vapours can discontinue the fuel supply in the engine.
It is obvious, that in order to avoid formation of vapour locks and evaporation losses it is
desirable to use fuels with low saturated vapour pressure. Other capability consists in pressurization
of fuel tanks. In the majority of commercial airplanes the pressure in fuel tanks is supported at the
same heightened level, as in an airplane cabin.
Influencing of temperature decrease. It was earlier already mentioned, that at cooling of
fuel to temperature more low 273 K there are ice crystals in it. At the further cooling and reaching of
crystallization temperature the paraffin crystals will begin form in fuel. The major problem connected
with formation of both kinds of crystals is clogging of fuel filters. In some cases it is possible to
avoid this by selection of the applicable materials for filters. Other approach to the solution of a
problem of filters clogging by ice consists in prevention of the process of ice crystals formation. It
can be attained by adding to fuel of the antifreezing agent additives lowering a freezing point of free
water to temperature, which would be less than the lowest temperature of fuel at flight.
Influencing of temperature rise. At flight with high supersonic speeds the liquid fuel
temperature in tanks raises step-by-step, that is caused by dynamic heating of an airframe and heat
transfer from it to mass of fuel decreasing during the flight. Besides, fuel is heated also in heat
exchangers for oil and hydromixture cooling and, to a greater extent, in a fuel pump. Thereof the
temperature of the fuel supplied in the combustion chamber can be increased at flight Mach numbers,
equal to 2,2 and 3, up to 473 K and 533 K accordingly. At decrease of the fuel consumption
indispensable, for example, for transition to an airplane descent rating, the fuel temperature in fuel
system sharply increases owing to a heat transfer from an engine design.
The main difficulty thus consists in formation of resins and another indissoluble shot and
deposition of these matters on working surfaces of heat exchangers, and also in filters and fuel
nozzles. Kerosenes with the big content of paraffins, which are applied now as jet fuels,
possess concerning high stability. However the tracks of non-hydrocarbon compounds in fuel
can be less stable and form depositions. Some aromatic compounds and higher-boiling
fractions are also understable. Therefore heightening of the admissible content of aromatic
hydrocarbons suspected in the future and boiling points can essentially aggravate the
problems connected with heat stability of fuels. If, as it is expected now, the content of
aromatic hydrocarbons will increase to 35 % it can demand essential variations in a
construction of airframe, engine and the fuel supply control system.
13.2.14. Perspective fuels
The liquid hydrogen (its boiling point equals 20,3 K, density at the temperature of boiling
makes 73,5 kg/m3) is often considered as perspective fuel for gas turbine engines. Hydrogen’s
heating value is almost 3 times as big as kerosene’s. Its reserves are practically unlimited, and it is
ecologically-clean fuel, forming at combustion ordinary water. It should not be noted that the
hydrogen is expedient to be used as well as inhibitor, which decreases carcinogenic substances
emission in kerosene combustion products. The researches shows that even small quantities of
hydrogen in a kerosene combustion zone (up to 5...7 % by weight) provide considerable lowering of
carcinogenic substances content in combustion products (approximately on the order), as well as
reduce emission of nitrogen and carbon oxides.
From the idealised point of view the hydrogen, evidently, most close approaches under
concept of ideal fuel. For it high speed of flame spread, wide limits of a stable combustion, good
flammability, absence of carbon are characteristic at burning. Moreover, liquid hydrogen possesses
high cold-resources, greater, than any other liquid fuel. Its small density and low boiling point are the
main disadvantages of hydrogen as aviation fuel owing to what it will demand of very big airplane
fuel tanks use with high-gravity system of a thermal insulation, and application of difficult cryogenic
plants. Hydrogen production costs expensively enough,
The НК-88 engine (modification of the HK-8-2У engine), using liquid hydrogen as fuel, was
first tested in February, 1980.

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 First flight of the Tу-155 airplane with the НК-88 engines, using liquid hydrogen as fuel, was
operated in April, 1988.
The liquid methane is considered to be another perspective cryogenic propellant. Its lowest
heating value equals 50 MJ/kg, boiling point of 111 K, density at the temperature of boiling equals of
466 kg/m3. High thermal stability and combustion without formation of contaminants are the
advantages of methane. It forms an ordinary water and carbon dioxide at methane combustion. They
are ecologically clean. To give cryogenic propellant advantages it is necessary to attribute that, due to
large cold-reserve, they can effectively be used in different cooling systems of a gas turbine engine
and as a result improve the working cycle of the engine.
The main problems connected with application of methane, are caused by its small density
and low boiling point. Methane demands on 70 % larger volume of fuel tanks, than modern grades of
kerosenes (though it is much less, than hydrogen demands). The location of such tanks can appear a
challenge for airplanes with thin wings or airplanes with variable-sweep wings. The problems of the
methane use (they inherent to other low-boiling propellants) are also the losses of fuel because of its
boiling at a climb condition, and condensation of the atmospheric moisture, leading to wings icing
up.
First flight of the Tу-155 airplane with the НК-89 engines, using liquid methane as fuel, was
performed in January, 1989.
Development of the HK-89 engine (modification of the HK-86 engine), using liquid methane
as fuel, for cargo-passenger airplane was initiated at the end of 1990s.
Basic performances of hydrogen, and also other propellants being of interest for aviation –
methane, propane and ammonia – are shown in table 13.8. In the same place for comparison the
kerosene performances are shown.

Table 13.8
Properties of some liquefied combustion gases

Kerosene Liquid Liquid Liquid Liquid

Property
(Avtur) hydrogen methane propane ammonia
The lowest calorific value,
42,8 116 49 46 17,2
МJ/kg
Cold-reserve, МJ/kg 0,38-0,85 20,2 2,55 1,2 3,39
Relative density
0,8 0,071* ) 0,424 * ) 0,585 * ) 0,682 * )
(at 289 К)
Specific heat capacity, kJ/
1,97 7,32 3,43
(kgК)
Boiling point, К 423-573 21 111 231 240
Freezing point, К 223 13 91 91 195
Speed of flame spread, m/s 0,39 2,67 0,37 0,43 0,30

13.3. Requirements to fuel systems

Fuel systems must have:
– high reliability of operation under any operation conditions;
– sufficient critical height (the fuel system height should be not lower than
maximum altitude of aircraft flight);
– high technological effectiveness (the fuel system aggregates arrangement
should provide convenience of their inspection, regulation and replacement at
maintenance);
– fire safety;

368
 – high usefulness for control at maintenance;
– maximum degree of automation and simplicity of control;
– compactness and small weight.

13.4. Construction of fuel systems

Fuel supply at the engine combustion chamber is provided by two systems
(Fig. 13.1): an aircraft and engine fuel systems.
The fuel reserve required for engines operation is saved in fuel tanks, which are
installed inside an aircraft (in a wing centre section, wing, fuselage) or on external
suspensions, which is typical of a helicopters and military aircraft.
On modern aircraft, as a rule, there can be one or two fuel consumed tanks, the
fuel is supplied from other tanks with the help of pumps. The process of pumping is
automated and implemented so that the aircraft centering within the given boundaries
was kept during the flight. For pumping the centrifugal-type electrically-actuated
pumps are used, which are set on the bottom of each tank or group of tanks.

Fig. 13.1. Fuel system block diagram

The fuel is supplied from consumed tanks to the engine fuel systems by booster
electrically-actuated centrifugal pumps ECP (see Fig. 13.2 and Fig 13.3) located on
the bottom of these tanks. An aircraft booster pumps create an overpressure up to 0,15
MPа.
Only one consumed tank FT with booster pump is shown schematically on the
schemes of the GTE fuel systems. The tank has a fill port FP with screen filter SF for
the refuelling. The fuel level in the tank is measured with capacitive-type sensors Hf
(fuel quantity transmitters).
Fuel pressure signalling p/Sg is installed in a line of fuel supply in the GTE fuel
system, with the help of which we determine serviceability of an aircraft booster
pumps and the timeliness of their actuation. A fuel system of an aircraft and the GTE
fuel system are separated by fuel fire shut-off valve FSV. The opening and closing of
FSV is executed by power electro-mechanism, while the switch located in a cockpit
provides control. The fire shut-off valve is opened before an engine start-up and closed
after its shutdown. Closing of the fire shut-off valve is mandatory in case of a fire in
the engine and at emergency landing of an aircraft.

369
 The GTE fuel system has three main lines: of low pressure, high pressure,
starting fuel and also a drain fuel system (see Fig.13.1).
The main line of low pressure provides a critical height of the fuel system
owing to fuel previous compression with the help of the engine backup (booster)
pump EBP (Fig. 13.2 and Fig. 13.3) to values 0,15...0,30 MPа. Such compression
prevents cavitation of the fuel into the main fuel pump MFP inlet (high pressure
pump). For low-altitude engines, for example, helicopter’s engines, the EBP is not
applied. In this case low pressure main line of each engine is a prolongation of exit
main line of aircraft fuel system.

Fig. 13.2. Principal diagram of GTE fuel system with the main fuel pump
of controlled productivity:
FP – fill port; FT – fuel tank; ECP – booster electrically-actuated centrifugal pump; EBP –
engine backup (booster) pump; MFP – main fuel pump; F – filter; BV – bypass valve; WN –
working nozzle; PBN – pilot burner nozzle (starting fuel nozzle); ЕМ – electrical motor;
FFT – fuel flow transmitter of flow meter (instantaneous fuel consumption); SFV –
electromagnetic valve of starting fuel; SV – shut off valve; FSV – fuel fire shut-off valve;
FDCU – automatic fuel distributor control unit (fuel flow divider); TV – throttle valve; CV –
check valve; PLA – power lever (power lever angle, throttle lever); EUCM – engine united
control mechanism; FFCU – automatic fuel flow control unite (MEC – main engine control
unit); DT – drainage tank; DV – drainage valve; VMV – venting magnet valve; Pf – fuel
pressure; Р – fuel pressure differential; Нf – fuel level (fuel quantity transmitter); Gf – fuel
consumption; Sg – signalling; P – pointer

The high-pressure main line serves to supply the required quantity of fuel to
the working fuel nozzles WN of combustion chamber under pressure, required for
high quality of fuel atomization by nozzles and secure from the point of view of main
line elements strength. The maximum pressure of the fuel in a high-pressure main line
reaches 6...9 MPа. Minimum pressure should be not smaller than 0,3...0,4 MPа, and

370
for some gas turbine engines 0,5...1,0 MPа, otherwise the fuel won’t be automized by
nozzles.
The starting fuel main line provides fuel supply to the pilot burner nozzles
PBN under pressure of 0,25...0,35 MPа. The fuel in this main line is often supplied
from low pressure main line. The fuel is supplied to a starting main line from a high-
pressure main line through the special starting fuel valve SFV, which reduces pressure
to required value and stabilizes it at a given level if there is no EBP in the low pressure
main line, or there is no fuel pressure regulator of this pump.

Fig. 13.3. Principal diagram of GTE fuel system with the main fuel pump
of unguided productivity:
FP – fill port; FT – fuel tank; ECP – booster electrically-actuated centrifugal pump; EBP –
engine backup (booster) pump; MFP – main fuel pump; PV – preventive valve; CPDV –
valve of a fuel constant pressure differential; MNV – fuel metering needle valve; TV –
throttle valve; F – filter; BV – bypass valve; WN – working nozzle; PBN – pilot burner nozzle
(starting fuel nozzle); ЕМ – electrical motor; FFT – fuel flow transmitter of flow meter
(instantaneous and total fuel consumption); SFV – electromagnetic valve of starting fuel;
FOC – fuel-oil cooler; SV – shut-off valve; FSV – fuel fire shut-off valve; FDCU –
automatic fuel distributor control unit (fuel flow divider); CV – check valve; PLA – power
lever (power lever angle, throttle lever); EUCM – engine united control mechanism; FFCU –
automatic fuel flow control unite (MEC – main engine control unit); Pf – fuel pressure; Р –
fuel pressure differential; Нf – fuel level (fuel quantity transmitter); Gf – fuel consumption; Sg
– signalling; P – pointer

The drain fuel system serves to provide increased fire safety owing to the
unused fuel drainage into the drainage (vent) tank DT. This fuel could be
accumulated in the sumps of a fuel system and engine. The fuel is dumped into

371
atmosphere (exhaust arrangement) or supplied to the combustion chamber during the
next engine start-up from the drainage tank.

13.5. Standard schemes of engine fuel systems

The fuel systems can be of two types depending on the MFP used in a high-
pressure main line and, therefore, on fuel dosage method.
The first type of the fuel system is the system with the main fuel pump of
controlled productivity, for example, with a plunger pump (Fig. 13.2).
The automatic fuel dosage in the engine of this system is provided by the
productivity change of the main fuel pump MFP with the help of the fuel flow control
unit FFCU (main engine control unit MEC) elements. It has the main functions in
the GTE fuel flow automatic control system.
Engine rating is changed when engine power lever (power lever angle, throttle
lever) PLA moves (It is mechanically connected to dosing element of the FFCU, for
example, throttle valve TV). The PLA moving results in change of throttle valve
opening area, which automatically changes the MFP productivity. Plunger fuel pumps
with controlled camplate are used to change productivity. The camplate angle is
changed with the help of the servo-driver that receives a control hydraulic signal from
the FFCU.
Fuel system with the main fuel pump of unguided productivity (Fig. 13.3)
represents the fuel system of second type. The pump, whose productivity can not be
changed without change of the engine rotor rotational speed, is used in such system.
Among them are gear and plunger pumps with a fixed camplate (the latter is typical of
the helicopter gas turbine engines, which have small fuel consumption). Fuel is
automatically dosed in the engine according to the principle of a redundant fuel by-
passing from fuel outlet of the pump to its inlet. Such by-passing will be provided with
the help of the pressure differential regulator set on a fuel metering needle valve
MNV. As an elementary regulator there can be a valve of a fuel constant pressure
difference CPDV. It supports a given pressure difference at needle outlet and inlet
irrespective of opening area of the metering needle valve MNV.
The opening area of the metering needle valve MNV is changing automatically
during engine rating change with the help of power lever PLA. In case the given
pressure differential value is exceeded the valve of a constant difference augments fuel
by-pass to MFP inlet and pressure differential decreases. The pressure differential
reduction is accompanied by back action of the constant pressure difference valve.
At the outlet of the fuel flow control unit FFCU a shut-off valve SV should be
set in the fuel supply system. It overlaps the high-pressure main line at engine
shutdown. Usually shut-off valve is mechanically or electrically connected with engine
PLA or shutdown lever. An inadmissible fuel pressure increase in main line of the
FFCU outlet is possible (on a requirement of pipe line strength) at shut-off valve
closing. Therefore, the preventive valve PV is installed in the MFP of uncontrolled
productivity. The preventive valve opens fuel by-pass from pump outlet to its inlet
when pressure differential reaches 3…4 MPa. Thus the preventive valve works as a
limiter of marginal pressure differential on the MFP.

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 Types of Controls
Modern fuel and engine controls can be divided into three basic groups; hydromechanical,
hybrid, and electronic. The first two may sense some or all of the following engine variables:
– pilot’s demands;
– compressor-inlet temperature;
– compressor-discharge pressure;
– burner pressure;
– rotor rotational speed;
– turbine temperature.
The electronic controls, especially the full authority digital electronic control (FADEC),
which may be part of a sophisticated engine electronic control (EEC) system, will sense many more
operating parameters. Electronic systems may also use fiber optics instead of wire to provide
immunity from electromagnetic (EM) effects. Fiber optic systems are safer (no fire hazard), have
fewer components, and require less maintenance.
There are as many variations in engine and fuel controls as there are fuel control
manufacturers, and each type has its particular advantages and disadvantages. Many controls in use
today are of the hydromechanical type, although there is a definite trend toward the electronic control
of the engine, especially in the larger transport and military aircraft. Regardless of type, all controls
accomplish the same things, although some may sense more of the aforementioned variables than
others. At best, hydromechanical fuel controls are complex devices composed of speed governors,
servo systems and feedback loops, valves, metering systems, and various sensing mechanisms, while
the electronic fuel controls contain thermocouples, amplifiers, relays, electrical servo systems,
switches, solid-state devices, solenoids, and a variety of sensors, and they feature a large number of
inputs.
For example, in the USA the discussion of engine control theory will limit itself mainly to
two hydromechanical controls, one hybrid control, and one sophisticated EEC and FADEC.
1. The DP-F2, manufactured by the AlliedSignal Bendix Engine Controls Division and used
on the PWC PT6 turboshaft/turboprop engine (a hydromechanical fuel control for a small
turboshaft/turboprop engine)
2. The 1307 fuel control, manufactured by the Woodward Governor Company and used on
the General Electric J79 (a hydromechanical fuel control used on a large turbojet engine)
3. The AP-B3 fuel control, manufactured by the AlliedSignal Bendix Engine Controls
Division and used on the Allison 501-D13 (T56) turboprop engine with electronic fuel trimming (a
hybrid fuel control for a large turboprop engine)
4. The Engine Electronic Control (EEC) and Full Authority Digital Electronic Control
(FADEC) used on the Pratt & Whitney 4000 series engine (a sophisticated electronic engine and fuel
control for a large turbofan engine, manufactured by Hamilton Standard) and later on many another
engines.

13.6. Fuel system elements and their designation

Main line of low pressure generally (Fig. 13.2 and Fig. 13.3) contains such
elements:
– the engine backup (booster) pump, EBP with the pressure regulator (a
pressure-relief valve PRV in the guided-vain pump or a throttle valve TV in the
centrifugal pump);
– the fuel filter F with a bypass valve BV and differential pressure indicator
p /Sg;
– the fuel flow meter FF – Gf / P (of instantaneous and total fuel consumption);
– the fuel-oil cooler FOC (for the ТJEs and ТFEs).

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 For engines with a rather large fuel consumption backup pumps of a
centrifugal type are used (Fig. 13.4), which have drive from the GTE accessory-gear
box. The pressure in the fuel pump outlet is stabilized with the help of a throttle valve
TV (Fig 13.3, Ref. 7 in Fig 13.4), the operation principle of which is based on
automatic change of hydraulic resistance of fuel outlet main line.

Fig. 13.4. Fuel backup pumps of a centrifugal type:

1 – spring; 2 – cavity before membrane; 3 – membrane; 4 – cavity behind membrane; 5 –
damping device; 6 – valve cavity; 7 – throttle valve; 8 – nozzle; 9 – channel connecting
cavity 4 with nozzle; 10 – channel connecting cavity 11 with cavity behind the valve;
12 – screw; 13 – inlet pipe; 14 – impeller; 15 – drainage fitting; 16 – sealing rings (cups);
17 – driving shaft

Centrifugal pumps can provide the productivity of 10000…40000 kg/h at pump outlet

pressure up to 8…9 MPa. Centrifugal pumps have a high productivity at relatively small sizes and
specific mass as well as high operating ability. They are not sensitive to mechanical and other
impurities presence in the fuel, well adjusted for work at the high fuel temperatures (approximately to
200…250 °С).
The centrifugal pumps have following disadvantages:
– the relatively small available range of fuel volume flow rates at constant rotational speed of
drive, as at increase of fuel consumption in comparison with a design rating an unsteady pump work
is possible;
– at driving shaft rotational speed decrease the head pressure drops proportionally
approximately to the square of rotational speed, that can result in deterioration of fuel nozzles
atomization (if to use a centrifugal pump as main one).
The disadvantages of centrifugal pump are notably exhibited in the case of it application as a
main fuel pump with a drive from the engine rotor (in some old types of GTE) during work in the
wide range of rotational speeds, flight speeds and altitudes. The use of centrifugal pumps, driven
from the engine rotor, for the fuel supply in afterburners is improved due to constancy of rotational
speed of engine rotor at the augmented rating. At constant drive rotational speed the change of fuel
feed depending on a flight altitude, speed and degree of forcing is arrived by the change of mainline
hydraulic resistance, i.e. by throttling. An adjusting of fuel supply by change of impeller rotational
speed is more efficient. At constant rotational speed of engine rotor the change of impeller rotational

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speed is possible in the case of autonomous drive application (air turbine, working on the compressed
air, supplied from the engine compressor).
Fuel heating in the centrifugal pump at the design rating does not exceed 5…10 °С. As far as
fuel consumption decrease the value of fuel heating is increased and at fuel flow rate, making 5 % of
maximal, the heating in a pump arrives 50…60 °С.
Construction of pump elements
The basic units of centrifugal fuel pump construction (see Fig. 13.4) are rotor wheel 14,
casing, seals 16, regulator of fuel pressure 1...10 (in the booster centrifugal pump with blades of
impeller, having an angle of flow output of 2<90°, see Fig. 13.7).
Rotor wheels. The rotor wheel consists of impeller 14, pre-pump 12 and shaft 17. Impellers
can be opened, half-opened, and closed type.
Opened impeller has console blades and hub, executed as one whole. Through hub the
impeller is joined with a shaft. Opened impellers are relatively simple in manufacturing. However in
pumps with opened impellers the friction losses are comparatively large because of high relative
speed of motion and considerable way, passable by fuel in relation to the casing walls.
Half-open impeller (see Ref. 14 in Fig. 13.4) has, except for blades and hub, executed as one
whole with them disc. The rigidity and load-carrying ability of rotor wheel rise due to a disc, and also
hydraulic losses and warming up of fuel are decreased in a pump.
Closed impeller differs of half-opened impeller by presence of another disc (cover), covering
blades. Closed impellers are more difficult in manufacturing, then other type impellers.
The impellers are made by forged pieces milling, stamping or casting from aluminium or
magnesiums alloys, and also from steel. The impeller surface is carefully polished, heat-treated and
covered by anticorrosive coats (anodizing and another). The covers of closed impellers are soldered
to the blades of wheel a copper solder.
Impellers are connected with shafts with the help of splines, wedge keys or flange connections
with struds, screwed into impeller hub. The rolling bearings serve a supports of impeller, which are
lubricated and cooled by oil, supplied from the engine oil system. Sometimes, to simplify the
aggregate design, bearings are lubricated and cooled by fuel.
As pre-pumps the axial impellers with the radially located blades or axial auger (screw) pre-
pumps with spiral blades are applied (see Ref. 12 in Fig. 13.4). The number of blades of axial
impeller does not exceed 6…7. The number of blades (number of entries) of axial auger pre-pump is
taken, as a rule, equal to two, as at greater number the encumber of entrance is multiplied, and at one
blade a flow after auger becomes nonaxisymmetric. For the speed field equalizing before the axial
pre-pump its blades quite often are shrouded.
Casings of pumps. In the pump casing an inlet pipe (Ref. 13 in Fig. 13.4) and diffuzer with
outfeed device are located.
The inlet pipe is needed for even axisymmetric fuel supply to the rotor wheel with minimum
hydraulic losses. The flow unevenness in a pump inlet results in the productivity, head pressure,
efficiency decrease and worsening of pump cavitation qualities. Therefore an inlet channel quite
often is executed as a confusor, which is got by profiling of walls or through special inlet fitting, set
before a pre-pump.
Diffuzer serves for transformation of kinetic energy of flow to energy of pressure and for fuel
collection, going out from the rotor wheel. Diffuzers of the followings types are applied: spiral,
vaneless ring-type, vaned ring-type, similar to diffuzers of centrifugal compressors.
Spiral diffuzer is completed with rectilineal conical diffuzer which basic transformation of
dynamic pressure into static pressure makes. The spiral diffuzer transversal section is more
frequently adopted with trapezoidal shape, as the least hydraulic losses are occured at such shape.
The central angle of rectilineal conical diffuser opening is choosen within the range of 8…12°, and
ratio of diffuzer length to the inlet section diameter makes no more than three.
Vaneless and vaned ring-type diffuzers are used rarely, as the first have large radial
dimensions and hydraulic losses because of motion of fuel in it on the lengthened trajectories (on the
logarithmic spirals), and the second considerably complicate the construction of pump.

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 The pump casing is executed from a few parts. Splits are located in planes, perpendicular to
the pump axis. The planes of splits are sealed by the elastic rubber rings of round or rectangular
section, laid in the special groovs, or flat gaskets, made from paronite, fiber, fluoroplastic, copper;
aluminium, etc. Parts of casing are tightened properly through studs or bolts. To the casing seals the
requirement of absolute impermeability are made. Flanges rigidity must be sufficient in order to
prevent the connection impermeability disturbance under the action of pressure of the sealed fuel.
Pump casings are made from the casting aluminium alloys or steel.
Impeller seals. For diminishing of fuel leakage from the high pressure cavity (behind the
impeller) into the low pressure cavities (in pump inlet and in casing cavities closs to impeller) the
noncontacting seals (groove (slot) seals, labyrinth and hydrodynamic seals) are applied.
A slot seal (see Fig. 13.5, a) is a narrow circular slot between the impeller disc and pump
casing by the width of ∆=0,5…0,6 mm. At a small clearance, sufficient length and presence of sharp
turns of flow the slot creates the resistance for overflowing of fuel. In radial or inclined slot the fuel
is carried away by rotated impeller and arising centrifugal forces and goes back into the sealed cavity
However, the fuel leakages through slot seals are large.

Fig. 13.5. Centrifugal pump impeller seals:

1 – channel; 2 – pre-pump; 3 – centrifugal seal; 4 – cup; 5 – spring; 6 – cone;
7 – rotated cup

A labyrinth seal (see Fig. 13.5, b) is located in a slot behind the impeller. A passing through a
labyrinth fuel is withdrawed to a pump inlet with the help of channels 1, executed in a disc or in the
impeller shaft.
Hydrodynamic seals are subdivided into spiral thickenings and centrifugal seals. A sealing in
them is achieved by the return of fuel from a sealed clearanse to the sealed cavity.
Spiral thickenings (see Fig. 13.5, a) are multithread spiral grooves of rectangular or
trapezoidal type, executed on the external surface of axial pre-pump shroud 2 or on the internal
surface of casing, or on both surfaces. Direction of spiral grooves is chosen such a way, that at such
direction of shaft rotation the fuel went back into a sealed cavity. The edges of grooves are made
sharp. A clearance between the rotated and immovable details is chosen minimum possible. Similarly
a clearance behind the impeller can be sealed with the help of spiral groove, executed on its butt end
surface.
A centrifugal seal (see Fig. 13.5, a) consists of blades row 3, executed on a back butt end of
impeller surface. A sealing is achieved due to a fuel, overflowing in interblade channels, is thrown

376
off by own centrifugal forces back in the sealed cavity. A centrifugal seal is effective only at large
circumferential speeds of impeller rotation.
Sealings of impeller shafts. For the sealing of impeller shafts with the high impermeability
sealing degree the cups (cuffs) and axial face seals, as well as rundown spiral grooves are applied.
A cup seal (see Fig. 13.5, b) consists of rubber ring 4 (cup), reinforced metallic rings for
strength and rigidity increase, and elements of its fastening in the casing. The cup is fitted to the shaft
with preliminary tightness, which is supported in the process of work through a bangle spring 5, i. e.
spiral spring (volute spring) convoluted in a ring. Insufficient tightness results in nonhermeticity, and
excessive tightness – to the wear, overheating and cup destruction. The tightness of cup to the shaft
under the action of fuel pressure forces is limited by the thrust cone 6, to which it adjoins an internal
edge. A contact surface is located at a less possible diameter, in order to a cup work at small
circumferential speeds. The cup is fastened in a casing freely or with tightness.
A cup can not reliably work without lubrication and cooling. The small flowing of fuel is
therefore allowed through a seal in drainage (no more of 10 сm3/h). Contamination of fuel leads to
the cup wearing increase.
To decrease a wear, a cup is sometimes executed rotated (see Fig. 13.5, a). At shaft rotation
with large rotational speed, when a centrifugal seal provides the necessary degree of impermeability,
the contact surface of cup withdraws under the action of centrifugal forces from the surface of
immovable detail and a friction decrease between them.
Along with rubber the sealing materials on the basis of polymers (kapron, teflon, silastics) are
applied, possessing high temperature stability, wearability and chemical stability.
A butt end seal (Fig. 13.6, a) consists of sealing ring 3, elastic cup 2 and springs 1. These
details are assembled in the impeller socket and hold out in it by the spring lock ring 5. The sealing
ring, made from antifrictional material [graphite, textolite (fabric-reinforced laminate), glass-fibre
plastic, fluoroplastic (Teflon) or bronze], has two ledges (lugs), fitted into the slots of impeller
socket, owing to which the seal unit is rotated together with impeller. Impermeability of seal is
achieved due to a spring presses a sealing ring to the butt end of steel bush 4, press fitted in the pump
casing. An elastic cup is fitted on a shaft with tightness, and other edge by a spring to the sealing
ring, therefore it seals the details, immovable in relation to a shaft, and does not work with friction. A
spring provides the necessary screwing of sealing ring to the butt end of bush as far as ring wearing
in the process of work.

а b
Fig. 13.6. Seals of centrifugal pump shafts:
1 – spring; 2 – cup; 3 – sealing ring; 4 –bush; 5 - lock ring; 6 – key (cotter); 7 – casing

A butt end seal, executed as an independent structural unit, works similarly (Fig. 13.6, b). A
difference from the considered seal consists in the seal details are mounted in an immovable casing 7.
The sealing ring is not turned due to the key 6 and is pressed to the shaft flange by a few springs,
evenly located in circuitous direction. The butt end seals provide the high degree of impermeability
during the long-duration term of service.
Regulator of fuel pressure of engine booster centrifugal pump (ECP). At the fuel supply
increase the hydraulic resistance of main line between ECP and main fuel pump increases according
to a quadratic law. For maintenance of constant fuel pressure before main pump it is necessary to

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increase the fuel pressure at the ECP exit according to the fuel supply increase. For this purpose the
regulator of fuelpressure serves. It consist of the constant pressure valve 7 (see Fig. 13.4) and the
profiled nozzle 8. The valve, unloaded from axial efforts, is connected with membrane, to which the
fuel pressure in the nozzle throat is brought on the channel 9. It maintains a constant static pressure in
the nozzle throat, set by effort of spring 1 compression. If, for example, the fuel supply was
increased, the pressure at pump discharge and in the nozzle throat is decreased. The equilibrium of
valve membrane is violated, and by spring force it is moved to the right for the flow throttling
decrease, why the static pressure in the throat is restored.
The total pressure at the pump discharge pout is equal to the sum of static pst and dynamic pdyn
pressures in the nozzle throat:
2
ρ f Vthroat
pout  pst  pdyn  pst  ,
2
where Vthroat is a speed of flow in a throat; f is a density of fuel.
As follows from the formula, depending on a fuel supply the total pressure increases
according to a quadratic law, what is required for compensation of main line hydraulic resistance on
an area of ECP outlet.
In the construction of pressure regulator a device for the valve vibrations damping is included,
which come at the coincidence of frequency of fuel pressure pulsations in the main line with valve
normal mode frequency. Valve swinging results in the sharp increase of fuel pressure pulsations in
the main line and in destruction of different details.
A damping device is a piston (see Fig. 13.4), hardly fastened on valve end and sealed in a
casing by the split rings. During regulator work a fuel, being on the left and on the right the piston,
inhibits the instantaneous valve moving, overflowing through clearances and nonhermeticities from
one cavity in other slowly. Because the speed of valve transposition is slow, at the sharp changes of
the engine ratings there can be the considerable separate spreadings and falls of pressure in the
system. For their removal the ball valves 5 are set in the piston. At the certain pressure fall in cavities
the ball valves are opened, damping device is disconnected for a time and the valve of regulator
quickly moves in position, corresponding to a new work mode. For pressure spreading decrease there
is also a channel 10, connecting the internal cavity of regulator with pump inlet.
ECP with blades, bent ahead of the rotation of rotor wheel (2>90°, see Fig. 13.7), provides at
supply increase the pressure multiplying at the pump output without the special regulator of pressure.

Fig. 13.7 Pump rotor wheel blades bent back (recurvate) the direction of rotations (2<90°)
and in the direction of rotation (2>90°)

For engines with a rather small fuel consumption guided-vain (lobe rotary pumps)
backup pumps are used (Fig. 13.8), action principle of which is similar to oil guided-
vain pumps (see Fig. 12.14). The pressure stabilization in the fuel pump outlet is
provided by the pressure-relief valve PRV (Fig. 13.2), which provides redundant fuel
flow from pump outlet to its inlet. The guided-vain fuel pumps, as well as centrifugal
one, have antivibrational valves (see Ref. 9 in Fig. 13.8) of disc type, spring-loaded by
spring 1.
Fuel filters

378
 All gas turbine engines will have several fuel filters installed at various points
along the system. It is common practice to use at least one filter before the fuel pump
and one on the high-pressure side of the pump. In most cases the filter will incorporate
a relief valve set to open at a specified pressure differential in order to provide a
bypass for fuel when filter contamination becomes excessive.

Fig. 13.8. Fuel guided-vain backup pump:

1 – loading valve spring; 2 – steel barrel; 3 – hollow rotor; 4 – plate; 5 – floating-
type pin; 6, 7 – casing; 8 – cap; 9 – antivibrating valve; 10 – pressure-relief valve;
11, 12 – nuts; 13 – adjusting screw; 14 – spring; 15 – passage, connecting cavity
over the membrane with atmosphere

In low pressure main line screen fuel filters (multy-sectional or corrugated) are
applied with filter fineness of 10...40 microns (low-pressure filters). Bypass valves of
filters are regulated on a pressure differential p=0,08...0,12 МPа. In case these values
are exceeded the valve opens direct fuel by-passing past filter. The differential
pressure indicator on the filter is regulated for a difference, which is approximately
half as much (p=0,04...0,06 МPа), as the difference, at which bypass valve is opened.
Types of filters
Paper cartridge type. The paper cartridge type of filter (Fig. 13.9,
Fig. 13.10, b) is usually used on the low-pressure side of the pump. It incorporates a
replaceable paper filter element capable of filtering out particles larger than 50 to 100
microns. Its function is to protect the fuel pump from damage due to fuel
contamination.
Screen type. Generally used as a low-pressure fuel filter, some of these filter
screens (Fig. 13.11, a) are constructed of sinter-bonded, stainless-steel wire cloth and
are capable of filtering out particles larger than 40 .

379
 Convoluted screen. Another form of the basic screen-type filter (Fig. 13.11, b)
but with increased filtering area due to the convolutions (folding or pleating of the
screen material).

Fig. 13.9. Typical low-pressure filter with a paper element

b
Fig. 13.10. Fuel filters:
a – mesh-screen (disc-type) filter; b – combined-type filter

380
 а

Fig. 13.11. Fuel filter variations:

a – typical screen-type filter; b – convoluted screen element

Screen disс type. Located on the outlet side of the pump, this filter
(Fig. 13.10, a) is composed of a stack of removable, fine wire mesh screen discs that
must be disassembled and cleaned periodically in an approved solvent.
In high pressure main line screen fuel filters (multy-sectional with filter fineness
of 10...30 microns and pressure differential up to 0,015…0,080 MPa), with a paper
filtering elements (with filter fineness of 2...5 microns), a fabric filtering elements (felt,
silk, caprone, nylon, etc., with filter fineness 10…15 microns) or combined filters are
applied (high-pressure filters).
Other filtering elements. In addition to the main-line filters, most fuel systems
will incorporate several other filtering elements, locating them in the fuel tank, fuel
control, fuel nozzles, and any other place deemed desirable by the designer.
They may be screen-type filters, depth filters, fabric filters or edge filters.
A fuel flow transmitter is set in low pressure main line. Its impeller is located
in a fuel flow. Rotational speed of such impeller transforms to an electrical signal. It is
transmitted to the pointer indicator of fuel consumption. It gives information about
total fuel consumption during some flight period and about fuel consumption per unit
of time (instantaneous).
The fuel-oil cooler (Fig. 13.12) is most often set in low pressure main line,
however, in high-pressure main line (behind MFP) in some GTEs. In this case fuel
heating in the fuel-oil cooler has no negative influence on deterioration of the MFP
pumping unit elements owing to reduction of fuel lubricant properties at high
temperatures.

381
 Fig. 13.12. Fuel-oil cooler

Some engines use only lubrication system oil cooler for heat transfer to the fuel,
while others incorporate a separate fuel heater (Fig. 13.13). Fuel heat is supplied to
prevent ice crystal formation from entrained water in the fuel supply.
Fuel heat is designed to be used when the fuel temperature approaches 0 C.
Fuel heat is either automatically actuated three to five degrees above the freezing point
of water, or it is selected by a toggle switch in the cockpit. In this system, fuel on its
way to the engine low-pressure filter passes through the cores of the heater assembly.
The solenoid allows bleed air to pass over the cores to warm the fuel.

Fig. 13.13. Fuel heater for use with a turbojet engine

The high-pressure main line includes such elements:

– main fuel pump MFP;
– automatic fuel flow control unit FFCU, which has dosing element (throttle
valve TV or metering needle valve MNV)
– fuel constant pressure difference valve CPDV (for the fuel supply system of
the second type);
– shut-off valve SV;
– pressure meter of fuel Рf /P;
– automatic fuel distributor control unit FDCU (fuel flow divider);
– fuel filters F, which are set before fuel nozzles WN;
– fuel manifolds and working fuel nozzles, which, generally, have sprayers of
primary WNIc and secondary WNIIc contours.

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 As main fuel pumps of controlled productivity a plunger pumps with
controlled camplate (Fig. 13.14) are used.

Fig. 13.14. Plunger fuel pump of controlled productivity:

1 – unloading hole; 2 – casing; 3 – rotor; 4,16 – rotor support bearings; 5 – drain
hole; 6 – spool plate (disc); 7 – servodrive; 8 – piston-rod; 9 – spring; 10 – hanger;
11 – plunger; 12 – spherical plate; 13 – camplate; 14 – thrust bearing; 15 –
driving shaft

Plunger pumps are able to create large pressure after a pump (to 8…15 MPa) at the high
values of volumetric delivery rate (hp=0,95…0,98) due to the precision pairs («cylinder-plunger») of
pumping assembly; they allow to change the productivity at permanent rotational speed of pumping
assembly without by-passing and throttling of fuel, that decrease heating of fuel in a pump.
But the plunger pumps have the following shortcomings: the complication of pump
construction, sensitiveness of pumping assembly precision pairs to presence in the fuel of mechanical
impurity substances, coke, resins, water, to small viscosity of fuel and its high temperature. These
factors promote in the origin of dry friction, wearing and corrosion in precision pairs. The plunger
fuel pumps can work at the fuel temperature no more of 100…120 °С.
Arrangement and principle of pump work
In a casing 2 (Fig. 13.14) the pump rotor (consisting of cone-shaped drum 3 and shaft 15I) is rotated
on bearings 4 and 16. In the rotor drum evenly on a circumference the cylindrical chambers (the axes of which
are located under the small angle of  to the axis of rotor) are executed. Hollow plungers 11, located in the
chambers of drum and pinned by springs 9 to the camplate 13 are fixed in the casing. From an opposite side
the drum is pressed by its butt-end to the immobile slide-valve plate (spool plate) 6, located in the pump
casing. A slide-valve plate has two arched windows, one of which (window of suction) is communicated with
an inlet line, and other one (window of supply) – with pressure line.
If the slide-valve plate is set under some angle φ>0 (φ is an angle between the axis of plate and
axis of rotor), the plungers at rotor rotation perform reciprocating motion relatively to the drum.
Position of maximal immersion of plunger in a drum is named a bottom dead centre (BDC), and
position of maximal output of plunger from a drum – by a top dead centre (TDC).
Let one of plunger takes up position of BDC, corresponding to rotor turning angle α=0. At the
rotor turn in the range of angle α from 0 to 180° plunger passes above the window of suction. Thus it
moves to the TDC, why the plunger released volume is increased and filled by fuel. At the further
rotor turn in the range of angle α=180…360° the plunger passes above the supply window, moving in
direction from the TDC to the BDC. A volume under plunger is decreased, why a fuel is pushed
through the supply window to the supply line.

383
 The value of plunger stroke depends on the angle φ of camplate setting. At φ=0 the plungers
stroke and fuel supply are equal to zero. At angle φ increase the plunger stroke and fuel supply are
increased. For a change of pump productivity the camplate is installed mobile in the casing so, that it
can be turned in relation to an axis, perpendicular to rotor axis. Reinstallation effort is created by
servopiston 7, connected with the camplate by pushrod 8 and by a hanger 10.
For giving the pump necessary properties the axis of camplate turn is taken away from the
plane of plungers contact with the camplate and dispose from the side of camplate working surface or
from an opposite side, i. e. displace parallel to itself along the pump rotor axis (Fig. 13.15, b).

Fig. 13.15. Offset of turn axis (а) and camplate offsetting (b)

Except for the camplate turn axis offset the camplate can have offsetting – the displacement of
camplate turn axis parallel to itself along an axis, perpendicular to rotor axis (Fig. 13.15, b).
Construction of pump elements
The basic elements of plunger pump design are plungers, rotor, slide-valve plate , camplate and
pump casing.
Plungers. At a plunger diameter of 15 mm sufficient inflexibility and small plunger mass are
at the plunger wall thickness of 1,5...2 mm and plunger length should be in 2,5…3,5 times more the
maximal stroke. The plugher head is executed spherical. In order to a point of plunger contact with
the camplate working surface was constantly within the limits of head sphere, the radius of sphere
can not be accepted substantially more the plunger diameter.
In the case of the hinged fastening of the plunger head-heel 1 (Fig. 13.16) the supporting
surface can be increased and contact stresses can be decreased. A separator 2 is however required,
retaining heads in workings positions. To decrease a friction between plungers and camplate, the
plunger sphere is inundated by a leaden bronze, and for more effective cooling the grooves are
executed on it. Sometimes the contact surface is cooled and forcedly lubricated by fuel, supplied
under pressure from the plunger cavity. Plungers are made from the cemented steel of 12ХН3А or
from steel of ХВГ.

Fig. 13.16. Construction of assambly joining of plunger with the camplate:

1  – is a plunger head-heel; 2  – is a separator

384
 Rotors of pumps. Plunger and drum are executed as a frictional pair «steel-bronze». Plungers
are selected according to the diameter of the drum cylindrical chambers and grinded in with small
clearanses (about 0,015…0,020 mm), guaranteing the small losses of fuel at supply stroke. At a small
plungers number the rotor is made completely from antimonous bronze. In pumps with the large
plungers number for the economy of bronze a rotor is completely executed from steel, in the
cylindrical chambers of which the bronze hubs are pressed in, or the drum is executed from a bronze,
and shaft – from steel. In last case the drum and rotor shaft are connected with the help of pins (see
Fig. 13.14).
On the workings surfaces of drum cylindrical chambers quite often the circular grooves with a
step of 6…8 mm, depth of 1,5 mm, width up to 2 mm are made, providing better work of plunger.
Due to the grooves the pressure is equalized on the circumference of plunger and side force of fuel
pressure, causing plunger eccentric displacement and wear in a cylindrical chamberis, is removed.
Also the unfiltered particles can settle in grooves, preventing the plunger jamming. In every
cylindrical chamber of drum a steel guide cylinder (hub) is pressed in for the plunger spring, having
holes for the passage-way of fuel. To reduce losses on suction the area of holes is adopted in 3…4
times more an area of transversal section of plunger.
For the rotor supporting two roller bearings are applied as radial supports or one roller bearing
on rotor driving end and one copper-graphitic sliding bearing. In axial direction a rotor is fixed by
stop in the butt end of slide-valve plate to which it pressed by plunger springs and by fuel pressures
force in the camplate cavity. For the wearing decrease and the better wear-in the rotor butt-end
surface is copperized and is covered by the layer of lead of 0,003...0,006 mm. For prevention of
corrosion, caused by the fuel sulphureous impurities, the driven surface of rotor butt end is covered
by the layer of an indium of thickness 0,003…0,005 mm.
A rotor is cooled due to circulation of fuel from the camplate cavity to the suction cavity
through bearing.
The pump rotor is driven from the engine rotor through a spring with mobile spline
connections on ends.
Slide-valve plates. For the correct functioning of pump the windows of supply and suction of
slide-valve plate are divided by links (bridges), located on an axis, perpendicular to the axis of
camplate swinging. The width of links is taken little more the diameter of inlet holes of rotor
cylindrical chambers. Otherwise the fuel spill over from the supply window to the suction window in
the moments of links passing by inlet holes.
At passing the inlet hole along the link the sharp growth of fuel pressure in a cylindrical
chamber and growth of loadings of plunger, slide-valve plate and bearing is possible. That it was not
the windows on the slide-valve plate are made so that in the moment of plunger arrival at the TDC
the inlet hole of cylindrical chamber began to be communicated with the supply window and it was
disconnected with the suction window. Disconnectioning of cylindrical chamber hole with the supply
window must begin in the moment of plunger arrival to the BDC, not before. Thus a chamber must
not be communicated with the suction window. On this reason the length of suction window is
sometimes executed less, than supply window.
In some designs the windows are executed of an identical length, and the compression of fuel
is prevented by small hole in a bridge between windows (see Fig. 13.14), connecting the plunger
cavity with an unloading valve, relieving a fuel in the supply cavity in the moment of plunger passing
through a bridge.
If rotor is steel, the slide-valve plate is executed from a bronze and vice versa. A plate is fixed
against turning through pin or studs. The working surface of steel plate is covered with lead, and
sometimes also with indium.
Camplate assembly. It consists of two rings, rolling bearing and camplate casing. The first
ring (supporting) is in contact with plungers and is rotated on bearing. The working surface of
supporting ring is executed spherical for diminishing of contact stresses, is cemented or nitrided. The
bearing has one row of balls, perceiving the radial and axial loads, or one row of balls, perceiving the

385
axial loads, and one row of rollers, perceiving the radial loads only. The second ring is press fitted in
the camplate casing.
At pump projecting the offsetting value and curvature of camplate working surface, as well as
the radius of plunger head are selected so that the plunger sliding in relation to the camplate and wear
of these details (conditioned sliding) were minimum.
The supports of camplate casing are two journals located in sliding bearings. On the camplate
casing the lug is executed for joining with servomotor rod through the hanger. The maximal and
minimum angles of camplate setting are limited to supports, screwed into the pump casing.
Pump casings. The pump casing is made from castings aluminium alloys АЛ-4, АЛ-5, АЛ-9.
From one side the internal cavity of pump casing is closed by a cover, in which one of two rotor
bearings is set. A bearing cavity from outside is limited by a cover of less size, in which the sealing
of pump shaft is assembled. From an opposite side to the pump casing the casing of automatic
devices, controlling the position of camplate, is fastened.
As fuel pumps of unguided productivity the pumps, whose productivity can
not be changed without change of the engine rotor rotational speed, are used. Among
them are gear (Fig. 13.17) and plunger pumps with a fixed camplate.
Gear fuel pumps
As mentioned above, in the fuel systems of air breathing engines the gear fuel pumps are
applied: starting pumps with the productivity of 80…400 l/h (in military aviation), workings at output
pressure of 0,3…0,5 MPa; manefuel pumps with the productivity up to 10000 l/h, workings at output
pressure of 6…8 MPa.

Fig. 13.17. Gear pump of unguided productivity:

1 – cup; 2 – pistons of hydraulic chambers; 3 – springs; 4 – movable bush

The productivity of gear pump at all engine ratings exceeds the required fuel supply. The
redundant amount of fuel is by-passed from the cavity of high pressure to the pump inlet through the
automatically controlled needle of by-passing. At high flight altitudes the amount of by-passed fuel
reaches to 80…90 % of the maximal pump productivity. By-passing of fuel causes the additional loss
of power for the pump drive, fuel heating and degradation of cavitation descriptions of pump. Fuel
heating in the gear pump can reach of 100…120 °С. Disadvantages of gear pumps are also the
gradual increase of clearances in the process of exploitation because of details wear, resulting in
pump productivity diminishing. On this reason the assurance factor of supply productivity for a gear

386
pump is adopted equal no less than 1,5. Gear pumps work reliably at the temperature of fuel, not
exceeding 150…200 °С.
At identical sizes the gear fuel pumps productivity exceed plunger pumps one at 1,5…2 time.
Gear pump in a structural relation is simpler and more compact than plunger pump is, more reliable
in work. The productivity of gear pump can be increased multiplying the number of parallel workings
sections. By these advantages the use of gear pumps is determined in the engines fuel systems.
Unlike oil gear pumps the fuel gear pumps work in less viscous than oil medium at
considerably more high pressures at pump outlet and have substantially more high productivity.
Therefore, as compared to gear oil pumps, in the gear fuel pumps the higher influence of clearances
on the fuel overflowing from the cavity of high pressure in the cavity of low pressure is, there is more
loading of the rotor, supports of gear-wheels and casing, higher friction, wear and heating of details.
Value of friction power is commeasurable with the value of useful power, consumed the pump.
Design of pump elements
The basic elements of fuel gear pumps design are gears, shafts, bearings, sealings of gears
butt ends and casings.
Gears and shafts. Gears with involute type gearing are made from cemented or nitrided
alloyed steels (12ХН3А, 18ХНВА, ЭИ-274). Teeth and butt ends of gears are polished. For increase
the diameter of shafts and simplification of pump construction the gears are executed as one unit with
shafts. At small length of teeth (3…5)m the teeth and shafts are made separately and are connected
through the wedge keys, splines or balls. The shafts of pumps are fixed from the axial moving by the
butt ends of gears.
Bearings. In the high-head pumps the needle-shaped bearings are applied without internal
rings. The rolling bodies are located in circular groovs, executed on the gear shafts. External steel
rings are pressed in the casing.
Butt end sealing (face seal). The floating bushs (Ref. 4 in a Fig. 13.17) of butt end seal
provide saving practically of zero butt ends clearances between gears and casing during all term of
pump service.
Floating bushs are pressed to the gears butt ends by means of springs 3, creating an initial
contact, and by fuel pressure, supplied to the bushs from the high pressure cavity through borings.
The value of bushs pressing effort to the butt ends of gears is chosen sufficient for a sealling and not
too large, not to cause a considerable friction in the pump.
Against the bush pressing to the gear the fuel pressure in the gear groovs and in the clearance
between gear and bush counteracts. Distribution of counteractive pressure on the plane of bush fit is
uneven. Therefore floating bush is warped so, that a butt end clearance between gear and bush is less
on the side of fuel inlet and is more on the side of output. To shut out the bush warp during pump
work and decrease a friction, the sealing bushs are pressed through the special system of pistons 2.
Every piston develops effort, corresponding to counteractive effort from the side of gear in the place
of piston location.
More simple in a structural relation is displacement of pressure (pressing a bush) centre from
the gear axis.
Casings. The casng details are casted from aluminium alloys of АЛ-5 type or steel and then
are treated with high degree of exactness. Casing should be made carrying, rigid and easy, as at high
fuel pressures the «buckling» of pump casings and covers is possible, which are accompanied by
increase of clearances in comparison with assembly ones.
From outside quite often the pump casings are ribed for an increase its rigidity, heat emission
to an environment and fuel temperature and pump details decrease. Casing parts are mutually centred
through pins and tightened by studs. In the joints of casing parts the sealing gaskets are set. The shaft
of driving gear is sealed by cups 1 (Fig. 13.17) made from kerosene-stable rubber with clamping
springs. A leaked out through cups fuel is retracted in the drainage system.
In foreign GTEs the fuel pumps generally employ one or two gear-type pumping
elements. Some pumps also incorporate an integral centrifugal boost stage. If the pump
contains two gear stages, they may be connected in series, in parallel or either way.

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 The Chandler Evans Corporation is one of the principal manufacturers of fuel pumps in the
USA, which are produced in a wide variety of designs.
Single-gear element with centrifugal boost
Fuel enters the pump (Fig. 13.18) at the fuel INLET port, flows across the centrifugal boost
element, and out the INTRCLR OUT (intercooler out) port to the fuel-deicing heat exchanger,
returning to the pump through the INTRCLR RET port. The fuel then passes through the inlet screen
assembly, the main gear stage, and out the DISCHARGE port to the engine main fuel control. Fuel
not required by the main fuel control is returned to the pump through the BYPASS port, located
schematically between the impeller and the inlet screen assembly. Fuel leakage from the main fuel
control is returned to the pump via the low-pressure return port.

Fig. 13.18. Single-gear-element pump with centrifugal boost stage

Fuel entering the pump at the INLET port is boosted by the centrifugal pumping element
(gear-driven centrifugal impeller) prior to entering the single positive-displacement, gear-type
pumping element. The pressure rise across the centrifugal boost element (boost discharge pressure
minus inlet pressure) is a function of impeller speed and fuel flow and reaches a maximum of
approximately 0,48 MPa at pump speed of 3710 r/min. Fuel pressure is further increased across the
gear-type pumping element, with gear-stage discharge pressure, which is controlled by main fuel
control pressure regulation, reaching a maximum of 5,3 MPa gage at rated conditions.
Additional pump components and their functions are as follows:
– High-pressure relief valve – the piston-type, spring-loaded valve is designed to limit the
pressure rise across the main gear stage (discharge minus after-filter pressure) and begins relieving at
approximately 5,69 MPa rise, bypassing the full output of the pump internally to the inlet side of the
inlet screen assembly without exceeding a pressure rise of 6,2 MPa.
– Slippage check valve  – the spring-loaded ball check valve is designed to ensure positive
pump-lubrication pressures at high altitude in the event of pump operation with negative inlet

388
pressures, such as might be experienced with failure of the aircraft, tank-mounted boost pumps. The
pressure differential across this valve ranges from 0,07 to 0,13 MPa.
– Self-relieving inlet screen assembly – the inlet screen assembly, fabricated from 40-in. by
40-in. mesh, stainless steel wire with a perforated, outer, stainless-steel shell reinforcement, is
designed to limit the pressure drop across the screen element in the presence of ice or contaminant, to
a maximum of 0,07 MPa.
– Pressure-measuring taps – several pressure-measuring taps are provided in the pump for
use on the flow bench.
Double-gear elements (series) with no centrifugal stage
This pump used on some Pratt & Whitney engines (Fig. 13.19) includes the following basic
components: inlet fuel filter with self-relieving valve; two positive-displacement, gear-type pumping
elements; two relief valves; one check valve; one control valve; and one drive shaft equipped with a
rotary seal.

Fig. 13.19. Pump composing of two gear elements connected to flow fuel in series

Two positive-displacement, gear-type pump elements (boost stage and main stage) operate in
series to supply fuel to the engine-fuel control. The boost stage acts as a pressure boost for the main
stage, which supplies the fuel to the engine-fuel control. Control of internal fuel pressures and main-
stage discharge pressure is maintained by a group of three valves. The pump is installed on the
engine and functions as follows.
Power to drive the pump is supplied by the engine through a mounting pad that
accommodates the main drive-shaft spline. Exterior plumbing brings fuel to the following:
- inlet port, FUEL IN;
- bypass-return port, BY PS RET, from the engine fuel regulator;
- main-stage return port, PRIM RET, from engine fuel controller main bypass;
- boost-stage return port, SEC RET, from the boost-stage discharge port, SEC OUT, through
the engine fuel-deicer system;
- engine fuel controller from the main-stage discharge port, PRIM OUT.
Under normal operating conditions, fuel flows through the pump from the FUEL IN port and
the inlet fuel-filter element and self-relieving valve to the boost stage, out the SEC OUT port to the
SEC RET port, to the main stage and out of the PRIM OUT port to the engine fuel controller. Fuel not
required by the engine is returned to the pump by the fuel control through the PRIM RET and BY PS
RET ports.
Main-Stage Pressure-Relief Valve E
This valve (Fig. 13.19) controls the maximum value of pump discharge pressure and is set to
open when main-stage discharge pressure reaches approximately 7,24 MPa. When the valve is open,
fuel flow is bypassed internally to the inlet side of the main-stage pumping element. The E valve is
normally closed during operation.

389
 Main-Stage Inlet Check Valve C
If the boost element fails, this valve will open, providing a fuel supply to the main element.
The C valve is normally closed during operation.
Boost-Stage Pressure-Regulating Valve A
This regulating valve controls the pressure of the fuel delivered to the engine fuel-deicer
system, and therefore the pressure of fuel delivered to the main-stage inlet. The valve is set to open at
between 0,31 and 0,45 MPa above pump inlet pressure. When the valve is open, fuel is recirculated
internally to the pump inlet.
Double-gear elements (parallel) with centrifugal boost
In this pump, which is in use on some General Electric engines (Fig. 13.20), fuel first enters at
the centrifugal-type boost element. The boost element, which is driven at a greater speed than the
high-pressure elements, increases the pressure of the fuel 0,10 to 0,31 MPa, depending on engine
speed. The fuel is discharged from the boost element to the two gear-type, positive-displacement,
high-pressure elements. Each of these elements discharges fuel through a check valve to a common
discharge port. At a discharge pressure of 5,86 MPa gage, the high-pressure elements deliver
approximately 193 l/min.

Fig. 13.20. Parallel arrangement of double-gear element pump with booster stage

Shear sections are incorporated in the drive systems of each element. Thus, if one element
fails, the remaining element remains operative, and the check valves prevent recirculation through the
inoperative element. One element can supply sufficient fuel for moderate aircraft speeds.
A relief valve in the discharge port of the pump opens at approximately 6,2 MPa and is
capable of bypassing the total flow at 6,62 MPa. This valve permits fuel at pump discharge pressure
to be recirculated as a protection against “deadheading” the pump. The bypass fuel is routed to the
inlet side of the two high-pressure elements.
The pump always supplies more fuel than is needed in the system. The fuel control
determines the amount of fuel required for engine operation and bypasses the remainder back to the
pump. This bypass flow is routed to the intake side of the high-pressure elements.
Double-gear elements (series or parallel) with centrifugal boost stage
This fuel pump (Fig. 13.21) is engine driven and is incorporated two gear-type pressure
elements supplied by one centrifugal boost pump. The design of the pump is such that the capacity of
the primary gear-type element is 10 percent greater than that of the secondary element. This feature
allows series operation, with the primary element taking the full load, without the need for a bleed
valve bypassing the secondary element during normal operation. The fuel pump operates in
conjunction with the high-pressure fuel filter that is mounted on the bottom of the fuel pump.

390
Fig. 13.21. Scheme of fuel flow through pump with double-gear elements (series or parallel)
and centrifugal boost stage, and high-pressure filter

During an engine start the pump elements are in parallel operation, and the paralleling valve
in the fuel filter is energized closed. The pressure switch in the fuel filter is closed, causing a cockpit-
mounted warning light to illuminate and indicate that the secondary element is operating properly
(2200 to 9000 r/min). If the primary element fails (indicated by a warning light) while the engine is
running, the secondary element provides sufficient fuel flow and pressure to operate the power unit in
flight. During a start, if a primary element has failed, fuel flow may not be sufficient for a satisfactory
start. The primary-fuel-pump-failure warning light is cockpit mounted. It goes on when the primary
element of the fuel pump has failed and during the engine starting cycle when the fuel-pump
elements are operating in parallel (2200 to 9000 r/min).
The fuel pump and filter assembly consists of two castings that may be separated. The upper
portion is the fuel pump, which contains the boost pump and the two pump elements. The lower
portion is the filter assembly, which contains the removable high-pressure filter, the check valves, the
paralleling valve, and the pressure switch.
To provide full fuel combustion it is supplied to combustion chambers in
vaporized or sprayed condition, with the help of vaporizer tubes (Fig. 13.22,
Fig. 13.23, d) or injecting nozzles.
The vaporizer nozzles can work at low pressures of fuel (р=0,2…0,3 МРа) and are not afraid
of vapour locks, but are inclined to a carbonization, have a low combustion efficiency, narrow area of
a stable combustion and poor characteristics at flight starting. The vaporization tube is essentially a
U-shaped pipe whose exit face upstream to the compressor airflow. Excellent mixing of the fuel and
air results this arrangement.

391
 a

b
Fig. 13.22. Vaporizer tube for fuel supply in vaporized condition

a b

c d
Fig. 13.23. Gas turbine engine fuel nozzles

392
 As injector nozzles the jet nozzles (in afterburners and APU, see Fig. 13.24 and
Fig. 13.25) and centrifugal sprayer nozzles (Fig. 13.23, a,b,c) are used in the GTEs.
The sprayer nozzles ensure high quality of fuel atomization and its optimum
distribution on volume of the combustion chamber.

Fig. 13.24. Fuel manifold with jet nozzles:

1 – jet nozzle; 2 – manifold

Fig. 13.25. Variable geometry jet nozzle:

1 – direction of gas flow; 2 – hole; 3 – metering needle; 4 – manifold; 5 – variable geometry
jet nozzle; 6 – constant geometry jet nozzle

The fuel nozzles should provide:

– High atomization at all engine ratings (10…400 , mean 70…100 ). High
atomization should be provided at fuel pressure no less than 0,3…0,4 МPа
(Fig. 13.26);
– Uniformity of fuel distribution on volume of combustion chambers for full
fuel combustion (for prevention of flame tube burning, providing with uniform field of
temperatures). The operation of nozzles should be identical on a fuel rate and
atomization (the non-uniformity at take-off rating should be no more than 2…3 %, and
at small consumption – no more than 10…20 %);
– The angle of a tongue at vertex should be changed depending on fuel
consumption: 80…90 – at a design rating (to prevent a nozzle diaphragm burning);
110…120 – at an idle rating (for formation of back flow zone) and 60…70 – at an
engine start-up (at low fuel pressure).
Most engines use either the single (simplex) (Fig. 13.23, a; Fig. 13.27, a) or the
dual (duplex) nozzles (Fig. 13.23, c; Fig. 13.27, b, c and d). Some small engines use
only the single (simplex) nozzles.

393
 Fig. 13.26. Various stages of fuel atomization

Fig. 13.27. Schemes of centrifugal fuel nozzles:

a – single (simplex) nozzle; b, c, d – dual (duplex) nozzles (b – double-jet nozzle;
c – single-chamber nozzle; d – double-chamber nozzle); 1 – tangential channels;
2 – spin (swirl) chamber; 3 – jet; 4 – atomization cone; 5 – tangential channels of
I-th contour (primary flow); 6 – tangential channels of II-th contour (secondary
flow); 7 – flow divider valve; 8 – jet of II-th contour (secondary orifice); 9 – jet of
I-th contour (primary orifice); 10 – spin (swirl) chamber of II-th contour
(secondary flow); 11 – spin (swirl) chamber of I-th contour (primary flow); 12 –
common spin (swirl) chamber; 13 – diaphragm

394
 The simplex nozzle, as its name implies, has the advantage of being simpler in
design than the duplex nozzle. Its chief disadvantage is that it is unable to provide a
satisfactory spray pattern with the large changes in fuel pressure and airflow
encountered in bigger engines.
The duplex nozzles are applied to maintain high quality of fuel spraying at a
wide range of fuel pressure change before nozzles.
At starting and low rotor speed, and at low airflow, the spray angle needs to be
fairly wide in order to increase the chances of ignition and to provide good mixing of
fuel and air. However, at higher rotor speed and airflow, a narrow pattern is required to
keep the flame of combustion away from the walls of the combustion chamber
(Fig. 13.23, b; Fig. 13.28). The small fuel flow used at idling is broken up into a fine
spray by being forced through a small outlet formed by the primary holes. The
secondary holes are larger but they still provide a fine spray at higher rotor speed
because of the higher fuel pressure. The chief advantage, then, of the duplex nozzle is
its ability to provide good fuel atomization and proper spray pattern at all rates of fuel
delivery and airflow without the necessity of abnormally high fuel pressures.

Fig. 13.28. Spray angle changes when fuel flows in the primary or

primary and secondary manifolds

The fuel flow through the engine is augmented approximately 15...25 times
beginning from fuel initial ignition rating at start-up to a maximum rating. Minimum
fuel pressure should be within the limits of 0,2...0,4 МPа, at which working nozzles
spray fuel satisfactorily. Maximum fuel pressure limit is equal to 6...9 МPа, depending
on requirement of high-pressure main line elements strength.
The fuel consumption through some orifice F area is determined by the formula
G f  F 2f p , (13.1)
where  is the consumption factor; f is the density of fuel; р is the pressure
differential on orifice.
From the formula (13.1) we can see, that the pressure differential in fuel nozzle
should be increased 225…625 times for fuel flow being increased 15...25 times.
In double-jet fuel nozzles fuel consumption is changed not only at the expense
of fuel pressure differential, but also due to product F change. The double-jet nozzle
(Fig. 13.27, b and Fig. 13.29…13.30) has two coaxial sprayers in one body for the

395
primary and secondary flows. The area of the secondary flow nozzle jet is
approximately five to six times as large as the area of the primary flow nozzle jet.

Fig. 13.29. Double-entry double-jet nozzle:

1 – nozzle body; 2 – primary flow passage; 3 – secondary flow passage; 4 – nut;
5 – seal; 6 – retaining nut; 7 – air cap; 8 – bush; 9 –nozzle body insert with inner
swirl chamber and orifice cone; 10 – nozzle body insert with outer swirl chamber
and orifice cone; 11 – heat-insulating bush; 12 – air flow to prevent formation of
carbon over orifice; 13 – tangential channels of primary flow swirl chamber; 13 –
tangential channels of secondary flow swirl chamber

Fig. 13.30. Dependences of fuel consumptions and pressure before the secondary flow of
nozzls Р2 versus the pressure before the primary flow Pn in a double-jet nozzle:
Q1 – fuel consumption through the primary flow; Q2 – fuel consumption through the
secondary flow; Q – total fuel consumption through two flows

Available consumptions range of double-jet nozzle equals Qmax/Qmin=20...30.

396
 There are following disadvantages of double-jet nozzles:
– bad fuel atomization in the moment of main manifold actuation, because
discharge from an outward jet takes place under small redundant pressure;
– large unevenness of fuel consumption through nozzles, located in the upper
and lower halves of fuel manifold, in the moment of main manifold actuation. In this
instant a hydrostatical pressure of fuel column in the manifold is commensurable with
the value of pressure differential under which the discharge from outward nozzles
occurs, therefore fuel consumption through lower nozzles approximately on 20 %
more than through upper one;
– because of difficulties of nozzles concentric location providing the large
sectorial unevenness of fuel atomization is possible.
In the sprayer of primary flow the fuel is supplied at engine low ratings, and the
sprayer of the secondary flow is actuated at heightened ratings. Fuel for flows is
distributed with the help of the automatic fuel distributor control unit FDCU (fuel flow
divider). The automatic fuel distributor opens fuel access to the sprayers of the primary
flow nozzles when engine is started-up, if the fuel pressure before nozzles increases up
to 0,2...0,4 МPа. When engine rotor rotational speed is increased the fuel pressure
before nozzles increases, and, if it reaches the value of 1,5...2,5 МPа the automatic
fuel distributor opens fuel access to the secondary flow sprayers. Thus the fuel flow
increase is provided at the expense of increase of the total area of the primary and
secondary flows sprayers.
The separate groups of the primary and secondary flows nozzles are used in
some gas turbine engines. At low engine ratings the automatic fuel distributor supplies
fuel to a group of the primary flow nozzles, and at higher ratings with its help the
group of the secondary flow nozzles is actuated.
In a gas turbine engine with a rather small fuel consumption single-flow nozzles
are used, in which the fuel consumption changes at the expense of a pressure
differential change. For such engines automatic fuel distributors are also set before
nozzles, however in this case it has the function of the fuel minimum and maximum
pressure limiter.
In single-chamber fuel nozzles (Fig. 13.27, c and Fig. 13.31) and double-
chamber nozzles (Fig. 13.27, d and Fig. 13.32) with double-entry the fuel consumption
is changed not only at the expense of fuel pressure differential, but also due to
consumption factor  change.
In a single-chamber double-channel nozzle the fuel from a main manifold 2
(Fig. 13.31) enters in swirl chamber, where the fuel from an auxiliary manifold (first
flow) 3 is rotated. Atomization of fuel, entering from a main manifold in the moment
of it actuation, is hereupon improved.
The disadvantage of this nozzle is an unevenness of fuel supply by different
nozzles of package during work at an idle and in the moment of main manifold (see
Fig. 13.32) actuation. Reason consists in different hydraulic resistance of the auxiliary
channels of nozzles. Hereupon fuel pressure is less in the swirl chamber, in which the
resistance of auxiliary channel is more. Therefore at the closed flow divider a fuel
overflows from a nearby located nozzle through the channels of main manifold. In the

397
moment of main manifold actuation an influx of fuel in chambers with the elevated
hydraulic resistance of auxiliary channels can be on 40…50 % more the design fuel
consumption.

Fig. 13.31. Double-entry single-chamber nozzle:

1 – nozzle body; 2, 12, 13 – secondary flow passage; 3, 5, 6 – primary flow
passage; 4 – air flow to prevent formation of carbon over orifice; 7 – air cap; 8 –
nozzle body insert with swirl chamber and orifice cone; 9 – heat-insulating bush;
10 – thrust washer; 11 – retaining nut; 12 – bush with tangential channels of
secondary flow; 13 – bush; 14 – lock

Fig. 13.32. Dependences of fuel consumption, pressure before the secondary flow of
nozzles Р2 and angle of atomization cone  versus the pressure before the primary flow Р1
in the double-entry single-jet single-chamber nozzle:
Q1 – fuel consumption through the primary flow; Q2 – fuel consumption through
the secondary flow; Q – total fuel consumption through two flows

A double-chamber double-entry nozzle differs from the single-chamber

nozzle a presence of baffle plate (fig. 13.27, d; 13.33), dividing the swirl chamber on
two. The baffle plate decreases influence of fuel pressure, entering in the chamber
from an auxiliary manifold, on the consumption of fuel, entering from a main manifold
in the moment of the last one actuation (Fig. 13.34).
398
 Fig. 13.33. Double-entry double-chamber nozzle:
1 – filters; 2 – swirl chamber of secondary flow; 3 – swirl chamber of primary
flow; 4 – flow divider valve; 5 – secondary flow passage; 6 – nozzle body; 7 –
primary flow passage

Fig. 13.34. Dependences of fuel consumption, pressure before the nozzles

secondary flow Р2 and angle of atomization cone  versus the pressure
before the primary flow Р1 in the double-chamber double-entry nozzle:
Q1 – fuel consumption through the first flow; Q2 – fuel consumption through the secondary
flow; Q – total fuel consumption through two flows

However the baffle plate worsens atomization of fuel in the moment of main
manifold actuation. Therefore into the swirl chamber of main fuel sometimes a fuel
with a small flow is supplied over the divider.

399
 Flow divider may be incorporated in each nozzle, as is the case with the single-
entry duplex nozzle (Fig.  13.35, a and b), or a single-flow divider may be used with
the entire system (Fig. 13.36).

b
Fig. 13.35. Two examples of single-entry duplex nozzles

Fig. 13.36. Common fuel flow dividers in primary and secondary flow manifolds:
1, 6 – fuel flow dividers; 2, 5 – secondary flow manifolds;
3, 4 – primary flow manifolds; 7 – diaphragm

Single-entry duplex nozzles incorporating an internal flow divider require only a

single fuel manifold (Fig. 13.37), while dual-entry fuel nozzles require a double fuel

400
manifold. Some dual-fuel manifolds may not be apparent as such. For example, on
some engines a concentric manifold systems are used (Fig. 13.38).

Fig. 13.37. Single-entry duplex nozzle requires only a single fuel manifold

Fig. 13.38. Double-entry nozzle with a concentric manifold

Primary and secondary flow passages to nozzles of some multinozzle

combustion chambers are located in head of flame tube (Fig. 13.39).
The flow divider, whether self-contained in each nozzle (such divider prevents
effect of fuel column hydrostatic pressure in fuel manifold) or installed in the
manifold. It is usually a spring-loaded (Fig. 13.40) valve set to open at a specific fuel
pressure. When the pressure is below this value, the flow divider directs fuel to the
primary manifold and/or nozzle orifice to give a wide-angle spray pattern. Pressures
above this value cause the valve to open, and fuel is allowed to flow in both manifolds
and/or nozzle orifices to widen the fuel spray pattern. As engine rotor speed/fuel
pressure continues to rise, the spray angle narrows (since spray angle is inversely
proportional to fuel pressure) until it is again correct.

401
 Fig. 13.39. Annular combustion chamber with multinozzle fuel supply

Fig. 13.40 Flow divider and nozzle are an integral unit. Flow divider is located
outside the hot combustion area

Most modern nozzles have their passages drilled at an angle so that the fuel is
discharged with a swirling motion in order to provide low axial air velocity and high
flame speed. In addition, an air shroud surrounding the nozzle cools the nozzle tip and
improves combustion by retarding the accumulation of carbon deposits on the nozzle
face. The shroud also provides some air for combustion and helps to contain the flame
in the centre of the liner (Fig. 13.41). Extreme care must be exercised when cleaning,
repairing, or handling the nozzles, since even fingerprints on the metering parts may
produce a fuel flow that is out of tolerance.
The general disadvantage of the nozzles considered above is difficulty to have
small consumptions at pressures, providing high quality of fuel atomization. In
addition, the required fuel pressures are great before nozzles at the high ratings. These
disadvantages a spill-type fuel nozzle has not.

402
 Fig. 13.41. Single-entry duplex nozzle incorporating an air shroud

The spill-type nozzles are used on some engines. They can be described as being
a simplex spray nozzles with a passage from the swirl chamber for spilling fuel away
(Fig. 13.42). With this arrangement it is possible to supply fuel to the swirl chamber at
a high pressure at all times. As the fuel demand decreases with altitude or reduction in
engine speed, more fuel is spilled away from the swirl chamber, leaving less to pass
through the atomising orifice. Constant use of a relatively high pressure by the spill
spray nozzle means that even at the extremely low fuel flows that occur at high
altitudes there is adequate swirl to provide constant and efficient atomisation of the
fuel.
In the spill-type nozzle (Fig. 13.42) the fuel from the pump is supplied on
tangential channels in the swirl chamber in an amount Qp, exceeding the required
amount Qn for engine work at the set rating. The redundant amount of fuel Qspill is
spilled to fuel pump inlet through a valve or needle of spilling. The consumptionses Qn
and Qspill are connected between themself by relation Qp=Qn+Qspill.

Fig. 13.42. Spill-type fuel nozzle

403
 Pressure Pn before a nozzle is supported within the limits of 20…30 MPa. Due
to the heightened pressure at the ratings of small consumptionses, speed of fuel
swirling is large, and quality of atomization is high. Growth of the consumption factor
μ is removed at small fuel consumption, connected with influence of friction forces.
A spill-type nozzle provides good quality of atomization at fuel consumptions
less 1 % of maximal.
The spill spray nozzle system, however, involves a somewhat modified type of
fuel supply and control system. A means has to be provided for removing the spill and
for controlling the amount of spill flow at various engine operating conditions. A
disadvantage of this system is that excess heat may be generated when a large volume
of fuel is being recirculated to the inlet. Such heat may eventually lead to a
deterioration of the fuel.
In addition, there are following disadvantages of spill-type nozzle:
- For providing at the lowered ratings of fuel pressure before nozzles
approximately 2…3 MPa large reserve of pump productivity is required. At these
ratings a pump is superfluously overloaded.
- The change of hydraulic resistance of spilling main lines results in the
considerable redistribution of fuel consumptions between nozzles.
- The spill-type nozzle gives the approximately constant angle of atomization
cone, while it must be changed at the ratings.
The air spray nozzle, illustrated in Fig. 13.43, b and Fig. 13.44, a, carries a
portion of the primary combustion air with the injected fuel. By aerating the spray, the
local fuel-rich concentrations produced by other types of spray nozzles are avoided,
thus reducing both carbon formation and exhaust smoke. An additional advantage of
the air spray nozzle is that the low pressures required for atomization of fuel permit the
use of the comparatively lighter gear-type pump.

a b
Fig. 13.43. Duplex fuel spray nozzle with flow divider (a) and air spray nozzle (b)

404
 Fig. 13.44. Schemes of fuel nozzles:
a – double-jet nozzle with air spray; b – double-jet nozzle with individual fuel
divider; c – simplex fuel ultrasonic nozzle; 1 – fuel flow divider; 2 – secondary
(mane) fuel manifold; 3 – primary (additional) fuel manifold; 4 – air swirl vanes;
5, 11 – primary jets; 6, 10 – mane jets; 7 –filter; 8 – servopiston; 9 – valve; 12 –
vibrator, generating ultrasonic air oscillations to disintegrate fuel droplets

Fuel aeration is widely used in low-emission combustion chambers

(Fig. 13.45…13.46).

Fig. 13.45. Scheme of “double-zone” combustion chambers:

1 – fuel nozzles of primary flow zone; 2, 4 – channels of preliminary air-fuel
mixing; 3 – mixing zone with secondary air flow; 5 – fuel nozzles of main flow
zone; 6, 7 – perforated conical flame-cholders; 8 – inserts

405
 а

c
Fig. 13.46. Schemes of low-emission combustion chambers:
a – combustion chamber with fuel aeration in flame tube head; b – “double-tier”
combustion chamber with short cooled sections of flame tube walls; c – “double-
tier” short combustion chamber with binary (segment) flame tube walls

The main line of starting fuel includes such elements (see Fig. 13.2, Fig. 13.3):
– magnet valve of starting fuel SFV;
– fuel filter F;

406
 – check valve CV;
– starting fuel nozzles SFN (pilot burner nozzle PBN, see Fig. 13.47,
Fig. 13.48).

Fig. 13.47. Pilot burners of combustion chambers:

a – spark plug of direct ignition; b – pilot burner; 1 – fitting of oxygen supply;
2 – annular-gap type spark plug; 3 – seal ring; 4 – flame tube; 5 – fuel nozzle; 6 –
combustion chamber casing; 7 – bush; 8 – casing; 9 – spark plug; 10 – fuel
nozzle of pilot burner; 11 – pipe; 12 – barrier of oxygen supply

Fig. 13.48. Pilot burner:

A – pilot burner nozzle; B – spark plug; 1 – cowl; 2 – deflector; 3 – pilot burner
casing; 4 – fuel fitting; 5 – fuel sprayer; 6 – plug

The magnet valve of starting fuel provides closing-opening of starting main line
when required at engine start-up. It is operated automatically from a start control
system.
The check valve prevents break of hot gases from the combustion chamber to
the fuel main lines after starting fuel main line is switched off by magnet valve.
The drain fuel system dumps fuel into drainage tanks DT (Ref. 15 in
Fig. 13.49) from places of its unwanted accumulation. The fuel drains into these tanks
from fuel manifolds after engine shutdown, and also from bottoms of the combustion
chamber (Fig. 13.50) and turbine casing.

407
 Fig. 13.49. Annular combustion chamber:
1 – combustion chamber casing; 2, 4 – outer and inner rings of diffuser; 3 – fuel
nozzle; 5 – fuel manifold; 6 – diaphragm; 7 – flame tube attachment pin; 8 – flame
tube; 9 – external casing; 10 – secondary flow casing; 11 – pilot burner; 12 – leg;
13, 14 – ring flanges of turbine; 15 – drainage tank; 16 – drainage fitting; 17 –
HPC guide vanes; 18 – collar; 19 – hollow ribs; 20 – internal casing

Fig. 13.50. Fuel drainage from combustion chamber casing bottom after engine shutdown

Fuel is dumped through the drainage (drain, dump) valve DV, which is closed
when engine works, with the help of heightened fuel pressure in manifolds or gas
pressure in the combustion chamber (Fig. 13.51). During engine shutdown, when fuel
pressure before drainage valves drops to 0,2...0,4 МPа, the valves springs open fuel
dumping in a drainage tank. It is squeezed out from a drainage tank to an engine
exhaust arrangement during following engine start-up by an air pressure supplied from

408
the compressor. In some gas turbine engines we use fuel that is accumulated in a
drainage tank when engine is in operation.

Fig. 13.51. Drainage valve:

I – combustion chamber casing; 2 – valve; 3 – valve casing; 4 – spring; a – hole of fuel
drainage from combustion chamber; b – hole of fuel drainage to drainage system

In a drainage tank we also dump liquid, which has been filtered through seal of
fuel and hydraulic pump driving shafts.
In some gas turbine engines fuel is removed from starting fuel main line on a
segment from starting injectors to a check valve. After starting fuel main line
switching-off the command on opening venting magnet valve VMV comes (on 1…
2 s), thus, with the help of a heightened gas pressure in the combustion chamber, the
fuel is squeezed out from a main line in a drainage tank through a magnet valve.
Pressurizing and Drain (Dump) Valves
The purpose of the pressurizing and drain valve (Fig. 13.52) on the CJ805 and the CJ610
engines is to prevent flow to the fuel nozzles until sufficient pressure is attained in the main fuel
control to operate the servo assemblies used to compute the fuel-flow schedules. It also drains the
fuel manifold at engine shutdown to prevent postshutdown fires but keeps the upstream portion of the
system pruned to permit faster starts.

409
 Fig. 13.52. Pressurising and drain valve for the General Electric CJ805 (J79) engine
The pressurizing and dump valve used on the Pratt & Whitney JT3 series engines (Fig. 13.53)
has a somewhat different function. In addition to the drainage or dumping function, this unit also
serves as a flow divider. At the beginning of an engine start, the fuel control supplies a pressure
signal to the pressurizing and dump valve, causing the valve to close the manifold drain and open a
passage for fuel flow to the engine. On engine shutdown, fuel flow is cut off immediately by a valve
in the fuel control. The pressure signal drops and the dump valve opens, allowing fuel to drain from
the manifold. The flow divider allows fuel to flow to the primary and secondary manifolds,
depending on fuel pressure.

Fig. 13.53. Pratt & Whitney pressurising and dump valve schematic

The Allison 501-D13 engine incorporates an electrically actuated drain valve (which Allison
calls a drip valve), activated automatically at a specific rotor speed to ensure a clean cutoff and
prevent fuel from dripping into the combustion-chambers at low fuel pressures (Fig. 13.54). In this
way gum and carbon deposits are prevented, and the fire hazard is reduced.

410
 Fig. 13.54. Drip valve used on the Allison 501-D13 engine
The General Electric CJ610 fuel-manifold drain valve performs the same function but works
when fuel pressure drops below a specified minimum.
Most manufacturers install a pressure-operated valve in the combustion-chamber section.
When the pressure in the burners drops below a specified minimum, usually a few pounds per square
inch, this valve will open and drain any residual fuel remaining after a false start or normal shutdown.

13.7. Selection of the plunger fuel pump parameters

The available volumetric productivity of a plunger fuel pump is determined by

the formula, l/min:
(id p2 hmax nh p 10 6 )
Qp  ,
4
where i is the number of plungers (the number of plungers is odd – 7, 9, 11 for fuel
pressure oscillation lowering); dp is a diameter of a plunger (optimum diameter 12...15
mm); hmax is a stroke of a plunger (15...30 mm); n is a pump rotor rotational speed
(4000...5000 r/min); hp is a volumetric delivery rate (0,96...0,98).
The available productivity of a plunger pump with a controlled camplate should
be 5...10 % higher than indispensable. It is necessary to compensate pump degradation
owing to deterioration of its pumping unit elements.
The requirement of plunger pump sufficient productivity looks like, l/min:
Q pr 
(1,05...1,1) G
, FD (13.2)
60 
f

where GFD is a fuel consumption per hour through the engine at a design rating, kg/h;
f is a fuel density (f = 0,8 kg / l).
If a requirement
Q p  Q pr

is not met, it is necessary to change geometrical parameters of the pump as required

and calculate volumetric productivity Qp.

13.8. Selection of the gear fuel pump parameters

The available volumetric productivity of the gear pump is calculated in the same
way as productivity of gear oil pump.
WP = 2 dp l m n hP 10-6
However, in connection with difference in fuel and oil properties and different
values of pressure, it should be remembered that:
– volumetric delivery rate hp=0,75...0,82;
– pump rotational speed n=4500...5500 r/min;
– gearing module m=3...6 mm;
– gear thickness l=(5...8)m;
– circumferencial velocity on diameter of gear pitch circle u=15...25 m/s.
The available volumetric productivity of gear fuel pump should be 1,5 to 2 times
as high as the required productivity.

411
 13.9. Hydraulic calculation of double-jet nozzles

The task is to determine the diameters of initial jets of primary and secondary
contours working fuel nozzles. The calculation is based on equation of fuel
consumption through the applicable contours of nozzles. Using this equation, we
determine the total area of both contour nozzle jets with the help of the formula
GFD
F  ,
3600 z 2 p d f f

where GFD  is a fuel consumption per hour at design (maximum) rating, kg/h; z is the
number of nozzles; d is a consumption factor for a design rating; f is a density of
fuel, kg/m3; pf  is a fuel pressure differential on the nozzle (pf = 4...7 МPа).
Consumption factor  depend on geometrical dimensions of fuel nozzle:
Rrorifice
A 2
,
nrinlet
where R is a radius of swirl chamber; rorifice is a radius of orifice; rinlet is a a radius of
inlet hole; n is a quantity of inlet holes.
Dependence of consumption factor  and  angle of spray cone versus A
parameter is shown in Fig. 13.55.

Fig. 13.55. Dependence of consumption factor  and  angle of spray cone versus A

parameter

Consumption factor for a design rating can be accepted d=0,3...0,5.

With the help of the total area F it is possible to determine the diameter of the
jet of the nozzle secondary contour sprayer, as the primary contour sprayer jet is
located coaxially and inside the jet of the secondary contour (Fig. 13.56)
4 F
d2  .


412
 13.56. Scheme of double-jet nozzle

The area of the primary contour nozzle jet section is determined by the equation
of fuel consumption at fuel burn beginning during engine start-up
GFSB
F1  . (13.3)
3600 z sb 2f p fsb
For calculations by the formula (13.3) it is necessary to accept:
– sb=0,6...0,8;
– GFSB=GFD/(15...25);
– pfsb =0,35...0,45.
Diameter of the primary contour nozzle jet is determined by the formula
4 F1
d1  .

Such technique permits to calculate geometrical characteristics of centrifugal
fuel nozzles of different types of aeroengines.

13.10. Centrifugal pump parameters determination

Centrifugal pumps are characterized by the possibility to obtain big amount of

fuel pumping at little mass and dimensions. In comparison with other types they are
less sensitive to fuel quality and are reliable in operation. The disadvantages are the
necessity of fuel bypassing or throttling to provide pump variable productivity at the
constant drive rotational speed.
Centrifugal pumps are most widely used as booster pumps. There’s a possibility
that they may be used as main pumps in the engine fuel systems, which have fuel
consumption over 8000…10000 kg/h and required pressure before the nozzles up to
5…7 MPa.
The simplest scheme of centrifugal pump is shown in Fig. 13.57. The pump flow
channel consists of three basic elements: inlet 1 and outlet 3 channels and impeller 2.
Liquid comes to the impeller through inlet channel 1 from the sucking pipe line. An
impeller is used with the purpose of energy supply to the liquid. The impeller may be
without a disc (with open radial blades) or may have 1 or 2 discs (half-closed or closed

413
impeller with discs a and b, as shown in Fig. 13.57) with blades c on their side
surfaces, twisted in the rotation direction or in the opposite one as in Fig. 13.57.

Fig. 13.57. Centrifugal pump diagram

Angle b2 between tangent to the impeller circle and blade trailing edge direction
at the liquid outlet from the impeller may be equal to:
– b2<90° (b2=18…40°) – blades are twisted oppositely to the motion direction (to
increase the pump efficiency);
– b2=90° – blades are directed along the radius (to simplify the manufacturing
technique);
– b2>90° (b2=110…150°) – blades are twisted to the motion direction (to increase
the pump head pressure).
Usually the impellers of centrifugal pumps are made with the blades twisted
oppositely to the motion direction with the angle b2=18…40°.
As a rule, in front of the impeller an axial prepump is set on the same shaft.
Prepump head pressure is small to compensate the local pressure losses at the main
pump inlet only and to augment a cavitation reserve.
At centrifugal pump calculation we determine inlet channel (1) diameter d0,
impeller (2) external diameter d2, outlet channel (3) width b2, specific speed (type
characteristic) ns, and objective (necessary) power Np required for the pump drive.
Initial data for pump calculations are the required pressure augmentation p (Pa)
value and pump productivity W (m3/s) value.
Pressure augmentation in the pump is determined by the difference between fuel
pressure at pump outlet pp and inlet pin:
p=pp–pin.
In booster pumps p is equal to 0,3…0,4 MPa.
The necessary volumetric productivity of the centrifugal fuel pump is determined
by the formula, l/min:
G
W p r   2.0...2.5 FD ,
60f
where GFD is the fuel consumption per hour by the engine at a design rating, kg/h; f is
the fuel density (f =0,75…0,85 kg/l).
According to the cavitation free requirement an optimal diameter of pump inlet
hole is equal to:

414
 Wp
d opt  K , 3
n
where coefficient K=4,3…4,5 (depending on the cavitation free pump operation);
impeller rotational speed n=8000…12000 r/min.
Taking into account the fuel flow obstruction by the impeller hub, the inlet hole
diameter is determined by the formula:
d 0  dopt
2
 d hub
2
,
where dhub is the pump impeller hub diameter (dhub=0,02…0,25 m).
Specific speed (type characteristic) ns characterizes the pump impeller shape and
is determined by the formula:
n Wp
ns  3,65 0,75 ,
H
where H is the pump head pressure, m.
For low-speed pumps, to which centrifugal booster pumps are referred to, the
specific speed makes up ns=40…80. In this case the impeller external diameter d2 and
channel width at the impeller outlet b2 are determined taking into account the statistics
by the ratios:
d0/d2=0,38…0,50; b2/d2=0,06…0,08.
Real pump head pressure makes up
p
H ,
g
where g is acceleration of gravity (g=9,8 m/s2).
The necessary power for pump drive Np is determined by the formula:
W Hg
Np  p ,

where  is the pump total efficiency, which for modern low-speed pumps equals 0,6…
0,8.

13.11. Guided-vane pump parameters determination

In guided-vane pumps (lobe rotary pumps) the working chambers are restricted
by two adjacent plates, as well as rotor and stator surfaces. A scheme of a guided-vane
pump is shown in Fig. 13.58. Two plates 3 are located in pump rotor 4. They are
pressed to stator ring 1 with the help of spring 2 (or eccentrically located pin). The axis
of ring 1 is displaced by value e from the rotor axis.
At rotor 4 rotation in direction, which is marked by an arrow, the volume of the
pump chamber connected with inlet sucking cavity 5 increases, and in the chamber
connected with discharge cavity 6 decreases. Because of this, suction (through the
channel 5) and pumping (through the channel 6) of the liquid occurs. As the rotor 4 has
hermetic contact with stator, in any position of the rotor one of plates separates
sucking cavity 5 from pumping one 6.

415
 Fig. 13.58. Guided-vane pump diagram

The main disadvantages of guided-vane pumps are high pulsation of pump

capacity, fast wear of the plate edges and high loads affecting the rotor bearings. Such
pumps are designed for use at low pressure (up to 0,5…0,7 MPa) and fuel
consumption up to 20…40 l/min. They are used as booster fuel pumps for GTEs with
small fuel consumption.
Guided-vane pumps usually have 4…6 plates. Plate loading decreases with the
plates number increase, while flow uniformity is improved.
The available volumetric productivity of a guided-vane fuel pump is determined
by the formula, l/min:
Wp=2ben(D-zS)hp10–6,
where b is the plate length (b=60…150 mm); е is the rotor eccentricity (e=3…6 mm);
n is the rotor rotational speed (n=2000…2500 r/min); D is the barrel internal hole
diameter, mm; z is the plate number (z=4…6); S is the plate thickness, mm; hp is the
volumetric delivery rate (hp=0,7…0,8) taking into account the fuel displacement by
plates and circumferential velocity at the plate external edge should be no more than
u=7…8 m/s.

13.12. Fuel flow metering

Fuel flowmeters are fitted in aircraft to give an accurate indication of the rate at
which fuel is being used and the total amount of fuel that has been used at any point
during the flight. From the rate of fuel consumption the pilot is able to determine the
performance of his engines, and from the indication of the total fuel consumed, can
calculate the total flying hours that the aircraft can remain in the air.
There are a number of different types of fuel flowmeters in use on various
aircraft and it is beyond the scope of this publication to describe them all. Some of
these flowmeters indicate only the total fuel consumed, but the majority give
indications of both rate of flow and total fuel consumed.
The volumetric flowmeter shown in Fig. 13.59. has a turbine rotor with a
magnet inset into one of the vanes. When the rotor rotates it induces a pulse in the
induction coil. The bore of the unit is calibrated to cause the rotor to rotate 32 times for
416
every pound of fuel passing through it. The pulses are passed through a system of
circuits. This type of flowmeter can indicate flow in gallons or litres. Although it is
calibrated in pounds per hour, this figure is only accurate at one specific gravity (S.G.)
or temperature. A similar system using a moving vane in a toroidal chamber is
available, again only accurate at one S.G.

Fig. 13.59. A simple volumetric flowmeter

To indicate mass flow accurately a flowmeter that compensates for changes of

S.G. is required.
The mass flow type of flowmeter gives a reading of the mass flow rate in
pounds or kilograms per hour rather than a volumetric reading in gallons per hour. The
mass flow rate is a more useful indication for most types of aircraft. Refer to
Fig. 13.60. for a mass flowmeter. The mass flowmeter consists of a motor-driven
impeller, a turbine and a synchro system to transmit the data to a flightdeck gauge. In
order to give accurate readings, the impeller must be driven at a constant speed. This is
accomplished with an alternating current (AC) synchronous motor or a similar device.
As the fuel flows through the impeller, it is given a spin or rotation by the spinning
impeller. When the fuel leaves the impeller, it strikes the turbine, which is rotated
against a restraining spring by the spin energy of the fuel. Because a denser fuel would
impart more spin energy to the turbine the degree of rotation of the turbine is a
measure of mass flow rate. The turbine is connected to the transmitter rotor of a
synchro system which will cause the pointer on the flightdeck gauge to rotate to the
proper position to indicate the correct mass flow rate. The sensor for this and other
types of flowmeters is installed in the fuel system downstream of the fuel control
device so that the flow rate represents the fuel consumption rate for that engine.
There are other types of mass flow transmitters, that use swirl vanes to cause the
rotation and have a different type of detection system, or vane type with complicated
S.G. correction.
The flowmeter gauge will have a flow indicator and usually a fuel used
indication (Fig. 13.61). The fuel used indicator is usually a digital read-out that is
derived by integrating the fuel used with time.
The gauge can be calibrated in pounds per hour of kilograms per hour.

417
 Fig. 13.60. A mass flow type flowmeter system

Fig. 13.61. Fuel flowmeter gauge

Question for self-check

1. Give the requirements to fuel systems.

2. Give the brief analysis of fuel system of an aircraft.
3. Explain the block diagram of a fuel system of GTE.
4. What is the designation of main lines of low and high-pressure of GTE fuel
system?
5. What is the designation of starting fuel main line?
6. Explain the designation of the drain fuel system and give the characteristics of
problems, which can be solved.
7. Explain two main principles of dosing fuel, which is fed to working fuel
nozzles, and how they can be used in fuel systems.

418
 8. Explain the necessity of applying double-contour scheme of fuel supply
through fuel nozzles.
9. How does the automatic fuel distributor on contours of working fuel nozzles
work?
10. How can the productivity of plunger and gear high-pressure fuel pumps be
calculated?
11. Explain the operation principle and hydraulic calculation of double-jet fuel
nozzles.

Vocabulary

1. feedstock for the production of jet fuels – вихідна сировина для виробництва
реактивних палив – исходное сырье для производства реактивных топлив;
2. crude oil (crud petroleum) – сира (неочищена) нафта – сырая (неочищенная)
нефть;
3. hydrogen atoms – атоми водню – атомы водовода;
4. carbon atoms – атоми вуглецю – атомы углерода;
5. sulfur, nitrogen, water, and sediment and other matter – сірка, азот, вода, осад та
інші речовини – сера, азот, вода, осадок и другие вещества;
6. the paraffins – парафіни – парафины;
7. paraffin hydrocarbons – парафінові вуглеводні – парафиновые углероды;
8. oilfield – родовище нафти – месторождение нефти;
9. process of distillation – процес дистиляції (перегонки) – процесс дистиляции
(перегонки);
10. mass heating value – масова теплотвірна здатність – массовая теплотворная
способность;
11. a carbon and smoke – нагар (сажа) і дим – нагар (сажа) и дым;
12. naphthenes – нафтени – нафтены;
13. the distillate fuels – дистилятні палива – дистилятные топлива;
14. chemical stability – хімічна стабільність – химическая стабильность;
15. propensity to formation of soot (carbon) – схильність до утворення сажі –
склонность к образованию сажи;
16. olefins – олефіни – олефины;
17. the process of conversion at oil distillation – процес перетворення при
дистиляції нафти – процесс преобразования при дисциляции нефти;
18. nonsaturated hydrocarbons – ненасичені вуглеводні – ненасыщенные
углеводороды;
19. chemical activity – хімічна активність – химическая активность;
20. resins and rubber-like substances (gums) – смоли і гумо-подібні речовини –
смолы и резинообразные вещества;
21. cracking process – процес крекінгу – процесс крекінга;
22. distillates of straight-run distillation – дистиляти прямої перегонки (гонки) –
дисциляты прямой перегонки (гонки);
23. cracked fuels – крековані палива – крекированные топлива;
24. aromatics – ароматичні вуглеводні – ароматические углеводороды;

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25. the appreciable propensity of aromatic hydrocarbons to formation of carbon and
their big hygroscopicity – помітна (значна) схильність ароматичних
вуглеводнів до формування сажі (нагару) і їх велика гігроскопічність –
значительная склонность ароматических углеводородов к формированию
сажи (нагара) и их большая гигроскопичность;
26. malfunctions in fuel systems – несправності в паливних системах –
неисправности в топливных системах;
27. other components in the crude oil include asphalts, resins, organic acid material,
and sulfur compounds – інші речовини в сирій нафті включають асфальти,
смоли, матеріали органічних кислот і з’єднання сірки – другие вещества в
строй нефти включают асфальты, смолы, материалы органических кислот и
соединения серы;
28. traces of various metals – сліди різних металів – следы разных метал лов;
29. various grades of jet fuel – різні сорти реактивних палив – разные сорта
реактивних топлив;
30. crude oil straight-run distillation (by petroleum refining) – пряма перегонка
сирої нафти (перероблення нафти) – прямая перегонка сырой нефти
(переработка нефти);
31. to allow the physical impurities such as mud, water, and salts to settle out –
дозволити осадити фізичні домішки такі як бруд, вода і солі – позволить
осадить физические примеси такие как грязь, вода и соли;
32. gasoline, distillate fuels and black oil (mazut) – бензин, дистилятні палива і
мазут – бензин, дистилятные топлива и мазут;
33. an initial raw material – вихідна сировина – исходное сырье;
34. fractional distillation – фракційна дистиляція –
35. boiling temperature (point) – температура кипіння – температура кипения;
36. “bubble tower” – тарілчаста (ректифікаційна) колона – тарелчатая
(ректификационная) колонна;
37. a furnace – пічка – печь;
38. tall condensers – високий холодильник (конденсувальна колона,
конденсор) – высокий холодильник (конденсирующая колонна, конденсор);
39. materials liquefy – матеріали перетворюються в рідкий стан – материалы
преобразуются в жидкое состояние;
40. the towers are equipped with the number of trays placed at different levels to
catch the liquid that condenses as the vapours are rising – колони обладнані
декількома лотками розташованими на різних рівнях для уловлювання
рідини, що конденсується при підвищенні парів – колонны оборудованы
несколькими лотками, расположенными на разных уровнях для
уловливания жид кости, которая конденсируется при повышении (давления)
паров;
41. drawing off distilled fractions of crude – відведення перегнаних фракцій сирої
нафти – отвод перегнанных фракций сырой нефти;
42. gaseous components – газоподібні речовини – газообразные вещества;
43. methane, ethane, propane and butane – метан, етан, пропан і бутан – метан,
этан, пропан и бутан;

420
 44. the kerosenes – керосини – керосины;
45. the intermediate distillates used at gas-oil and diesel fuel manufacture – проміжні
дистиляти використовувані при виробництві газойлю і дизельного палива –
промежуточные дистиляты, используемые при производстве газойля и
дизельного топлива;
46. luboils, paraffin and bitumen – змащувальні масла, парафін і бітум –
смазывающие масла, парафин и битум;
47. sulfur compounds (hydrogen sulphide, mercaptans and pure sulphur) – похідні
речовини сірки (сірководень, меркаптани та чиста сірка) – производные
вещества серы (сероводород, меркаптаны и чистая сера);
48. sulfuric acid – сірчана кислота – серная кислота;
49. a selective solvent extraction process – процеси селективного екстракційного
очищення – процессы селективной экстракционной очистки;
50. thermal and catalytic cracking are two methods of splitting large molecules into
smaller ones – термічний та каталітичний крекінг є двома процесами
розщеплення великих молекул в більш малі – термический и
каталитический крекинг являются двумя процессами расщепления больших
молекул в меньшие;
51. the process of polymerization – процес полімеризації – процесс
полимеризации;
52. inhibiting microbial growth – стримуючі ріст мікробів – сдерживающие рост
микробов;
53. aviation gasoline (avgas) – авіаційний бензин (авгаз) – авиационный бензин
(авгаз);
54. fuel availability, economy, handling, safety, and performance characteristics –
придатність палива, його економічність, придатність до виробництва,
безпечність і експлуатаційні характеристики – пригодность топлива, его
економичность, пригодность к производству, безопасность и
эксплуатационные характеристики;
55. low cost and wide availability – низька вартість і широка доступність – низкая
стоимость и широкая доступность;
56. low saturation vapour pressure, low volatility, high flash point and high
electroconductivity – низький тиск насичених парів, низька летючість, висока
температура спалаху і висока електропровідність – низкое давление
насыщенных паров, низкая летучесть, высокая температура вспышки и
высокая электропроводность;
57. the high thermal stability precluding clogging of filters and formation of deposits
on valves, regulators and other members of fuel system – висока термічна
стабільність, що запобігає забрудненню фільтрів і формуванню відкладань
на клапанах, регуляторах і інших елементах паливної системи – высокая
термическая стабильность, которая предотвращает загрязнение фильтров и
формирование отложений на клапанах, регуляторах и других элементах
топливной системы;
58. low saturation vapour pressure ensures decrease to a minimum of evaporation
losses at high-altitude flights – низький рівень тиску насичених парів

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 забезпечує зменшення до мінімуму втрат (палива), пов’язаних з
випаровуванням, при висотних польотах – низкий уровень давления
насыщенных паров обеспечивает уменьшение к минимуму потерь (топлива)
, связанных с испарением при высотных полетах;
59. fuel specific heat capacity – питома теплоємність палива – удельная
теплоемкость топлива;
60. good pumpability – гарна прокачуваність – хорошая прокачиваемость;
61. lack of propensity to formation of solid matters clogging screens, including
crystals of ice and paraffins – відсутність схильності до утворення твердих
речовин, які забивають сітки (фільтрів), включаючи кристали льоду та
парафіни – отсутствие склонности к образованию твердых веществ,
забивающих сетки (фильтров), включая кристаллы льда и парафины;
62. asphaltogenic matters – смоло-утворюючі речовини – смолообразующие
вещества;
63. vapour (amer. vapor) locks formation – утворення парових пробок –
образование парових пробок;
64. high-polar compounds – високо-полярні сполуки – высокополярные
соединения;
65. narrow channels in fuel nozzles – вузькі канали в паливних форсунках – узкие
каналы в топливных форсунках;
66. flight relighting – повторний запуск (двигуна) в польоті – повторный запуск
(двигателя) в полете;
67. quality of atomization – якість розпилювання – качество распыливания;
68. fuel combustion completeness – повнота згоряння палива – полнота сгорания
топлива;
69. static buildup and electric conductivity, and refueling hazards of intermixed
fuels – накопичення статичних зарядів і електропровідність (палива) та
небезпеки дозаправлення (паливом) – накопление статических зарядов и
электропроводность (топлива) и опасности дозаправки топлива;
70. density of fuel – густина палива – плотность топлива;
71. a hydrogen/carbon ratio – відношення водень/вуглець – отношение
водовод/углерод;
72. equilibrium system vapour–fluid – рівноважна система пар–рідина –
равновесная система пар–жидкость;
73. formation of a flammable mixture – утворення горючої суміші – образование
горючей смеси;
74. volatility (vaporability) of fuel – летючість палива – летучесть топлива;
75. viscosity – в’язкість – вязкость;
76. swirl-type (centrifugal) fuel nozzles – паливні (відцентрові) форсунки з
закручуванням палива – топливные (центробежные) форсунки с
закручиванием топлива;
77. the ambient (environment) temperature – температура навколишнього
середовища – температура окружающей среды;
78. freezing (crystallization) point – температура замерзання (кристалізації) –
температура замерзання (кристаллизации);

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79. rectification – ректифікація – ректификация;
80. a hydrocarbons with the big molecular weight have, as a rule, higher freezing
points – вуглеводні з великою молекулярною масою мають, як правило,
більші температури замерзання – углеводороды с большой молекулярной
массой имеют, как правило, более высокие температуры замерзання;
81. calorific (heating) value – теплотворна здатність (палива) – теплотворная
способность(топлива);
82. the lowest calorific value – нижча теплотворна здатність – низшая
теплотворная способность;
83. carbon dioxide CO2 – двоокис вуглецю СО2 – двуокись углерода СО2;
84. the refining process – процес переробки (сирої нафти) – процесс переработки
(сырой нефти);
85. smoking – димлення – дымление;
86. specific gravity – питома вага – удельный вес;
87. self-ignition temperature – температура (само)запалювання – температура
(само)воспламенения;
88. fire risk and explosion hazard – ризик пожежі та небезпека вибуху – риск
пожара и опасность взрыва;
89. dynamic heating of a construction – динамічне нагрівання конструкції –
динамический нагрев конструкции;
90. the fuel self-ignition temperature depends largely on its molecular structure as the
oxidative reactions, resulting in to spontaneous ignition, begin only after the gap
of chemical bonds caused by a thermal excitation of atoms – температура
самозапалювання палива значно залежить від його молекулярної структури
як реакцій окиснення, що призводять до спонтанного займання, яке
починається після розриву хімічних зв’язків, що викликане термічним
збудженням атомів – температура самовоспламенения топлива существенно
зависит от его молекулярной структуры как реакцій окисления, которые
приводят к спонтанному воспламенению, начинающемся после разрыва
химических свіязей, вызванном термическим возбуждением атомов;
91. paraffins with a straight chain ignite easier, than branched paraffins or naphthenes
with the same number of carbon atoms – парафіни з прямим ланцюгом
займаються раніше ніж розгалужені парафіни або нафтени з тою ж самою
кількістю атомів вуглецю – парафины с прямой цепью воспламеняются
раньше, чем разветвленные парафины или нафтены с тем же самым
количеством атоиов углерода;
92. flame spread limits – межі поширення полум’я – пределы распространения
пламени;
93. concentration limits – концентраційні межі – концентрационные пределы;
94. "rich" and "poor" limits of flame propagation – «багата» та «бідна» межі
поширення полум’я – «богатый» и «бедный» пределы распространения
пламени;
95. "poor" limit of inflammability – «бідна» межа займистості – «бедный» предел
воспламеняемости;
96. smoking dot – точка димлення – точка дымления;

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97. carbon formation (sooting) – сажоутворення – сажеобразование;
98. wick lamp – фитильна лампа – фитильная лампа;
99. a sootless flame – полум’я, що коптить – коптящее пламя;
100. blowout limits – межі зриву полум’я – пределы срыва пламени;
101. clean and efficient combustion – чисте і ефективне горіння – чистое и
эффективное горение;
102. hydrogen sulphide – сірководень – сероводород;
103. sulphides, polysulfides and thiophenes – сульфати, полісульфати і тіофени –
сульфаты, полисульфаты и тиофены;
104. details сoated with cadmium – деталі, покриті кадмієм – детали, покрытые
кадмием;
105. a sulphurizing or jam of the sliding parts of fuel pumps coated with silver –
сульфірування або заїдання пар ковзання паливних насосів покритих
сріблом – сульфатизация или заедание пар скольжения топливных насосов,
покрытых серебром;
106. natrium traces – сліди натрію – следы натрия;
107. …sodium chloride. In the process of burning the sodium chloride is transformed
into vapours of hydrochloric acid, which call corrosion of the hot metallical
surfaces located more low on flow. They also can affect the chromium-loaded
an oxide layer of turbine blade surface and can make up ulcers of metal – …
хлористий натрій. В процесі горіння хлорид натрію перетворюється в пари
соляної кислоти, яка викликає корозію гарячих металевих поверхонь,
розташованих далі по потоку. Вони також можуть діяти на насичені
хромом окиснені шари поверхні лопаток турбіни і можуть викликати язви
в металі – …хлористый натрий. В процессе горения хлорид натрия
преобразуется в пары соляной кислоты, которая вызывает коррозию
горячих металлических поверхностей, располдоженных далее по потоку.
Они также могут воздействовать на насыщенные хромом окисленные слои
поверхности лопаток турбины и могут вызывать язвы в металле;
108. vanadic corrosion – ванадієва корозія – ванадиевая коррозия;
109. magnesium compounds – сполуки магнію – соединения магния;
110. distillate and ash-forming fuels – дистилятні і зольні палива – дистилятные и
зольные топлива;
111. prerefining – попереднє очищення – предварительная очистка;
112. kerosene and wide-cut gasolines – керосин і бензини широкого фракційного
складу – керосин и бензины широкого фракционного состава;
113. volatile – летючий – летучий;
114. rigorous precautions – строгі запобіжні заходи – строгие меры
предосторожности;
115. distillate fuels contain the dissolved water in the quantities depending on their
structure, temperature and time of storage – дистилятні палива містять
нерозчинену воду в кількості залежно від їх структури, температури і
тривалості зберігання – дистилятне топлива содержат нерастворенную
воду в количестве в зависимости от их структуры, температуры и
продолжительности хранения;

424
116. adverse effect – несприятливий вплив – неблагоприятное влияние;
117. the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit – температура в градусах Фаренгейта –
температура в градусах Фаренгейт;
118. discrete water in minute particles – дискретна (відокремлена, нерозчинена)
вода в надзвичайно малих часточках – дискретная (отделенная,
нерастворенная) вода в чрезвычайно малих частичках;
119. minute particles may be supercooled and will be deposited out only when they
strike a solid obstruction and freeze – надзвичайно малі часточки можуть
бути сильно переохолоджені і можуть осаджуватись тільки, коли вони
ударяються в тверду перешкоду і замерзають – чрезвычайно малые
частички могут бать сильно переохлажденными и могут осаждаться
только, когда они ударяются в твердую преграду и замерзают;
120. a frozen substance referred to as gel or “icing” – заморожена речовина, яку
називають гелем або зледенінням – замороженное вещество, называемое
гелем или обледенением (шугой);
121. during descent – під час зниження (літака) – во время снижения (самолета);
122. moisture-laden air enters the tank space – насичене вологою повітря поступає
в простір паливного бака – насыщенный влагой воздух поступает в
пространство топливнного бака;
123. water will not settle out readily and will be carried as dispersed water – вода не
осадиться швидко і буде винесена як диспергована (розсіяна) вода – вода
не осадится быстро и будет вынесена как диспергированная (рассеянная)
вода;
124. water droplets turn into crystals of ice and organise slush, which can deposit,
collect and plug up partly or completely the fuel filters – крапельки води
перетворюються в кристали льоду і утворюють в’язку масу (снігову кашу),
яка може осаджуватись, накопичуватись і закупорювати частково або
повністю паливні фільтри – капельки воды преобразуются в кристаллы
льда и образуют вязкую массу (снежную кашу), которая может осаждаться,
накапливаться и закупоривать частино или полностью топливные
фильтры;
125. the additives precluding an ice formation – присадки, що перешкоджають
утворенню льоду – присадки, препятствующие образованию льда;
126. fungi and bacteria call corrosion, inorganic salts contained in water promote
their accelerated evolution and breeding in aviation fuel tanks – грибки і
бактерії викликають корозію, неорганічні солі, що містяться в воді
викликають їх прискорений розвиток і розмноження в авіаційних паливних
баках – грибки и бактерии вызывают коррозию, неорганические соли,
содержащиеся в воде, вызывают их прискоренное развитие и размножение
в авиационных топливных баках;
127. microorganisms of various types can grow in the aircraft fuel tanks and in
storage tanks if water is present – мікроорганізми різних типів можуть рости
в паливних баках повітряного судна і в баках для зберігання при наявності
води – микроорганизмы разных типов могут расти в топливных баках
воздушного судна и в баках для его хранения при наличии воды;

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128. microorganisms will grow and appear (to a greater extent on boundary of fuel
and aqueous surfaces) as a slimy deposit in the water – мікроорганізми будуть
рости і з’являтись (в більшій степені на межі поверхонь палива і води) як
липкий відстій в воді – микроорганизмы буду расти и появляться (в
большей степени на границе поверхностей топлива и воды);
129. microbial contamination – мікробне забруднення (зараження) – микробное
загрязнение (заражение);
130. fueling and defueling – заправлення і зливання палива – заправка и слив
топлива;
131. integral wing tanks (wet wings) – кесонні баки в крилі (вологі крила) –
кесонне баки в крыле (влажные крылья);
132. when kerosene and gasoline-type fuels are mixed, the fuel-vapour mixture is in
the ignitable envelope throughout a much broader range of ground temperatures
common at most operating locations. This condition exists when wide-cut
gasoline (Jet B) is added to a tank already containing kerosene (Jet A) or vice
versa – при змішуванні палив керосинового та бензинового типів суміші
палива–пару знаходяться в займистій оболонці в усьому діапазоні більш
широкої зміни земних температур, звичайних для більшості
експлуатаційних умов. Ця умова існує коли бензин широкого фракційного
складу (Jet B) заправляється до баку, що вже містить керосин (Jet A) або
навпаки – при смешении топлив керосинового и бензинового типов смеси
топлива–пара находятся в воспламеняемой оболочке во всем диапазоне
более широкого изменения температур, обычных для большинства
эксплуатационных условий. Это условие существует когда бензин
широкого фракционного состава (Jet B) заправляется в бак, содержащий
керосин (Jet A) или на оборот;
133. the buildup of electrostatic charges – накопичення електричних зарядів –
накопление электрических зарядов;
134. a single hose attached to the fueling manifold – одинарний рукав (шланг),
приєднаний до заправного колектора – единый рукав (шланг),
присоединенный к заправочному коллектору;
135. a charge potential can develop and produce high-intensity sparks between the
surface of the fuel and some point inside the tank structure, even though all
structural parts of the tank are electrically bonded together. Turbulence within
the fuel, high-velocity fuel flow, and fuel splashing tend to increase the static
buildup – може розвитись заряд потенціалу, який може створити іскру
високої інтенсивності між поверхнею палива і деякою точкою всередині
конструкції бака, навіть коли всі конструктивні елементи бака заземлені
між собою разом – может развиться заряд потенциала, который может
образовать искру высокой интенсивности между поверхностью топлива и
некоторой точкой внутри конструкции бака, даже если все конструктивные
элементы бака заземлены между собой;
136. clean fuel is a relatively poor conductor of electric charges. Therefore, a
considerable charge potential may develop as a result of the slow dissipation or
bleed-off rate of static charges in the fuel – чисте паливо є відносно поганим

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 провідником електричних зарядів. Тому значний потенціал заряду може
розвитись як результат повільної дисипації (розсіювання) або швидкості
зливу статичних зарядів в паливі – чистое топливо является плохим
проводником электрических зарядов. Поэтому значительный потенциал
заряда может развиться как результат медленной диссипации
(рассеивания) или скорости слива статических зарядов в топливе;
137. unfavorable side effects – небажані побічні ефекти – нежелательные
побочные эффекты;
138. the additive (as well as its coproducts) should be non-toxic, water soluble and
thermally stable – присадка (а також її побічні продукти) повинна бути
нетоксичною, водорозчинна і термічно стабільна – присадка (а также ее
побочные продукты) должна бать нетоксичной, водорастворимой и
термически стабильной;
139. an additives composition – synergists, affecting against each other in a direction
of intensification of effect of each separate additive – композиції присадок –
синергісти, що діють одна з іншою в напрямку інтенсифікації впливу
кожної окремої присадки – композиции присадок – синергисты,
взаимодействующие одна с другой в направлении интенсификации
влияния каждой отдельной присадки;
140. antioxidative additives – протиокиснювальні присадки –
пртивоокислительные присадки;
141. oxidation inhibitors prevent processes of oxidation or preclude from their
evolution in unwanted quantities. Deactivators of metals suppress catalytic
activity of metals, converting them in organometallic compounds with the
depressed level of activity. Passivators (corrosion ingibitors) moderate the
catalytic activity of metals, promoting formation of film on their surface –
інгібітори (сповільнювачі) окиснення усувають процеси окиснення або
запобігають їх розвитку в небажаних обсягах. Деактиватори металів
подавляють каталітичну активність металів, перетворюючи їх в
органометалічні сполуки зі зниженим рівнем активності. Пасиватори
(сповільнювачі корозії) стримують каталітичну активність металів шляхом
сприяння утворенню плівки на їх поверхні – ингибиторы (замедлители)
окисления предотвращают процессы окисления или предупреждают их
развитие в нежелаемых объемах. Деактиваторы металлов подавляют
каталитическую активность металлов, преобразуя их в
органометаллические соединения с сниженным уровнем активности.
Пассиваторы (замедлители коррозии) сдерживают каталитическую
активность металлов путем способствования образованию пленки на их
поверхности;
142. diethylene glycol monoethyl ester – складний ефір діетиленгліколю –
сложный эфир диэтиленгликоля;
143. tetrahydrofurfuryl spirit – тетрагідрофурфуриловий спирт –
тетрагидрофурфуриловый спирт;
144. hydrogenation jet fuels – гідрогенізаційні реактивні палива –
гидрогенизационные реактивне топлива;

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145. sealants and sealing materials – герметики і ущільнювальні матеріали –
герметики и уплотнительные материалы;
146. nitrile rubbers – нітрильні гуми – нитрильные резины;
147. hydrofined fuel – гідроочищене паливо – гидроочищенное томливо;
148. at hydrogenation treating the natural antioxidants – heteroatomic compounds are
removed from the produced fuels – при гідрогенізаційній обробці натуральні
антиоксиданти – гетероатомні сполуки видаляються з вироблюваних
палив – при гидрогенизационной обработке натуральне антиоксиданты –
гетероатомные соединения удаляются из производимых топлив;
149. oxidation catalysts – primarily copper and its alloys – каталізатори
окиснення – перш за все мідь та її сплави – катализаторы окисления –
прежде всего медь и еке сплавы;
150. metal ions – іони металів – ионы метал лов;
151. stright-run fuels – палива прямої гонки – топлива прямой гонки;
152. corrosion inhibitors are adsorbed by metallical surfaces and organise on them a
monomolecular film – інгібітори корозії адсорбуються металевими
поверхнями і утворюють на них мономолекулярну плівку – ингибиторы
коррозии адсорбируются металлическими поверхностями и образуют на
них мономолекулярную пленку;
153. wear-preventive additives are added to the hydrofined and hydrogenated fuels,
having unsatisfactory wear-preventive properties, form on rubbing surfaces of
the haemosorption layer possessing by good friction qualities – протизносові
присадки додаються до гідроочищених і гідрогенізаційних палив, які
мають незадовільні протизносові якості – противоизносные присадки
добавляются к гидроочищенным и гидрогенизационным топливам,
которые имеют неудовлетворительные противоизносные свойства;
154. unsatisfactory lubricating properties – незадовільні змащувальні якості –
неудовлетворительные смазывающие свойства;
155. the matters possessing by irreversible water-absorbing capacity – речовини, що
мають необоротну здатність до абсорбції (поглинання) води – вещества ,
имеющие необратимую способность к абсорбции (поглощению) воды;
156. ethyl cellozolve, tetrahydrofurfuryl spirit and their mixes with methanol –
етилцелозольв, тетрагідрофурфуриловий спирт та їх суміші з метанолом –
157. hydrogen bond between additive and water molecules – водневі зв’язки між
присадкою і молекулами води – водородные связи между присадкой и
молекулами воды;
158. a molecular unbound state. Superfluous water separated at present conditions in
a free state is associated by additive – незв’язаний стан молекули.
Надлишкова вода, відділена в даних умовах у вільному стані, зв’язується
(асоціюється) присадкою – несвязанное состояние молекул. Избыточная
вода, отделенная в даннях условиях в свободном состоянии, связывается
(асоциируется) присадкой;
159. high-purity fuels – високоочищені палива – высокоочищенные топлива;
160. antismoke additives – протидимні присадки – противодымные присадки;

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161. metallo-organic compounds of barium, manganese and iron – металоорганічні
сполуки барію, марганцю та заліза – металлоорганические соединения
бария, марганца и железа;
162. transparency of exhaust gases flow – прозорість потоку вихідних газів –
прозрачность потока выходящих газов;
163. the unique real solution of a problem of smoke reduction is connected with
improvement of the combustion chamber design – єдине реальне вирішення
проблеми зниження димності пов’язане з покращенням конструкції камери
згоряння – единственное реальное решение проблемы снижения дымности
связано совершенствованием конструкции камеры сгорания;
164. biocidal additives – біоцидні присадки – биоцидные присадки;
165. sterilise aqueous phase in fuel – стерилізують водну фазу в паливі –
стерилизуют водную фазу в топливе;
166. potassium permanganate – перманганат калію – перманганат калия;
167. they stiffen at low temperature – вони загусають при низькій температурі –
они загустевают при низкой температуре;
168. burning kerosene – освітлювальний керосин – осветительный керосин;
169. the International Air Transport Association (IATA) – Міжнародна асоціація
повітряного транспорту – Международная ассоциация воздушного
транспорта;
170. the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) – Американське
товариство з випробування і матеріалів – Американское общество по
испытаниям и материалам;
171. propulsion engineering industry – двигунобудівна промисловість –
двигателестроительная промышленность;
172. military unification – військова уніфікація – военная унификация;
173. wide accessibility – широка доступність – широкая доступность;
174. fuel cost and service issues – вартість палива і питання експлуатації –
стоимость топлива и вопросы эксплуатации;
175. an everyday occurrence – звичайне явище – обычное явление;
176. anorganic hard shots – неорганічні тверді включення – неорганические
твердые включения;
177. hard oxides, silicates and other compounds – тверді оксиди, силікати та інші
з’єднання – твердые оксиды, соли и другие соединения;
178. by Raid – по Рейду – по Рейду;
179. naphthalenes – нафталіни – нафталины;
180. the modified index of aqueous separation – модифікований індекс
водної сепарації – модифицированный индекс водной сепарации;
181. heavy naphtha TC-1 – важкий лігроїн TC-1 – тяжелый лигроин ТС-1;
182. the disposition to evaporation and boiling at high-altitude flights – схильність
до випаровування і закипання при висотних польотах – склонность к
испарению и закипанню при высотных полетах;
183. performance attributes – експлуатаційні якості – эксплуатационные
свойства;
184. boiling away – википаючий – выкипающий;

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185. the distillate fractions of separate crudes, the vacuum gas-oil, and products of a
rerunning of crude oil – дистилятні фракції окремих нафт, вакуумний
газойль і продукти вторинної переробки сирої нафти – дистилятные
фракции отдельных нефтей, вакуумный газойль и продукты вторичной
переработки;
186. fueles received directly from the distillated fractions of crude oil without their
integrated treatment – палива, отримані прямою гонкою з дистилятних
фракцій сирої нафти без їх глибокого очищення – топлива, полученные
прямой гонкой из дистилятних фракций сырой нефти без их глубокой
очистки;
187. hydrofining (РТ, Т-8), high hydrogenation (Т-6), hydrocracking (Т-8В) –
гідроочищення (РТ, Т-8), , високе гідрування (Т-6), гідрокрекінг (Т-8В) –
гидроочистка (РТ, Т-8), высокое гидрирование (Т-6), гидрокрекинг (Т-8В);
188. a hydrocarbons and heteroatomic compounds of crude oil – вуглеводневі і
гетероатомні сполуки сирої нафти – углеводородные и гетероатомные
соединения сырой нефти;
189. premium fuels – палива підвищеної якості – топлива повышенного
качества;
190. a network of international air-routes – мережа міжнародних авіаліній – сеть
международных авиалиний;
191. shipborne aircrafts – повітряні судна корабельного базування – воздушные
судна корабельного базирования;
192. engine flameouts – самовимкнення двигуна – самовыключение двигателя;
193. chilling point – температура початку кристалізації – температура начала
кристаллизации;
194. an aniline point – анілінова точка – анилиновая точка;
195. lumi-metric number – люминометричне число – люминометрическое число;
196. aircraft carriers – вантажні повітряні судна – грузовые воздушные судна;
197. the skin tanks of the ship – резервуари судна з обшивання – резервуары
судна из обшивки;
198. protected service tank – захищений витратний бак – защищенный расходный
бак;
199. not extract indissoluble precipitations and resins – не виділяти нерозчинних
осадів і смол – не выделять нерастворимые осадки и смолы;
200. air is escaped only in tanks – повітря витікає лише з бака – воздух вытекает
только из бака;
201. heat exchangers for oil and hydromixture cooling – теплообмінники для
охолодження масла та гідросуміші – теплообменники для охлаждения
масла и гидросмеси;
202. an airplane descent rating – режим зниження повітряного судна – режим
снижения воздушного судна;
203. cryogenic plants – кріогенні установки – криогенне установки;
204. cryogenic propellant – кріогенне паливо – криогенное томливо;
205. airplanes with variable-sweep wings – літаки з крилами змінної
стріловидності – самолеты с крыльями переменной стреловидности;

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206. cargo-passenger airplane – вантажо-пасажирський літак – грузопасажирския
само лет;
207. high usefulness for control at maintenance – висока контролепридатність в
експлуатації – высокая контролепригодность в эксплуатации;
208. cold-reserve – холодоресурс – хладоресурс;
209. fuel consumed tanks – витратні паливні баки – расходные топливные баки;
210. the centrifugal-type electrically-actuated pumps – відцентрові електропривідні
насоси – центробежные электроприводные насосы;
211. a fill port with screen filter – заливна горловина з сітчастим фільтром –
заливная горловина с сетчатым фільтром;
212. capacitive-type sensors Hf (fuel quantity transmitters) – датчики Нп ємнісного
типу (перетворювачі кількості палива) – датчики Нт емкостного типа
(преобразователи количества топлива)
213. fuel fire shut-off valve – паливний протипожежний кран – топливный
противопожарный кран;
214. the main fuel pump of controlled productivity – основний паливний насос
керованої продуктивності – основной топливный насос регулируемой
производительности;
215. engine backup (booster) pump – двигунів підкачувальний насос –
двигательный подкачивающий насос;
216. bypass valve – перепускний клапан – перепускной клапан;
217. working nozzle – робоча форсунка – рабочая форсунка;
218. pilot burner nozzle (starting fuel nozzle) – форсунка пускового запальника
(пускова паливна форсунка) – форсунка пускового воспламенителя
(пусковая топливная форсунка);
219. fuel flow transmitter of flow meter (instantaneous fuel consumption) –
перетворювач паливного витратоміра (миттєвої витрати палива) –
преобразователь топ ливного расходомера;
220. electromagnetic valve of starting fuel – електромагнітний кран пускового
палива – электромагнитный кран пускового топлива;
221. shut off valve – стоп-кран – стоп-кран;
222. automatic fuel distributor control unit (fuel flow divider) – автоматичний
розподільник палива –
223. throttle valve – дросельний клапан (кран) –
224. check valve – зворотний клапан – обратный клапан;
225. power lever (power lever angle, throttle lever) – важель керування двигуном –
рычаг управления двигателем;
226. engine united control mechanism – об’єднаний механізм керування
двигуном – объединенный механизм управления двигателем;
227. automatic fuel flow control unite (MEC – main engine control unit) – автомат
дозування палива (командно-паливний агрегат, насос-регулятор) – автомат
дозирования топливом (командно-топливный агрегат, насос-регулятор);
228. drainage tank – дренажний бак – дренажный бак;
229. drainage valve – дренажний клапан – дренажный клапан;

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230. venting magnet valve – електромагнітний дренажний клапан –
электромагнитный дренажный клапан;
231. the main line of low pressure – магістраль низького тиску – магистраль
низкого давления;
232. the main fuel pump of unguided productivity – основний паливний насос
нерегульованої продуктивності – основной топливный насос
нерегулируемой производительности;
233. preventive valve – запобіжний клапан – предохранительный клапан;
234. valve of a fuel constant pressure differential – клапан постійного перепаду
тиску – клапан постоянного перепада давления;
235. fuel metering needle valve – голка дозування палива – гила дозирования
топлива;
236. the high-pressure main line – магістраль високого тиску – магистраль
високого давления;
237. the starting fuel main line – магістраль пускового палива – магистраль
пускового топлива;
238. the drain fuel system – дренажна паливна система – дренажная топливная
система;
239. fuel dosage method – метод дозування палива – метод дозирования топлива;
240. a plunger pump – плунжерний насос – плунжерный насос;
241. the automatic fuel dosage – автоматичне дозування палива – автоматическое
дозирование топлива;
242. fuel flow automatic control system – система автоматичного керування
витратою палива – система автомтического управления рас ходом топлива;
243. controlled camplate – керована похила шайба – регулируемая наклонная
шайба;
244. the camplate angle – кут нахилу похилої шайби – угол наклона наклонной
шайбы;
245. a control hydraulic signal – керуючий гідравлічний сигнал – управляючий
гидравлический сигнал;
246. the servo-driver – сервопривід – сервопривод;
247. gear and plunger pumps with a fixed camplate – шестірневий та плунжерний з
фіксованою похилою шайбою насоси – шестеренчатый и плунжерный с
фиксированной наклонной шайбой насосы
248. a redundant fuel by-passing – перепуск надлишкового палива – перепуск
избыточного топлива;
249. the pressure differential regulator – регулятор перепаду тиску – регулятор
перепада давления;
250. the full authority digital electronic control (FADEC) – система абсолютного
(автоматичного) цифрового електронного керування двигуном (FADEC) –
система абсолютного (автоматического) цифрового електронного
управления двигателем (FADEC);
251. a sophisticated engine electronic control (EEC) system – складна електронна
система (автоматичного) керування двигуном (EEC) – сложная
электронная система (автоматического) управления двигателем (ЕЕС);

432
252. the aforementioned variables – вищеназвані змінні – вышеназванные
переменные;
253. hydromechanical fuel control system – гідромеханічна система керування
дозуванням палива – гидромеханическая система управления
дозированием топлива;
254. speed governors, servo systems and feedback loops, valves, metering systems,
and various sensing mechanisms – регулятор частоти обертання,
сервомеханізм, ланцюги зворотного зв’язку, клапани, дозуючі пристрої і
різноманітні чутливі елементи – регулятор частоты вращения,
сервомеханизм, цепи обратной святи, клапаны, дозирующие устройства и
различные чувствительные элементы;
255. thermocouples, amplifiers, relays, electrical servo systems, switches, solid-state
devices, solenoids, and a variety of sensors – термопари, підсилювачі, реле,
електричні сервосистеми, перемикачі, твердотільні пристрої, соленоїди і
безліч датчиків – термопары, усилители, переключатели, твердотельные
устройства, соленоиды и множество датчиков;
256. backup pumps of a centrifugal type – підкачувальний насос відцентрового
типу – подкачивающий насо центробежного типа;
257. guided-vain (lobe rotary pumps) backup pumps – лопатевий (коловоротний)
підкачувальний насос – лопастной (коловратный) подкачивающий насос;
258. an angle of flow output – кут виходу потоку – угол выхода потока;
259.  impellers can be opened, half-opened, and closed type – крильчатки можуть
бути відкритого, напівзакритого або закритого типів – крильчатки могут
быть открытого, полузакрытого или закритого типов;
260.  …by forged pieces milling, stamping or casting from aluminium or magnesiums
alloys, and also from steel. The impeller surface is carefully polished, heat-
treated and covered by anticorrosive coats (anodizing and another) – …
фрезеруванням поковок, штамповкою або литтям з алюмінієвих чи
магнієвих сплавів або зі сталі. Поверхня крильчатки старанно полірується,
закалюється і покривається антикорозійним покриттями (анодується або
інш.) – …фрезерованим поковок, штамповкой или литьем из алюминиевых
или магниевых сплавов или из стали. Поверхность крильчатки тщательно
полируется, закаливается и покрывается антикоррозионными покрытиями
(анодируется или др.);
261.  axial auger (screw) pre-pumps with spiral blades – осьовий шнековий
переднасос з спіральними лопатками – осевой шнековый преднасос с
винтовыми лопатками;
262.  the encumber of entrance – загромадження входу – загромождение входа;
263.  worsening of pump cavitation qualities – погіршення кавітаційних якостей
насосу – ухудшение кавитационных качеств насоса;
264.  diffuzers of the followings types are applied: spiral, vaneless ring-type, vaned
ring-type – використовуються дифузори наступних типів: спіральні,
безлопаткові кільцеві, лопаткові кільцеві – используются диффузоры
следующих типов: спиральные, безлопаточные кольцевые, лопаточные
кольцевые;

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265. angle of rectilineal conical diffuser opening – кут розкриття прямолінійного
конічного дифузора – угол раскрытия прямолинейного конического
дифузора;
266. gaskets, made from paronite, fiber, fluoroplastic, copper; aluminium –
прокладки, виготовлені з пароніту, фібри, фторопласту, міді, алюмінію –
прокладки, изготовленные из паронита, фибры, фторопласта, меди,
алюминия;
267. the requirement of absolute impermeability – вимога повної герметичності –
требование погной герметичности;
268. ...the noncontacting seals (groove (slot) seals, labyrinth and hydrodynamic
seals) – безконтактні ущільнення (щілинні ущільнення, лабіринтові і
гідродинамічні ущільнення) – безконтактные уплотнения (щелевые
уплотнения, лабиринтные и гидродинамические уплотнения)
269. ...spiral thickenings and centrifugal seals – гвинтові і відцентрові
ущільнення – винтовые и центробежные уплотнения;
270. spiral thickenings are multithread spiral grooves of rectangular or trapezoidal
type – гвинтові ущільнення представляють собою багатозахідні гвинтові
канавки прямокутного або трапецієвидного типу (перерізу) – винтовые
уплотнения представляют собой многозаходные винтовые канавки
прямоугольного или трапециевидного типа (сечения);
271. ...the cups (cuffs) and axial face seals, as well as rundown spiral grooves –
манжетні і торцеві ущільнення, а також гвинтові відгінні нарізки
(канавки) – манжетне и торцовые уплотнения, а также винтовые отгонные
нарізки (канавки);
272. a bangle spring 5, i.e. spiral spring (volute spring) convoluted in a ring –
браслетна пружина 5, тобто спіральна пружина, згорнута в кільце –
браслетная пружина 5, то есть спиральная пружина, свернутая в кольцо;
273. kapron, teflon, silastics – капрон, тефлон, силіконові гуми – капрон, тефлон,
силиконовые резины;
274. high temperature stability, wearability and chemical stability – висока термічна
стабільність, зносостійкість і хімічна стабільність – высокая термическая
стабильность, износоустойчивость и химическая стабильность;
275. graphite, textolite (fabric-reinforced laminate), glass-fibre plastic, fluoroplastic
(Teflon) or bronze – графіт, текстоліт, склотекстоліт, фторопласт (тефлон)
або бронза – графит, текстолит, стеклотекстолит, фторопласт (тефлон) или
бронза;
276. lock ring – стопорне кільце – стопорное кольцо;
277. key (cotter) – шпонка – шпонка;
278. spreadings and falls of pressure – закиди і провали тиску – забросы и провалы
давления;
279. inlet pipe – вхідний патрубок – входной патрубок;
280. driving shaft – привідний валик – приводной валик;
281. steel barrel – сталева гільза – стальная гильза;
282. filter fineness – тонкість очищення фільтра – тонкость очистки фильтра;
283. low-pressure filters – фільтр низького тиску – фильтр низкого давления;

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284. the paper cartridge type filter – паперовий катриджного типу фільтр –
бумажный катриджного типа фильтр;
285. filtering out particles – відфільтровування частинок – отфильтровывание
частичек;
286. screen type. fuel filter – сітчастий паливний фільтр – сетчатый топливный
фильтр;
287. sinter-bonded, stainless-steel wire cloth – тканина зі спеченого дроту з
неіржавіючої сталі – ткань из спеченной проволоки из нержавеющей
стали;
288. convoluted screen filter – фільтр з гофрованої сітки – фильтр из
гофрированной сетки;
289. the convolutions (folding or pleating of the screen material) – згортання
(гофрирування або плісирування сітчастого матеріалу) – сворачивание
(гофрирование или плессирование сетчатого материала);
290. mesh-screen (disc-type) filter – чарунково-сітчастий (дискового типу)
фільтр – ячеисто-сетчатый (дискового типа) фільтр;
291. fine wire mesh screen discs – тонко-чарункові дротові сітчасті диски –
тонкоячеистые сетчатые диски;
292. a fabric filtering elements (felt, silk, caprone, nylon, etc. – тканинні
фільтрувальні елементи (фетр, шовк, капрон, нейлон і т. інш.) – тканевые
фильтроэлементы (фетр, шелк, капрон, нейлон и т. д.);
293. high-pressure filters – фільтри високого тиску – фильтры високого
давления;
294. depth filters – об’ємні фільтри – объемные фильтры;
295. edge filters – щілинні фільтри – щелевые фильтры;
296. total fuel consumption during some flight period and fuel consumption per unit
of time (instantaneous) – сумарна витрата палива за деякий період польоту і
витрата палива за одиницю часу (миттєва) – суммарный расход топлива за
некоторый период полета и расход топлива в единицу времени
(мгновенный);
297. a toggle switch in the cockpit – тумблер в кабіні екіпажу – тумблер в кабине
экипажа;
298. pressure meter of fuel – вимірювач тиску палива – измеритель давления
топлива;
299. fuel manifolds – паливні колектори – топливные коллекторы;
300. spool plate (slide-valve plate, disc) – золотникова шайба – золотниковая
шайба;
301. plunger – плунжер – плунжер;
302. the precision pairs – прецизійні пари – прецизионные пары;
303. window of suction – вікно всмоктування – окно всасывания;
304. window of supply – вікно нагнітання – окно нагнетания;
305. a bottom dead centre (BDC) – нижня мертва точка (НМТ) – нижняя мертвая
точка (НМТ);
306. a top dead centre (TDC) – верхня мертва точка (ВМТ) – верхняя мертвая
точка (ВМТ);

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307. a hanger – серга – серьга;
308. the axis of camplate turn – вісь провертання похилої шайби – ось
проворачивания наклонной шайбы;
309. the plane of plungers contact – площина контакту плунжера – плоскость
контакта плунжера;
310. camplate offsetting – дезаксаж похилої шайби – дезаксаж наклонной шайбы;
311. the plunger head-heel – голівка-п’ята плунжера – головка-пята плунжера;
312. separator – сепаратор – сепаратор;
313. links (bridges) – перемичка – перемычка;
314. assurance factor of supply productivity for a gear pump – коефіцієнт запасу
продуктивності шестірневого насосу – коэффициент запаса
производительности шестеренного насоса;
315. are connected through the wedge keys, splines or balls – з’єднані з допомогою
шпонок, шліців або кульок – соединенные с помощью шпонок, шлицов или
шариков;
316. butt end sealing (face seal) – торцеве ущільнення – торцовое уплотнение;
317. the floating bushs – плаваючі втулки – плавающие втулки;
318. borings – свердлення – сверления;
319. floating bush is warped – плаваюча втулка перекошується – плавающая
втулка перекашивается;
320. are treated with high degree of exactness – обробляються з високим ступенем
точності – обрабатываются с высокой степеню точности;
321. pump casings are ribed – корпуси насосів оребрюються – корпусы насосов
оребряются;
322. kerosene-stable rubber with clamping springs. A leaked out through cups fuel is
retracted in the drainage system – керосино-стійкої гуми з притискними
пружинами. Паливо, що просочилось через манжети, відводиться в
систему дренажу – керосино-стойкие резины с прижимными пружинами.
Просочившееся через манжеты топливо отводится в систему дренажа;
323. the engine main fuel control – основний вузол керування подачею палива в
двигун – основной узел управления подачей топлива в двигатель;
324. fuel is boosted by the centrifugal pumping element (gear-driven centrifugal
impeller) – паливо підкачується відцентровим помпувальним елементом
(відцентровою крильчаткою з шестірневим приводом) – топливо
подкачивается центробежным качающим элементом (центробежной
крыльчаткой с шестеренчатым приводом);
325. the single positive-displacement, gear-type pumping element –
одноступінчастий об’ємно-витіснювальний помпувальний елемент
шестірневого типу – одноступенчатый объемно-вытеснительный
качающий элемент;
326. the piston-type, spring-loaded valve – поршневий підпружинений клапан –
поршневой подпружиненный клапан;
327. slippage check valve – the spring-loaded ball check valve – ковзаючий
зворотний клапан – скользящий обратный клапан;
328. contaminant – забруднююча домішка – загрязняющая примесь;

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329. pressure-measuring taps – штуцер для вимірювання тиску – штуцер для
измерения давления;
330. fuel filter with self-relieving valve – паливний фільтр з перепускним
клапаном – топливный фильтр с перепускным клапаном;
331. exterior plumbing – зовнішній трубопровід – внешний трубопровод;
332. the engine fuel-deicer system – двигунова система протизаледеніння
палива – двигательная система противообледенения топлива;
333. shear sections – зрізна секція – срезываемая секция;
334. a protection against “deadheading” the pump – захист проти «холостої»
роботи насоса – защита против «холостой» работы насоса;
335. the engine is running – двигун працює (ротор обертається) – двигатель
работает (ротор вращается);
336. vaporized or sprayed condition – пароподібний або розпилений стан –
парообразное или распыленное состояние;
337. vaporizer tubes – випарювальні трубки – испарительные трубки;
338. injecting nozzles – впорскувальні форсунки – впрыскивающие форсунки;
339. not afraid of vapour locks – не бояться парових пробок – не боятся паровых
пробок;
340. a carbonization – нагаровідкладення – нагароотложение;
341. narrow area of a stable combustion – вузька область стійкого горіння – узкая
область устойчивого горения;
342. the jet nozzles – струменеві форсунки – струйные форсунки;
343. centrifugal sprayer nozzles – відцентрові розпилювальні форсунки –
центробежные распыливающие форсунки;
344. fuel atomization – розпилення палива – рапыление топлива;
345. variable geometry jet nozzle – струменеві форсунка змінної геометрії
(регульована) – струйная форсунка изменяемой геометри (регулируемая);
346. metering needle – регулювальна голка – регулирующая игла;
347. uniformity of fuel distribution on volume of combustion chambers for full fuel
combustion – рівномірність розподілення палива по об’єму камери
згоряння для його повного згоряння – равномерность распределения
топлива по объему камеры сгорания для его полного сгорания;
348. providing with uniform field of temperatures) – забезпечення рівномірного
поля температур – обеспечение равномерного поля температур;
349. the angle of a tongue at vertex – кут гребеню (конусу) при вершині – угол
гребня (конуса) при вершине;
350. back flow zone – зона зворотних течій – зона обратных токов;
351. an engine start-up – запуск двигуна – запуск двигателя;
352. the single (simplex) and dual (duplex) nozzles – односоплові і двосоплові
(двоконтурні) форсунки – односопловые и двухсопловые (двухконтурные)
форсунки;
353. double-jet nozzle – двосоплова форсунка – двухсопловая форсунка;
354. single-chamber nozzle – однокамерна форсунка – однокамерная форсунка;
355. double-chamber nozzle – двокамерна форсунка – двухкамерная форсунка;
356. tangential channels – тангенціальні канали – тангенциальные каналы;

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357. spin (swirl) chamber – камера закручування – камера закручивания;
358. jet – сопло – сопло;
359. atomization cone – конус розпилювання – конус распыливания;
360. flow divider valve – розподільчий клапан – распределительный клапан;
361. secondary orifice – вторинний отвір (сопло другого контуру) – вторичное
отвестие (сопло второго контура);
362. primary orifice – первинний отвір (сопло першого контуру) – первичное
отверстие (сопло первого контура);
363. common spin (swirl) chamber – загальна камера закручування – общая
камера закручивания;
364. satisfactory spray pattern – задовільна форма розпилення –
удовлетворительная форма распыливания;
365. wide range of fuel pressure change before nozzles – широкий діапазон зміни
тиску палива перед форсунками – широкий диапазон изменения давления
топлива перед форсунками;
366. ability to provide good fuel atomization and proper spray pattern at all rates of
fuel – здатність забезпечувати гарне розпилення палива і належну форму
при всіх витратах палива – способность обеспечивать хорошее
распыливание топлива и благоприятную форму при всех расходах топлива;
367. fuel initial ignition rating at start-up – режим початкового запалювання
палива при запуску (двигуна) – режим начального разжигания топлива при
запуске (двигателя);
368. the consumption factor – коефіцієнт витрати – коэффициент расхода;
369. coaxial sprayers in one body for the primary and secondary flows – співвісні
розпилювачі першого і другого контурів в одному корпусі – соосные
распылители первого и второго контуров в одном корпусе;
370. the secondary flow nozzle jet – сопло форсунки другого контуру – сопло
форсунки второго контура;
371. the primary flow nozzle jet – сопло форсунки першого контуру – сопло
форсунки первого контура;
372. the separate groups of the primary and secondary flows nozzles – окремі групи
форсунок першого і другого контурів – отдельные группы форсунок
первого и второго контуров;
373. nozzle body – корпус форсунки – корпус форсунки;
374. air cap – повітряний ковпачок – воздушный колпачек;
375. orifice cone – конус сопла – конус сопла;
376. double-entry single-chamber nozzle – однокамерна форсунка з одинарним
входом (палива) – однокамерная форсунка с единичным входом (топлива);
377. heat-insulating bush – теплоізоляційна втулка – теплоизоляционная втулка;
378. double-entry double-chamber nozzle – двокамерна форсунка з подвійним
входом (палива) – двухкамерная форсунка с двойным входом (топлива);
379. a hydrostatical pressure of fuel column in the manifold – гідростатичний тиск
стовпа палива в колекторі – гидростатическое давление столба топлива в
коллекторе;

438
380. nozzles concentric location – концентричне розташування форсунок –
концентричное расположение форсунок;
381. sectorial unevenness of fuel atomization – секторіальна нерівномірність
розпилювання – секториальная неравномерность распыливания;
382. the entire system – групова система (з груповим розподільчим клапаном
палива) – групповая система (с групповым распределительным клапаном)
383. a double fuel manifold – подвійний паливний колектор (який складається з
колекторів першого і другого контурів) – двойной топливный коллектор
(состоящий из коллекторов первого и второго контуров);
384. a concentric manifold systems – системи з концентричним колектором –
системы с концентричным коллектором;
385. multinozzle combustion chambers – багатофорсункова камера згоряння –
386. fuel column hydrostatic pressure in fuel manifold – гідростатичний тиск
стовпа палива в паливному колекторі – гидростатическое давление стола
топлива в топливном коллекторе;
387. fuel is discharged with a swirling motion in order to provide low axial air
velocity and high flame speed – паливо витікає з закручувальним рухом для
забезпечення низької осьової швидкості повітря і високої швидкості
горіння – топливо вытекает с закручивающимся движением для
обеспечения низкой осевой скорости воздуха и высокой скорости горения;
388. an air shroud surrounding the nozzle cools the nozzle tip and improves
combustion by retarding the accumulation of carbon deposits on the nozzle
face – повітряна завіса, що оточує форсунку, охолоджує торець форсунки і
покращує згоряння шляхом сповільнення накопичення відкладань нагару
на торці форсунки – воздушная завеса, окружающая форсунку, охлаждает
ее торец и улучшает сгорание за счет замедления накопления
нагароотложений на торце форсунки;
389. the liner – жарова труба – жаровая труба;
390. the spill-type nozzles – перепускні форсунки – перепускные форсунки;
391. single-entry duplex nozzle incorporating an air shroud – двосоплова форсунка
з одинарним входом, що облаштована повітряною завісою – двухсопловая
форсунка с единичным входом, оборудованная воздушной завесой;
392. the air spray nozzle – форсунка з повітряним розпиленням – форсунка с
воздушным распыливанием;
393. by aerating the spray, the local fuel-rich concentrations produced by other types
of spray nozzles are avoided, thus reducing both carbon formation and exhaust
smoke – за рахунок аерації розпилення локальні багаті концентрації
палива, створювані іншими типами форсунок, уникались, таким чином
зменшується як нагароутворення, так і вихлопний дим – за счет аэрации
распыления локальные богатые концентрации топлива, образуемые
другими типами форсунок, избегались, таким образом уменьшается как
нагарообразование, так и выхлопной дым;
394. ultrasonic nozzle – ультразвукова форсунка – ультразвукова форсунка;
395. vibrator, generating ultrasonic air oscillations to disintegrate fuel droplets –
вібратор, що генерує ультразвукові коливання для дроблення капель

439
 палива – вибратор, генерирующий ультразвуковые колебания для
дробления капель топлива;
396. low-emission combustion chambers – низько-емісійні камери згоряння –
низкоэмиссионые камеры сгорания;
397. combustion chamber with fuel aeration in flame tube head – камера згоряння з
аерацією палива в голівці жарової труби – камера сгорания с аэрацией
топлива в головке жаровой трубы;
398. “double-tier” combustion chamber with short cooled sections of flame tube
walls – двоярусна камера згоряння з короткими секціями жарової труби –
двухярусная камера сгорания с короткими секциями жаровой трубы;
399. “double-tier” short combustion chamber with binary (segment) flame tube
walls – двоярусна камера згоряння з подвійними (сегментними) стінками
жарової труби – двухярусная камера сгорания с двойными (сегментными)
стенками жаровой трубы;
400. “double-zone” combustion chambers – двозонна камера згоряння –
двухзонная камера сгорания;
401. perforated conical flame-cholders – перфорований конічний стабілізатор
полум’я – перфорированный конический стабилизатор пламени;
402. spark plug of direct ignition – свічка запалювання безпосереднього
запалення – свеча зажигания непосредственного воспламенения;
403. drain fuel system dumps fuel into drainage tank from places of its unwanted
accumulation – дренажна паливна система зливає паливо в дренажний бак з
місць його небажаного накопичення – дренажная топливная система
сливает томливо в дренажный бак с мест его нежелательного накопления;
404. leg – проставка (підставка) – проставка (подставка);
405. drainage (drain, dump) valve – дренажний клапан – дренажный клапан;
406. venting magnet valve – електромагнітний дренажний клапан –
электромагнитный дренажный клапан;
407. the pressurizing and drain valve – клапан наддування і дренажу – клапан
наддува и дренажа;
408. postshutdown fires – запалення після останову двигуна – воспламенение
после останова двигателя;
409. a drip valve – крапельний клапан – капельный клапан;
410. to prevent fuel from dripping into the combustion-chambers at low fuel
pressures – усунути крапання палива в камери згоряння при його низьких
тисках – предотвратить капание топлива в камеры сгорания при его низких
давлениях;
411. a stroke of a plunger – хід плунжера – ход плунжера;
412. a volumetric delivery rate – коефіцієнт об’ємної подачі – коэффициент
объемной подачи;
413. a fuel consumption per hour – витрата палива за годину – расход топлива в
час;
414. gearing module – модуль зачеплення – модуль зацепления;

440
415. circumferencial velocity on diameter of gear pitch circle – окружна швидкість
на діаметрі ділильного кола шестерні – окружная скорость на диаметре
делительной окружности шестерни;
416. a fuel consumption per hour at design (maximum) rating – витрата палива за
годину на розрахунковому (максимальному) режимі – расход топлива в час
на расчетном (максимальном) режиме;
417. a consumption factor for a design rating – коефіцієнт витрати на
розрахунковому режимі – коэффициент расхода на расчетном режиме;
418. a radius of swirl chamber – радіус камери закручування – радиус камеры
закручивания;
419. a radius of orifice – радіус сопла – радиус сопла;
420. a a radius of inlet hole – радіус вхідного отвору – радиус входного
отверстия;
421. fuel burn beginning during engine start-up – початок розпалювання палива
під час запуску двигуна – начало распаливания топлива во время запуска
двигателя;
422. the sucking pipe line – всмоктувальний трубопровід – всасывающий
трубопровод;
423. the pump head pressure – напір насоса – напор насоса;
424. an axial prepump – осьовий переднасос – осевой преднасос;
425. adjacent plates – сусідні пластини – соседние пластины;
426. eccentrically located pin – ексцентрично розташований палець –
эксцентрично расположенный палец.

441
 Appendix B
Types of hydrocarbon jet fuels
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Авиакеросин

Jet fuels are produced for the airplanes of subsonic aviation according to
ГОСТ 10227-86 and for a supersonic aircrafts according to ГОСТ 12308-89. For a
subsonic aircrafts five grades of fuel (TC-1, Т-1, Т-1С, Т-2 and PT) are assigned,
for supersonic – two (Т-6 and Т-8В). Most widespread fuels presently are fuel TC-
1 (prime and first quality) and fuel PT (prime).
Fuel TC-1
It is got by straight-run distillation of sulphureous crude oils (desired cut –
150…250 °C). In the case of high content of ordinary sulphur and mercaptans the
hydrofining is carried out, whereupon it is used in mixture with straight-run
fraction. The content of hydrofined component is limited by the concentration of
70 % for preventation of fuel wear-preventive properties reduction. It is most
widespread type of heavy naphtha fuel for a subsonic aircrafts. It is used both in a
military and in civil aircrafts.

442
 Fuel Т-1
Product of little sulphureous crude oils distillation of naphthenes base with
the limits of boiling away of 130…280 °C. It contains large quantity of naphthenic
acids, from what it has high acidity, therefore after a fraction selection from crude
oil it is subjected by bucking (alkalizing) with the subsequent water washing.
Heteroatom naphthenic compounds, contained in a fuel, provide good wear-
preventive properties and chemical stability, from other side, the fuel has very low
thermo-oxidative stability. The long-time tests show that at the use of this fuel in
the НК-8-2У (TУ-154 (A, Б, Б-1, Б-2) engines the resinous deposits take place,
from what the term of engines service is decreased in two times. Presently a fuel is
produced only of first quality and very limitedly. By the feedstock for it production
the crude oils with insignificant content of sulphur (crude oils of North Caucasus
and Azerbaijan) serve.
Fuel Т-2
It is the product of crude oil distillation of wide fractions composition –
60…280 °C. Contains to 40 % of gasolines fractions, that results in high pressure
of the saturated vapours, low viscosity and density. Heightened pressure of the
saturated vapours provides probability of vapour lock formation in the fuel system
of aircraft, that limits the altitude of its flight. The fuel is not manufactured; it is
reserved fuel in relation to TС-1 and РT.
Fuel РT
It is got by hydrofining of straight-run kerosene factions, including gasoline-
naphtha factions with the limits of boiling away of 135…280 °C. As a result of
hydrofining the content of sulphur and mercaptans is decreased, but also wear-
preventive properties and chemical stability are worsened. For preventation of this
the wear-preventive and antioxiditive additives are added in fuel. The fuel PT
completely corresponds to international specifications, excelling them in separate
indexes. It has good wear-preventive properties, high chemical and thermo-
oxidative stability, low content of sulphur and almost complete absence of
mercaptans. The fuel can be kept to 10 years and fully provides the safe life of
engine work.
Fuel Т-6
It is got by deep hydrogenation of straight-run fractions with the limits of
boiling away of 195…315 °C, got from suitable naphthenes crude oils. It is used in
supersonic aircrafts mainly in the Air Forses of Russian Federation.
Fuel Т-8В
It is the hydrogenated fraction with the limits of boiling awayof
165...280 °C. In the case of naphthenes littlesulphureous crude oils, it is admited to
use straight-run fraction without hydrogenation. It is used in supersonic aircrafts
mainly in the Air Forses of Russian Federation.

443
 Additives
Anti-static additives
It is proved by long-term experience of exploitation of domestic and foreign
aircrafts that at fuels pumping-over or at airplanes fueling the buildup of static
electrical charges is possible. Owing to unforeseeableness of process at any
moment there is a danger of explosion. For a suppression of this dangerous
phenomenon the anti-static additives are added in fuels. They increase conductivity
of fuel up to 50 pСм/m that provides safety of airplanes fueling and fuel pumping-
over. Abroad the ASA-3 (Shell) and Stadis-450 (Innospec) additives are used. The
Sigbol (ТУ 38.101741-78) additive, admitted to adding to the TC-1, Т-2, PT and
Т-6 fuels in an amount to 0,0005 %, got distribution in Russia and Ukraine.
Preventing of water crystallization additives
At fueling with the temperature of –5...+17 °C for a 5 hours of flight a
temperature in a tank goes down to –35 °C. Record of temperature falling equals
-42 °C (TУ-154) and –45 °C (tanks, feeding the ИЛ-62М extreme engines). At
these temperatures the crystals of ice, clogging the fuel filters, settle from the fuel
that can result in stopping of fuel supply and engine shut down. Already at water
content of 0,002 % (by mass) the filters of airplanes with the diameter of mesh of
12…16  are begin clogged. For prevention of ice crystals settle from a fuel at low
temperatures the preventing water crystallization additives are added in the fuel
directly in the place of airplane fueling. As such additives an ethyl-cellozolve
(liquid “И”) according to ГОСТ 8313-88, tetrahydrofurfuryl spirit (“ТГФ”)
according to ГОСТ 17477-86 and their 50 % mixtures with methanol (“И-М”,
“ТГФ-М” additives) are widely used. Additives can be added practically to any
fuel.
Antioxidative additives
They are added in hydrofining fuels (PT, Т-6, Т-8В) for compensation of
reduced during the hydrofining chemical stability. In the Russia the Агидол-1
(2,6-di-tret-butyl-4-methyl phenol) additive is applied according to
ТУ 38.5901237-90 in the concentration of 0,003…0,004 %. In such concentrations
it prevents oxidization of fuels almost fully, including at the elevated temperatures
(up to 150 °C).
Wear-preventive additives
It is intended for recovery of fuels wear-preventive properties, lost as a result
of hydrofining. It is added in those fuels, what antioxidizing additive. In the Russia
the Сигбол additive and composition of Сигбол and ПМАМ-2 additives are
applied (of poly-meta-krilat type – ТУ 601407-69). For the PT fuel the «К»
(ГОСТ 13302-77) additive is often used, which on efficiency corresponds to the
Сигбол additive and also, because of «К» additive deficit the Hightech-580
additive of firm «Ethyl» is applied.

444
 A production in the Russia
A production volume of jet fuels in the Russia in 2007 made 9012,1
thousands of tons. From them 7395,04 thousands of tons were put to the internal
market, other – on an export. A production volume of jet fuels in the Russia in
2016 made 9600 thousands of tons. 20 oil refineries are engaged in the production
of aviation fuel in the Russia:
ОАО NK «Rosneft»:
Komsomolskiy refinery – ТС-1
Syzranskiy refinery – РТ
Novokuibyshevskiy refinery – ТС-1, РТ
Achinskiy refinery – ТС-1
Angarskaya OCC – ТС-1
Ryazanskiy refinery – ТС-1
ОАО «LUKoil»:
Volgogradneftepererabotka – ТС-1, РТ
Permnefteorgsintez – РТ
Nizhegorodnefteorgsintez – ТС-1, РТ
Ukhtaneftepererabotka – РТ
ОАО «Gazprom neft»:
Moscow refinery – ТС-1
Omskiy refinery – ТС-1
ОАО «Surgutneftegaz»
PA KirishinefteorgsintezК – ТС-1
ООО «Gazprom pererabotka»
Branch «Surgurskiy plant of condensate stabilization im.
V.S. Chernomirdina» – ТС-1
ОАО «NGC „Slavneft“»
Yaroslavnefteorgsintez – ТС-1
ОАО NК «RusNeft»
Orsknefteorgzintez – РТ
NК «Alyans»
Habarovskiy refinery – ТС-1
ОАО «ТАIF-NК»
Nizhekamskiy refinery – ТС-1, РТ
Novo-Ufimskiy refinery – ТС-1
Krasnodareconeft – ТС-1
PАО "Таtneft"
АО "ТАNEKО" – РТ, ТС-1, Jet А-1
About the production of Т-6 and Т-8В fuels of information it is not. Before
the Т-6 fuel was made byAngara OCC and Orsknefteorgsintez.
Any aviation fuel, going out from the refinery, passes verification and
acceptance by a military representative.
Notes
1. http://www.ngv.ru/article.aspx?articleID=25622.
2. В. М. Капустин, С. Г. Кукес, Р. Г. Бертолусини.
Нефтеперерабатывающая промышленность США и бывшего СССР. М.,
Химия, 1995.
445
 Literature
- Чертков Я. Б., Спиркин В. Г. Применение реактивных топлив в
авиации, М., 1974;
- Технология переработки нефти и газа, ч. 3. Черножуков Н. И. Очистка
и разделение нефтяного сырья, производство товарных нефтепродуктов, 6
изд., М., 1978;
- Химмотология в гражданской авиации. Справочник, М., 1983, с. 56-
64. В. Г. Спиркин.
- Топлива, смазочные материалы, технические жидкости. Ассортимент
и применение: Справочник. 2-е изд. Под ред. В. М. Школьникова. М.: Химия,
1999;
- А.Г. Ахмадуллина, А.И. Самохвалов, Л.Н. Шабалина, В.А. Булгаков,
Г.М. Нургалиева, А.С. Шабаева. Демеркаптанизация керосиновой фракции
на полифталоцианиновом катализаторе. Химия и технология топлив и масел,
№2, 1998, с.43;
- ГОСТ 12308-89. Топлива термостабильные Т-6 и Т-8В для
реактивных двигателей. Технические условия;
- ГОСТ Р 52050-2006. Топливо авиационное для газотурбинных
двигателей Джет А-1 (Jet A-1). Технические условия;
- Технический регламент «О требованиях к автомобильному и
авиационному бензину, дизельному и судовому топливу, топливу для
реактивных двигателей и топочному мазуту».

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