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Tip Sheet On HVAC System-2.0 March 2011 (Public)
Tip Sheet On HVAC System-2.0 March 2011 (Public)
HVAC SYSTEM
K
eeping buildings cool costs. Both need to be addressed while adjustments that the human body makes
in hot climates has always designing any building. to achieve a thermal balance between
been a human concern. For HVAC systems have a significant effect itself and the environment. Six factors
millennia, people ingeniously applied an on the health, comfort, and productivity that influence the heat transfer between
astonishing array of design features to of occupants. Issues like user discomfort, the human body and the surrounding
their shelters to avoid or reject unwanted improper ventilation, and poor indoor air environment are shown in Table 1.
heat. Windscoops, vents, cool towers, quality are linked to HVAC system design Good HVAC design considers all
atria, shading, orientation, whitewash, and operation and can be improved the inter-related building systems while
night radiation – the whole panoply of significantly by better system design. managing indoor air quality, energy
modern passive techniques was invented Thermodynamic processes take consumption, and thermal comfort.
at least three thousand to five thousand place between the human body and Optimizing the design requires that the
years ago and developed to an impressive the surrounding thermal environment. HVAC designer and the architect address
level of maturity. However, the invention Our perception of thermal comfort these issues early in the schematic
of refrigerative chiller by Willlis Haviland and acceptance of indoor thermal design phase and continually improve
Carrier in 1902 changed the world and led environment is a result of the heat subsequent decisions throughout the
to the abandoning of ancient and climate generated by metabolic processes and the design development process.
responsive building architecture, as it
could cool any sort of boxy and sealed Table 1: Thermal Comfort Parameters
building space and technically take care of Parameters Significance
adverse hot climatic conditions. From 1945
Air Temperature Most important parameter for determining thermal comfort
Environmental
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At times issue comes why should 3. Expand the comfort envelope load operation penalties), large heat
building developers and financiers care with reduced radiant heat load, exchangers, low-friction duct layout
for efficiency considerations, since they increased air flow, less insulated and sizing, low pressure drops in air-
may sell the building to someone else furniture, more casual dress where handling and piping components,
or, if they retain ownership, pass along appropriate: These opportunities are and overall optimization of the entire
the operating costs to tenants. Reducing less understood and deployed but have HVAC system can facilitate in making
electricity consumption through a high the potential to save cooling loads. In the system more efficient.
quality and high efficiency design could an indoor environment with fixed air
enhance the value of the building and temperature, relative humidity, air 6. Optimize the delivery system: Huge
its rent. Whichever developer first speed, and activity, an office worker savings are available from reducing
captures the efficiency opportunity, in cotton trousers and half shirt (with the velocity, pressure, and friction
therefore, can have a major competitive an insulating value of 0.5 clo) will be losses in ducts and piping. These
advantage. comfortable at almost 3°C warmer improvements can be captured with
This outlines an integrated strategy than the same person in a heavy two- high-efficiency fans, diffusers, and
targeted for large buildings with a whole piece business suit and accessories other components.
building approach. (with an insulating value of 1.0 clo).
A 3°C increase in inside temperature 7. Improve controls: Controls with better
Whole Building Approach can save significant amount of energy. algorithms, sensors, signal delivery,
user interface, simulators, and other
1. Reduce cooling load by controlling 4. Apply non-vapor compression measures can be applied to optimize
unwanted heat gain: As shown cooling techniques: They typically HVAC operation.
in Fig. 1, external heat gains can be use 20-30% as much energy per unit
avoided with architectural form, light- of cooling as conventional cooling 8. Determining loads: Projected load
colored building surfaces, vegetation, equipment and can serve much or for new buildings can be analyzed
high performance windows, etc. all of the load that remains after the accurately by using Computer
Internal heat gains can be reduced basic cooling load is reduced. These Simulation. Hourly simulation models
by using more efficient building alternatives include natural ventilation designed for energy analysis, calculate
equipment (such as lights, computers, with cool outside air, ground coupled hourly cooling loads from detailed
printers, copiers, servers, etc.), and cooling, night sky cooling, evaporative building geometry, scheduling, and
direct venting of spot heat sources. cooling, absorption cooling, and equipment data. Using actual weather
Load reduction not only saves energy, desiccant systems fueled by natural data, it is possible to match a building’s
it allows HVAC equipment to be gas, waste heat, or solar energy (See energy usage with actual utility billing
smaller, resulting in first-cost savings. Box 1). data. Computer Simulation can
provide the best understanding of how
2. System interactions: Cooling load 5. Serve the remaining load with high- a building will operate under different
reduction should be approached in efficiency refrigerative cooling: More scenarios from a combination of
concert with whole-building load efficient chillers, pumps, and fans, detailed end-use hourly simulation.
reduction measures for both cooling multiplexed chillers (to minimize part-
and heating systems. The objectives
of saving cooling and heating energy Plan for smaller cooling equipment and
Light-colored roof coatings reflect
solar radiation and reduce
modified air handlers once internal and
may be in conflict or may support external load reduction measures are in place.
conduction potential
reduce both loads while lighting load Green roofs help in lowering the Roof
Temperature Structural overhangs,
lightshelves reduce solar
reductions may increase heating loads. gain
condenser units in case of packaged Window films reduce solar gain without
or split-systems) and reliable sensors Trees block solar radiation and provide
sacrificing daylight or esthetics
to power down when loads drop. Fig. 1: Cooling Load Reduction Measures
(Source: E Source Cooling Atlas)
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Non Refrigerative Technological Options in HVAC System Box 1
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Key Technical Terms
Air System Balancing: Adjusting airflow Heat Pump: A heat pump consists of Where:
rates through air distribution system one or more factory-made assemblies that A=kW/ton at 100%
devices, such as fans and diffusers, normally include indoor conditioning coil, B=kW/ton at 75%
by manually adjusting the position of compressor, and outdoor coil, including C=kW/ton at 50%
dampers, splitter vanes, extractors, etc., means to provide a heating function. Heat D=kW/ton at 25%
or by using automatic control devices, pumps provide the function of air heating
such as constant air volume or variable air with controlled temperature, and may The weighting factors have been based
volume boxes. include the functions of air cooling, air on the weighted average of the most
circulation, air cleaning, dehumidifying, common building types and operation
Boiler: A self-contained low-pressure or humidifying. using average weather in 29 U.S. cities,
appliance for supplying steam or hot with and without air side economizers.
water. A packaged boiler includes factory- Hydronic System Balancing: Adjusting
built boilers manufactured as a unit or water flow rates through hydronic Return Air: Air from the conditioned
system, disassembled for shipment, and distribution system devices, such as area that is returned to the conditioning
reassembled at the site. pumps and coils, by manually adjusting equipment for reconditioning. The air
the position of valves, or by using may return to the system through a series
Coefficient Of Performance (COP) – automatic control devices, such as flow of ducts, plenums, and airshafts.
Cooling: the ratio of the rate of heat control valves.
removal to the rate of energy input, Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio
in consistent units, for a complete kW/ton Rating: Commonly referred to (SEER): SEER is a measure of equipment
refrigerating system or some specific as efficiency, but actually power input energy efficiency over the cooling season.
portion of that system under designated to compressor motor divided by tons of It represents the total cooling of a central
operating conditions cooling produced, or kilowatts per ton air-conditioner or heat pump (in kWh)
(kW/ton). Lower kW/ton indicates higher during the normal cooling season as
Coefficient Of Performance (COP) – efficiency. compared to the total electric energy
Heating: the ratio of the rate of heat input consumed during the same period.
delivered to the rate of energy input, Integrated Part-Load Value (IPLV):
in consistent units, for a complete heat This metric attempts to capture a more Supply Air: Air being conveyed to
pump system, including the compressor representative “average” chiller efficiency a conditioned area through ducts or
and, if applicable, auxiliary heat, under over a representative operating range. It plenums from a heat exchanger of
designated operating conditions is the efficiency of the chiller, measured a heating, cooling, absorption, or
in kW/ton, averaged over four operating evaporative cooling system. Supply air
Constant Volume System: A space- points, according to a standard formula. is commonly considered air delivered to
conditioning system that delivers a fixed a space by a space-conditioning system.
amount of air to each space. The volume of Outdoor Air : Air taken from outdoors Depending on space requirements, the
air is set during the system commissioning. and not previously circulated in the supply may be either heated, cooled or
building. For the purposes of ventilation, neutral.
Economizer, Water-side: A system by outdoor air is used to flush out pollutants
which the supply air of a cooling system produced by the building materials, Tons: One ton of cooling is the amount
is cooled indirectly with water that is itself occupants and processes. of heat absorbed by one ton of ice melting
cooled by heat or mass transfer to the in one day, which is equivalent to 12,000
environment with the use of mechanical Part-Load Performance: For Water Btu/h or 3.516 thermal kW.
cooling. chilling packages covered by this standard,
the IPLV shall be calculated as follows: Variable Air Volume (VAV) System: A
Economizer, Air-side: A duct and damper Determine the part-load points. Use space conditioning system that maintains
arrangement and automatic control system the following equation to calculate the comfort levels by varying the volume
that together allow a cooling system to IPLV. of conditioned air. This system delivers
supply outdoor air to reduce the need for IPLV = 0.01A + 0.42B + 0.45C + 0.12D conditioned air to one or more zones. The
mechanical cooling during mild or cold For COP and EER: duct serving each zone is provided with a
weather. Where: A=COP or EER at 100% motorized damper that is modulated by a
signal from the zone thermostat.
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER): Performance B=COP or EER at 75%
of room ACs smaller chillers and rooftop C=COP or EER at 50% Zone: A space or group of spaces within
units is frequently measured in EER D=COP or EER at 25% a building with heating and cooling
rather than kW/ton. EER is calculated requirements that are sufficiently
by dividing a chiller’s cooling capacity (in For kW/ton: similar so that desired conditions
Btu/h) by its power input (in watts) at full- IPLV: (e.g., temperature) can be maintained
1
load conditions. The higher the EER, the throughout using a single sensor (e.g.,
more efficient the unit. 0.01 0.42 0.45 0.12 thermostat or temperature sensor).
+ + +
A B C D
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Air-Conditioner Basics condenser and compressor, and an indoor with air-cooled chillers as well as systems
Basic components of the system include cabinet contains the evaporator. In many with cooling towers for heat rejection (See
an evaporator, compressor, condenser split-system air-conditioners, this indoor Box 2).
(air-cooled or water cooled), and an cabinet also contains an electric heater or
expansion device, similar to that of the indoor part of a heat pump. Heating Systems Types
a domestic refrigerator. A refrigerant Heating systems can be classified fairly
circulates in these components (Fig. 4). Packaged air-conditioners: In a well by the heating equipment type. The
It vaporizes in the evaporator absorbing packaged air-conditioner, the evaporator, heating equipment used in commercial
the heat from the warm room air drawn condenser, and compressor are all located buildings include boilers (oil and gas),
across the evaporator coil. This cools and in one cabinet, which usually is placed on furnaces (oil, gas, and electric), heat
dehumidifies the air. The compressor a roof or on a concrete slab adjacent to pumps, and space heaters.
raises the pressure and temperature of the building. This type of air-conditioner Boiler-based heating systems have
the refrigerant vapors. The condenser is typical in small commercial buildings steam and/or water piping to distribute
condenses the refrigerant and transforms and also in residential buildings. Air heat. The heated water may serve preheat
the high pressure vapor into high supply and return ducts come from coils in air handling units, reheat coils,
pressure liquid. Heat is rejected via indoors through the building’s exterior and local radiators. Systems that circulate
outside air drawn across the condenser. wall or roof to connect with the packaged water or a fluid are called hydronic
The expansion device transforms air-conditioner, which is usually located systems. Additional uses are for heating
the high pressure high temperature outdoors. Packaged air-conditioners of service water and other process needs,
liquid refrigerant to low pressure low often include electric heating coils or a depending on the building type. Some
temperature mixture of refrigerant natural gas furnace. This combination central systems have steam boilers rather
liquid and vapor. The refrigerant goes of air-conditioner and central heater than hot water boilers because of the
to the evaporator, and the cooling cycle eliminates the need for a separate furnace need for steam for conditioning needs
continues. indoors. (humidifiers in air-handling units) or
process needs (sterilizers in hospitals,
Types of Air-Conditioners Central air-conditioners: In central air- direct-injection heating in laundries and
The most common types of air- conditioning systems, cooling is generated dishwashers, etc.).
conditioners are room air-conditioners, in a chiller and distributed to air-handling The remaining heating systems heat
packaged air-conditioners, and central units or fan-coil units with a chilled water the space directly and require little or no
air-conditioners. Fig. 5 shows market system. This category includes systems distribution. These include heat pumps
share of different types of vapor and space heaters.
compression HVAC systems (residential VRF Chiller 1%
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Chiller Basics Box 2
Overview a condenser coil. As heat loads increase, lighter than centrifugal chillers, so are
A chiller is essentially a packaged vapor water-cooled chillers are more energy becoming popular as replacement chillers.
compression cooling machine. The chiller efficient than air-cooled chillers. • Scroll compressors are rotary positive-
rejects heat either to condenser water (in displacement machines, also fairly new
the case of a water-cooled chiller) or to Type of Chillers to the comfort cooling market. These
ambient air (in the case of an air-cooled Chillers are classified according to small compressors are efficient, quiet,
chiller). Fig. 6 shows the different loops of compressor type. Electric chillers for and reliable. Scroll compressors are made
heat transfer in a chilled water system. A commercial comfort cooling have in sizes of 1.5 to 15 tons.
typical chiller is rated between 15 to 1000 centrifugal, screw, scroll, or reciprocating
tons (53 to 3,500 kW) in cooling power. compressors. Centrifugal and screw Chiller Efficiency
Water-cooled chillers incorporate the chillers have one or two compressors. Chiller efficiency is rated in kW/ton (or
use of cooling towers which improve heat Scroll and reciprocating chillers are built COP) for larger machines and EER or
rejection more efficiently at the condenser with multiple, smaller compressors. COP for smaller machines (See Fig. 7).
than air-cooled chillers. For a water- • Centrifugal chillers are the quiet, Efficiencies are measured at peak load
cooled chiller, the cooling tower rejects efficient, and reliable workhorses of and at IPLVs. The concept of the “most
heat to the environment through direct comfort cooling. Although centrifugal efficient chiller” makes sense only in
heat exchange between the condenser chillers are available as small as 70 tons, context of the facility to be cooled. If a
water and cooling air. For an air-cooled most are 300 tons or larger. chiller operates 90% of the time at 60%
chiller, condenser fans move air through • Screw chillers are up to 40% smaller and load and very rarely at 90-100 % load,
then the most efficient chiller for that
In this figure, thermal energy moves from left to right • Refrigerant loop. Using a phase-change refrigerant,
as it is extracted from the space and expelled into the the chiller’s compressor pumps heat from the application is the one with the lowest kW/
outdoors through five loops of heat transfer: chilled water to the condenser water. ton at 60% load, regardless of peak load
• Indoor air loop. In the left most loop, indoor air is • Condenser water loop. Water absorbs heat from the
driven by the supply air fan through a cooling coil,
kW/ton.
chiller’s condenser, and the condenser water pump
where it transfers its heat to chilled water. The cool sends it to the cooling tower. Chillers are getting more efficient
air then cools the building space. • Cooling tower loop. The cooling tower’s fan drives Thanks to design advances, new chillers are far more efficient
• Chilled water loop. Driven by the chilled water air across an open flow of the hot condenser water, than their predecessors, even though CFC -free refrigerants
pump, water returns from the cooling coil to the are less efficient than CFC refrigerants.
transferring the heat to the outdoors.
chiller’s evaporator to be re-cooled. Typical chiller performance
0.75
0.70 0.70
0.65
0.60
0.6
(kW/ton)
0.48
0.2
0
Cooling coil Evaporator Condenser Cooling tower pre-1973 1980 1990 1997
Year manufactured
Fig. 6: Process Diagram of a Chilled Water Air-Conditioning System Fig. 7: Trend in Chillers Efficiency
1. Plan ahead: It makes sense to start satisfying (typically 40 to 70% load). 6. Obtain competitive bids: There are
planning early to allow sufficient time to often good reasons to stay with the same
evaluate various scenarios and to identify 4. Maximize system efficiency: Cooling brand of chiller—maintenance, other
a comprehensive system approach which tower fans and condenser and chilled equipment in the facility, existing service
best meets budgetary and facility needs. water pumps should be considered relationships, etc. However, for such a
along with chiller energy consumption. major purchase it makes sense to obtain
2. Buy only as much chiller as you need: Chiller efficiency increases with higher- bids from more than one manufacturer.
Reduce building loads and improve air- temperature chilled water and lower- All manufacturers have “sweet spots”—
side distribution before sizing the chiller. temperature condenser water (called sizes at which their equipment is most
Buying more cooling than you need not lower “lift”). efficient.
only costs money for equipment, it also
increases monthly utility bills. 5. Select unequally sized machines for 7. Monitor the system on an ongoing
multiple chiller installations: Select basis: Monitor compressor power and
3. Use computer simulations to model the one machine small enough to meet light cooling load to determine whether or
building throughout the year: Designs loads efficiently and the others to meet when attention will be needed, and to
should include chillers that operate most larger loads efficiently. Start additional allow optimal system operation.
efficiently under part-load conditions that chillers only when the chillers that
most chillers spend most of their time already are running are near full capacity.
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Table 2: Power Consumption Rating for Packaged Air Conditioners-Under Test and a simple duct layout for circulating
Conditions
conditioned air. They are generally “un-
Cooling Capacity Maximum Power Consumption
in Watts engineered” systems and it is acknowledged
Watts Tons of Refrigeration Water Cooled Air Cooled
by the construction industry that first-
cost dominates construction practices.
10,000 3 3,750 4,750
This leads to short cuts in construction
17,500 5 6,000 7,000 practices and/or the use of lower-grade
26,250 7.5 9,000 10,000 materials. In the case of duct work
35,000 10 11,500 13,500 this shows up as sloppy connections,
inexpensive leaky diffusers, and low-grade
52,000 15 17,000 20,000 duct tapes. With respect to the HVAC
Source: Code No.: IS 8148: 2003 equipment this leads to installations and
service techniques that produce degraded
Table 3: Power Consumption Ratings Table 4: Power Consumption Ratings equipment performance.
for Unitary Air Conditioners – Under for Split Air Conditioners – Under Test
Test Conditions Conditions The ECBC requires insulating ducts
Rated Cooling Maximum Rated Cooling Maximum
and pipelines to reduce energy losses in
Capacity Power Capacity Power heating and cooling distribution systems.
(kcal/h) kW Consumption (kcal/h) kW Consumption Insulation exposed to weather is required
(kW) (kW) to be protected by aluminum sheet metal,
1,500 1.7 1.1 painted canvas, or plastic cover. Cellular
3 000 3.5 1.7 foam insulation needs to be protected
2,250 2.6 1.4
as described above, or be painted with
3,000 3.5 1.6 4 500 5.2 2.6 water retardant paint.
3,750 4.4 2.0
6 000 7.0 3.4
4,500 5.2 2.4 Duct sealing: Duct sealing applies to
6,000 7.0 3.2 7 500 8.7 4.5 supply and return duct work and to plenums
7,500 8.7 4.25 that are formed by part of the building
9 000 10.5 5.4 envelope. Proper duct sealing ensures that
9,000 10.5 5.2
correct quantities of heated or cooled air
Source: Code No.: IS 1391 (Part-1): 1992 Source: Code No.: IS 1319 (Part-2): 1992 is delivered to the space, and not be lost
(amendment No. 2 Dec.2006) (amendment No. 2 Dec.2006) to unconditioned spaces or the outdoors
through leaks in the ducts. This may be
Controls are often called hydronic, and steam- one of the most important conservation
Controls determine how HVAC systems based systems are called steam systems, features to check. A properly sealed duct
operate to meet the design goals of comfort, both of which use a piping system to system will increase the comfort and lower
efficiency, and cost-effective operation. The circulate water or steam. the energy use of the building. Some areas
ECBC requires that all HVAC equipment Forced hot air systems are more to be sealed include:
(>28 kW cooling and/or >7 kW heating common than hydronic or steam heating • Longitudinal seams are joints oriented
capacity) be controlled with a timeclock systems because they cost much less in the direction of air flow.
capable of retaining programming for to install. However, hydronic systems • Transverse joints are connections of two
at least 10 hours, controlling varying perform better than forced hot air because duct sections orientated perpendicular
schedules. [ECBC 5.2.3] they leak less heat, are easier to insulate, to airflow.
All heating and cooling systems are make almost no noise, can be easily zoned • Duct wall penetrations are openings
required to be temperature controlled and can provide more even temperatures. made by any screw or fastener.
[ECBC 5.2.3]. Each zone must be Hydronic systems also do a much better • Spiral lock joints in round and flat oval
controlled by an individual temperature job of serving a radiant heating system. duct need not be sealed.
controller. The energy efficiency of a distribution
A temperature of dead band of 3ºC (5ºF) system depends largely on the design and Pipe insulation: To minimize heat losses,
is required for equipment that supplies installation quality. Duct distribution the Code requires that piping of heating
both heating and cooling. Thermostats systems are prone to the most significant and cooling systems, (including the storage
must also prevent simultaneous heating losses—especially if the ducts are poorly tanks,) must be insulated. The Code
and cooling. [ECBC 5.2.3.2]. sealed and/or installed outside the specifies required R-values of insulation
“thermal envelope” of the building (in for heating and cooling systems based on
Distribution System an unconditioned attic, for example). the operating temperature of the system.
Distribution systems carry a heating or Hydronic systems are typically installed These are as shown in Table 5 and Table 6.
cooling medium to condition the space. within conditioned or “buffered” spaces
The two most common mediums are air like an unconditioned basement. In either Air System Balancing
and water. Air-based systems are often case, it is important to insulate ducts/ Air balancing is a small part of the building
“forced air” because they use a fan to hot water pipes that are in unconditioned commissioning process. Commissioning
push the air from the furnace or air- spaces. involves the functional testing of all
conditioner through the duct work to the Small commercial buildings typically components of an HVAC system to
conditioned space. Water-based systems use constant volume rooftop HVAC units, insure proper operation. Commissioning
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Table 5: Insulation of Heating Systems airflow requirements across the coils to
Heating System avoid compressor damage. Generally
before project acceptance the building
Designed Operating Temperature of Piping Insulation with Minimun R-value (m2·K/W)
owner would like to know that comfort
60°C and above 0.74 conditions could be maintained in the
Above 40°C and below 60°C 0.35 building before occupancy, particularly
in the warmer and cooler months. This
Table 6: Insulation of Cooling Systems does not necessarily need to be a detailed
Cooling System room-by-room investigation. The total
Designed Operating Temperature of Piping Insulation with Minimun R-value (m2·K/W) supply, return, and outside airflow
Below 15°C 0.35 quantities should be measured for each
air handling system. A detailed balance is
Refrigerant Suction Piping
often done before occupancy because it
Split System 0.35
is much easier to do measurements when
is a systematic process of verification usually done at the completion of a new the building is unoccupied.
and documentation—from the design construction project. The ECBC requires that air systems be
phase to a minimum of one year after the Air balancing should verify damper balanced in a manner to first minimize
construction—that all systems perform operation and adjust settings to deliver throttling losses; then for fans > 0.75
in accordance with design documentation the designed airflow to each zone. It kW (1.0 HP) the fan speed needs to be
and intent, and in accordance with the is important that some balancing be adjusted to meet design flow conditions.
operational needs. The air-balancing done prior to occupancy for several [ECBC 5.2.5.1.1]. Refer Box 4 for more
portion of the commissioning process is reasons. Some equipment has minimum information on air handling units.
Overview are difficult to make in existing buildings, Flow: Air flow has a dominant effect on
On an annual basis, continuously operating except during a major renovation. energy consumption because it shows up
air distribution fans can consume more Design options for improving air twice in the energy equation: as the first
electricity than chillers or boilers, which distribution efficiency include: term and as a squared function in the
run only intermittently. High-efficiency • Variable-air-volume (VAV) systems second term (pressure).
air distribution systems can substantially • VAV diffusers The energy required to move air
reduce fan power required by an HVAC • Low-pressure-drop duct design through a ducted system increases with
system, resulting in dramatic energy • Low-face-velocity air handlers the cube of the flow rate. This important
savings. Because fan power increases at • Fan sizing and variable-frequency- relationship, known as the “cube law,”
the square of air speed, delivering a large drive (VFD) motors points to a meticulous and comprehensive
mass of air at low velocity is a far more • Displacement ventilation systems. examination of required flow as the start of
efficient design strategy than pushing Air-handling systems deliver fresh designing an efficient air-handling system.
air through small ducts at high velocity. outside air to disperse contaminants
Supplying only as much air as is needed to and provide free cooling, transport Pressure: The pressure a fan must work
condition or ventilate a space through the heat generated or removed by space- against depends on two primary factors:
use of variable-air-volume systems is more conditioning equipment, and create air the flow and duct design features such as
efficient than supplying a constant volume movement in the space also being served, diameter, length, surface treatment, and
of air at all times. deliver heated or cooled air to conditioned impediments such as elbows, filters, and
The largest gains in efficiency for air to conditioned spaces (See Fig. 8). coils. Typical pressure losses are on the order
air distribution systems are realized Passive or natural air transport systems of 2 to 6 inches water gauge (wg); an efficient
in the system design phase during have the highest efficiency, and successful, system operates at less than 1.5” wg.
new construction or major retrofits. modern examples of this approach are
Modifications to air distribution systems steadily accumulating. For buildings Duty factor: A fan’s duty factor is the
that require mechanical ventilation, number of hours per year that it operates,
Most of the air in commercial buildings is innovative design approaches and a sometimes presented as a percentage.
recirculated (returned) through the space. Only methodical examination of the entire air Many large fans spin at full speed
about 10 percent is exhausted and replaced with
outside air.
system can greatly improve efficiency and continuously (8,760 hours per year).
effectiveness. Using simple or complex controls, duty
ir 1
00
%
Air-handling efficiency: The energy factors can often be reduced to about
nA
R etu
r
required to move air is: 3,000 hours per year or less by limiting
10
0 % fan operation to occupied periods.
Re
cir
9 0 cula p ly
Air Energy = Flow x Pressure x Duty Factor
Exhaust Air up
10%
% te d
Air
S
Efficiency
Air
10 % Efficiency: The mechanical efficiency of
ide
Ou
ts
All four of these factors can be the fan and its drive system, can typically
manipulated to reduce the energy be raised from the 40 to 60% range to the
Fig. 8: Air Flow and its Make Up
consumption of the system. mid - 80 % range.
(Source: E Source Cooling Atlas)
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Building Commissioning and System Balancing Box 5
Overview (US DOE, 2008) as possible while meeting the occupants’ properly by balancing the fluid flows to
Building commissioning is a systematic comfort and functional needs throughout their correct proportion and in the process
process of ensuring that a building the life of the building. It is worth noting identify design and installation errors, if
performs in accordance with the design that Continuous commissioning is different they exist, to ensure the performance of
intent, contract documents, and the from building operation and maintenance. the HVAC system. Some key issues that
owner’s operational needs. Due to the Benefits of building commissioning a firm undertaking TAB functions must
sophistication of building designs and the include: address are listed below:
complexity of building systems constructed • Energy savings and persistence of
today, commissioning is necessary, but savings 1. Identification of a Traverse
not automatically included as part of the • Improved thermal comfort with proper Location: To ensure that accurate
typical design and construction process. environmental control measurements of airflows inside
Commissioning is critical for ensuring that • Improved indoor air quality ducts can be obtained. This
the design developed through the whole- • Improved operation and maintenance information is then used by HVAC
building design process is successfully with documentation control system to regulate the flow
constructed and operated. • Improved system function that eases of air and optimize system operation.
Building commissioning includes the building turn-over from contractor to
following: owner. 2. Determining Outside Air Quantity:
• Systematically evaluating all pieces If supply and return airflow are
of equipment to ensure that they are Commissioning Cost measured accurately, outside airflow
working according to specifications. Building owners are finding that the could easily be determined from the
This includes measuring temperatures energy, water, productivity, and operational following Equation:
and flow rates from all HVAC devices savings resulting from commissioning Qsupply = Qreturn +Qoutside
and calibrating all sensors to a known offset the cost of implementing a building
standard. commissioning process. Recent studies 3. Duct Leakage: A good duct traverse
• Reviewing the sequence of operations in the U.S. indicate that on average can also be used to determine duct
to verify that the controls are providing the operating costs of a commissioned leakage.
the correct interaction between building range from 8 to 20% below that
equipment. of a non-commissioned building. The 4. Determining Pump Flow: Like measuring
In particular, building commissioning one-time investment in commissioning at airflow on a fan, pump flow
activities include: the beginning of a project may result in measurements can sometimes be
• Engaging a commissioning authority reduced operating costs that will last the suspect. Most TAB technicians will
and team life of the building. determine flow by measuring the
• Documentation The cost of commissioning is differential pressure between pump
• Verification procedures, functional dependent upon many factors including discharge and pump suction. By
performance tests, and validation a building’s size and complexity, and using the manufacturer’s pump curve
• Training. whether the project consists of new and the pressure measurements, the
Commissioning HVAC systems is construction or building renovation. In technician can estimate total flow.
even more important in energy-efficient general, the cost of commissioning a new
buildings because equipment is less likely building ranges from 0.5% to 1.5% of the Sizing Balancing Valves: A
5.
to be oversized and must therefore run total construction cost. For an existing balancing device is similar to a
as intended to maintain comfort. Also, building, never before commissioned, control device and should be sized
HVAC equipment in better performing the cost of retro-commissioning can accordingly. Balancing devices should
buildings may require advanced control range from 3% to 5% of the total be sized based on the design pressure
strategies. Commissioning goes beyond operating cost. For HVAC and Control difference at that part of the system.
the traditional HVAC elements. More Systems, cost of commissioning ranges
and more buildings rely on parts of the from 1.5 to 2.5% of mechanical system 6. Fan and Pump Curves: Manufacturers’
envelope to ensure comfort. cost. performance curves are graphic
Commissioning includes evaluating representations of measured
the building elements to ensure that Testing, Adjusting, and performance under laboratory
shade management devices are in place, Balancing (Nolfo, 2001) conditions. The combination of
glazing is installed as specified, air- Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing (TAB) field measurements and associated
leakage standards have been met—these refers to the process whereby a system calculations can be plotted on the fan
are the static elements of the building. or a component must first be tested curve. If accurate, careful, thoughtful
Commissioning can also evaluate other to determine its operating state, then measurements can be taken, the
claims about the construction materials adjusted, and finally balanced to produce measured data usually matches the
such as Volatile Organic Compounds the desired results and performance in published data within the normal
(VOCs) emission content and durability. accordance with the design documents. tolerances of the performance tests.
Continuous commissioning ensures The primary objective of carrying out the
that the building operates as efficiently TAB function is to help the system to work
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Indoor Environment Quality Box 6
Role of Temperature and Impact of IEQ on Health and filtration efficiencies vary among IAQ and
Humidity Productivity ventilation standards and guidelines.
The influence of the indoor thermal Some characteristics of the indoor
environment on thermal comfort is widely environment, such as temperatures Maintain Min. Ventilation Rates
recognized. Even in laboratory settings and lighting quality, may also influence The minimum ventilation rates specified
with uniform clothing and activity levels, worker performance without impacting in the applicable code requirements
it is not possible to satisfy more than 95% health. In many businesses, such as should be maintained or exceeded. The
of occupants by providing a single uniform office work, worker salaries plus benefits HVAC system should be designed so
thermal environment (Fanger 1970) dominate total costs; therefore, very small that rates of outside air intake can be
because thermal preferences vary among percentage increases in productivity, measured using practical measurement
people. Despite the significant attention even a fraction of one percent, are often techniques. In buildings with variable
placed on thermal comfort by building sufficient to justify expenditures for air volume (VAV) ventilation systems,
professionals, dissatisfaction with indoor improvements that increase productivity. special controls may be needed to ensure
thermal conditions is the most common In a critical review and analysis of minimum outside air intake into the
source of occupant complaints in office existing scientific information, Fisk and AHU is maintained during operation.
buildings (Federspiel 1998). Rosenfeld (1997) have developed estimates
Air temperature and humidity also of the potential to improve productivity Recirculation of Indoor Air
influence perceptions of the quality of in the U.S. through changes in indoor Recirculation of indoor air is standard
indoor air and the level of complaints environments. The review indicates that practice in some countries, such as India,
about non-specific building-related health building and HVAC characteristics are and discouraged in other countries
symptoms (often called sick building associated with prevalences of acute such as those of Scandinavia. When air
syndrome symptoms). Relative humidities respiratory infections and with allergy and is recirculated, it should be filtered to
below approximately 25% have been asthma symptoms and non-specific health remove particles. However, filters are
associated with complaints of dry skin, symptoms. From analyses of existing often used only to prevent soiling and
nose, throat, and eyes. At high humidities, scientific literature and calculations using fouling of the HVAC equipment. These
discomfort will increase due substantially statistical data, the estimated potential filters have a very low efficiency for
to an increase of skin moisture. The upper annual nationwide (for the US) benefits respirable-size particles (smaller than 2.5
humidity limits of ASHRAE’s thermal of improvements in IEQ include the micrometers). Use of filters that exceed
comfort zone vary with temperature from following: minimum requirements is an option
approximately 60% RH at 26°C to 80% • A 10% to 30% reduction in acute to improve IAQ, often with a small or
RH at 20°C. respiratory infections and allergy and negligible incremental cost.
asthma symptoms.
Sick Building Syndrome • A 20% to 50% reduction in acute non- Maintenance of the HVAC System
The most common health symptoms specific health symptoms (commonly Regular preventative maintenance
attributed by building occupants to their referred to as Sick Building Syndrome) of the HVAC system is necessary to
indoor environments are non-specific • A 0.5% to 5% increase in the assure proper delivery of outside air
health symptoms that do not indicate a performance of office work. throughout the building and to limit
specific disease, such as irritation of eyes, • Associated annual cost savings and growth of microorganisms in the system.
nose, and skin, headache, fatigue, chest productivity gains of $30 billion to Elements of periodic maintenance that
tightness, and difficulty breathing. These $170 billion. are important for maintaining good IEQ
symptoms are commonly called sick include changing of filters, cleaning of
building syndrome symptoms. In some Tips to Ensure Good drain pans and cooling coils, checks of
buildings, the symptoms coincide with IEQ While Designing and fan operation, and checks of operation of
periods of occupancy in the building. Commissioning HVAC dampers that influence air flow rates.
Buildings within which occupants systems
experience unusually high levels of Assure Quality of Intake Air Integrated Approach to IEQ
these symptoms are sometimes called Assuring adequate quality of intake air The IEQ performance of a building
“sick” buildings. On average, occupants is essential. Outside air intakes should also depends on the interactions among
of sealed air-conditioned buildings not be located near strong sources of building design, building materials,
report more symptoms than occupants pollutants such as combustion stacks, and building operation, control, and
of naturally ventilated buildings. Most sanitary vents, busy streets, loading docks, maintenance. Therefore, an integrated or
studies have found that lower indoor parking garages, standing water, cooling whole building approach is recommended
air temperatures are associated with towers, and vegetation. The outside air to maximize IEQ. Such an integrated
fewer non-specific health symptoms. intake must be separated sufficiently approach may focus on the following:
Symptoms have been reduced through from locations where ventilation air • IEQ targets or objectives;
practical measures such as increased is exhausted to prevent significant re- • Occupancy and indoor pollutant
ventilation, decreased temperature, and entrainment of the exhaust air. Incoming sources and pollutant sinks and their
improved cleaning of floors and chairs air should be filtered to remove particles. variation over time;
(Mendell 1993). The recommended minimum particle • Building and HVAC design.
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Hydronic System Balancing happens, the highest efficiencies are conditions. [ECBC 5.2.5.1.2] The ECBC
A balanced hydronic system is one that possible in the system, which translates allows the following exceptions to the
delivers even flow to all the devices on into reduced pumping costs. hydronic system balancing requirement:
that piping system. Each component has ECBC requires hydronic systems to be • Pump motors of 7.5 kW (10 HP) or less,
an effective equal length of pipe on the proportionately balanced in a manner to and
supply and return. And when a system first minimize throttling losses; then the • When throttling results in no greater
is balanced, all of the pressure drops pump impeller must be trimmed or pump than 5% of the nameplate HP draw, or
are correct for the devices. When that speed adjusted to meet the design flow 2.2 kW (3 HP), whichever is greater.
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Environmental Tips (Source: USGBC, 2004) Box 8
Key
Air Information
Flow Flow
The lack of a direct relationship between the HVAC system. In the absence of perfect or Mixed Air
Outdoor
Global Warming Potential (GWP) and the ideal refrigerant we should follow a ‘trade- Temperature Logic Controller
Sensor
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) creates off’ approach to identify a better combination Heating
Coil
a challenge in developing a rating system of HVAC equipment and its refrigerants to Cooling
that allows the two environmental factors to facilitate optimum environmental impact in Outside Air
Coil
be considered together, as they should be in terms of GWP and ODP per unit of cooling Outside Air
Damper Supply Air
evaluating the environmental impact of an capacity. Linkage
Motorized
Refrigerant ODP GWP Application Actuator Return-Air
damper
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