1.

Choose 2 acclaimed psychologists and discuss their teaching/theories that impacted our
understanding of psychology today.

Ivan Pavlov

Experimental psychology began to be dominated by behaviorism in the late 1800s and

early 1900s. Accordingly, the conditioned response study of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
was regarded as an important area of behavioral research. Using classical conditioning, a
previously neutral stimulus is made to become associated with another stimulus through multiple
exposures to both of them. Before classical conditioning can begin, three terms must be
understood: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, and unconditioned response. To start, a
neutral stimulus elicits a sensory response, such as seeing, hearing, or smelling something, but
does not induce the reflex being tested. For instance, a bell will be the neutral stimulus because
the dog hears it, but it does not usually elicit a salivation reflex. Next, an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) is a stimulus that causes a physiological reflex, such as salivation or blinking of the eyes
without requiring any prior conditioning. Food will be the unconditioned stimulus, and when
presented to the dog, it will elicit the salivation reflex, causing the dog to salivate. With this,
when we are exposed to an unconditioned stimulus, we have an automatic, involuntary
physiological response called the unconditioned response (UCR). For example, salivation is a
naturally occurring response to food. The unconditioned stimulus, in this case, is the sight of
food, and the unconditioned response is the salivation of the dog. During conditioning, an
unconditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually
transforms into the conditioned stimuli. Finally, conditioning results in the conditioned response
being triggered solely by the conditioned stimulus. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is an initially
neutral stimulus but now induces a response identical to the unconditioned one. In this case, the
bell, which was initially neutral, became the CS. On the other hand, conditioned responses are
those that have been learned in response to conditioned stimuli. The conditioned response in our
example would be the dog salivating in response to the sound of the bell.
Carl Rogers
 As a result of his groundbreaking work, psychologist Carl Rogers is noted as one of the
most important figures of the twentieth century (Cherry, 2020). Carl Rogers used the most
popular therapy at the time, Freud's psychoanalytic approach, in his practice as a therapist.
However, he disagreed with Freud's assertion that the analyst—not the client—was in charge of
the client's progress during therapy. As a result, Rogers developed client-centered therapy.
Client-centered therapy (also known as person-centered therapy) is based on the premise that
everyone has an actualizing tendency or a yearning to reach their full potential. When helping a
client reach his or her full potential, the therapist's job is to be non-directive, compassionate, and
encouraging (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian 2010). Being empathetic means being able to
comprehend what the client is saying; the therapist must adopt the client's point of view and
make an effort to see the issues from this perspective. Thus, the client will be able to ponder on
their personal views and insights, which may provide them with previously unavailable insights
(Elliott, 2018). Next, having positive regard means being able to communicate your care, respect,
and regard with the client; responsive eye contact, assertive body language, and effective
listening can all be used by the therapist to demonstrate to the client that they are invested in the
session. When the therapist fosters an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard, the client
may feel more comfortable expressing their honest emotions without worrying about being
rejected (Farber et al., 2018). Lastly, genuineness is the capacity to be honest and open with the
client when communicating; a sensible comprehension of how internal occurrences like feelings
and thoughts associated with external occurrences, such as self-awareness, is required. In
addition to helping the client feel secure and trusted, showing genuineness and congruence aids
in the development of the therapeutic relationship. This trust creates a sense of security for the
client, encouraging them to participate more fully in therapy (Kolden et al., 2018).

2. Using the 1st Sem Aug-Dec 2021 Journal Review Guide provided in the course module,
review the journal Understanding and Predicting Human Behavior provided in our course
module.

Understanding and Predicting Human Behavior

 The article "Understanding and Predicting Human Behavior" by Judith Holdershaw and
Philip Gendall discusses a more practical or viable alternative approach to behavior prediction.
Consequently, the issue was that to comprehend behavior and attitude. It would have to be
quantified because it was a predictor of research in understanding human behavior. There has
been much backlash against attitude research, and early studies failed to show that attitudes have
high behavioral consistency or predictive validity. Moreover, according to Ajzen & Fishbein
(1975), people did not consistently behave in diverse settings or act following their measured
attitudes. Due to this, there came much debate about if the attitude was still valuable in scientific
research for predicting behavior. Researchers have historically disagreed on the fundamentals or
components of the attitude construct, which could explain the discrepancy in attitude-behavior
results.

In addition, the results show that Labaw's survey design, as opposed to Ajzen and
Fishbein's attitudinal approach to questionnaire design, proved to be easier to implement in the
field. Liska (1984) also noted that laboratory studies support the Fishbein and Ajzen models
more strongly than field studies do. According to current research practice, most researchers use
a cognitive-based questionnaire framework to predict future behavior. The attitude-based
technique of Ajzen and Fishbein is often regarded as the most advanced survey methodology for
behavioral prediction accessible to academics. However, recent research encourages the use of a
feasible alternative to the current situation, and methods include case studies, surveys, and
reliance on behavior-attitude questions to understand and forecast behavior.

Furthermore, when Ajzen and Fishbein's attitude-based survey methodology was

compared to Labaw's behavioral approach, both approaches were found to be similar. Still, from
the standpoint of survey research, Labaw's behavioral method was more preferable because it
made it easier to apply questionnaires in the field. The significance of this study is that question
surveys, or cognitive-based questionnaires is an essential practice because it can predetermine a
person's behavior with which past behaviors also informs about how behavior is similar in
certain situations I predicting future behavior. It should come as no surprise that another critical
goal of psychology is to predict how we think and behave. Therefore, if we understand what
occurs and why it occurs, we can predict how, when, and why it will happen in the coming.
Because successfully predicting conduct is one of the most acceptable ways to see if we
understand the fundamental causes of our actions. The practical ways we can predict behavior
can help us know a person, understand them better, gain a better perspective, make decisions,
and learn how to resolve conflict. Therefore, professionals who want to learn how to study
human behavior understand why people make choices. Whereas behavior affects us and others, it
demonstrates where and how we might adjust to meet the demands of a specific situation or
function.

Furthermore, we want to preserve this information as future psychologists and

practitioners to embody this inspiration. As one of the earliest social sciences, human behavior
research has made a significant contribution to the betterment of people suffering from mental
illnesses and behavioral disorders. A great deal of data has been gathered, and ideas developed in
describing human actions and attitudes. Essentially, it is beneficial because it can explain why
people behave the way they do with the advent of learning human behavior. We could accurately
anticipate behavior if practitioners or professionals had all information regarding nature and
nurture motivations, and they utilized it in predicting them from experience, questionnaires, and
observations. It may be able to be a reliable source of information. In addition, feelings and ideas
may not be as effective at predicting behavior as intentions. Thus, people's intentions are a good
predictor of conduct in a variety of situations. Moreover, the importance of this is that we will be
knowledgeable of the disparity between how people see themselves and how others see them is
frequently a source of contention. Since we influence our behavior, positive feedback on
behavior provides a promising path for personal development.

3. Provided in APA American Psychological Association Ethical Guidelines for Research

and Research Ethics Video Links in the course module. What is Belmont report about?
Mention examples of ethical violations that prompted the creation of the ethical guidelines
for research. Using the same learning material compare and contrast quantitative and
qualitative research. Indicate your references and be mindful of the canvas similarity
index.

Belmont report
The Belmont Report is for the Protection of Biomedical and Behavioral Research Human
Subjects and was written in 1979 by National Commission. The Belmont Report conducts
biological and human subjects are used in behavioral research and develops guidelines to ensure
that such analysis follows those principles. Also, it established three central ethical research
concepts: beneficence, justice, and respect involving human subjects as participants.
Nevertheless, because of many violations throughout the history of research before the ethical
guidelines were made, here are some examples of ethical infractions that motivated the
development of research ethics guidelines: One of the most well-known examples is from 1945.
Nazi scientists committed heinous atrocities against the Jews during World War II, including
experiments that demonstrate no respect for human rights or one's life. The scientists and doctors
involved were accused of conducting unlawful experiments on concentration camp inmates for
scientific and medicinal purposes and being charged with crimes against humanity. When the
war was over, the scientists were sentenced to trials in Nuremberg, Germany, and found guilty.
The trial began in 1945 and concluded in 1947. Thus, the Nuremberg Code was published
(Muscente, 2020). Another event was also from World War II when the U.S. conducted medical
experiments on patients who were unable to agree and subjects unaware of the investigation.
Treatments performed for syphilis in Tuskegee, Alabama, were highly poisonous, harmful, and
ineffective when the study began in 1932. At least 399 African American men with syphilis were
enrolled in a study to document the disease's natural course. The purpose of the study was to
establish if the benefits of the medication outweighed its drawbacks and identify the various
stages of the disease so that it may be possible to develop treatments that are specific to each
step. However, penicillin had been the preferred therapy for syphilis by 1947. Before this
discovery, syphilis was associated with a long-term, severe illness that eventually resulted in
multiple organ failures.

Moreover, until it was disclosed to the press in 1971, thereby ending it and was
investigated by the National Human Investigation Board, then The Belmont Report arose from
the Tuskegee experiment (Mata, 2016). Unquestionably, the publication of the Belmont Report
was a watershed moment in clinical research history. The National Research Council established
and entrusted it with determining the most fundamental ethical principles that should drive the
research process and setting standards to ensuring that regulations are followed.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative research

Qualitative research is a way to determine what people or groups mean when they talk
about a social or human issue. Its goal is to get to the bottom of people's thoughts, beliefs, and
motivations to understand them better. Qualitative data can be gathered from various sources,
including observation, interviews, focus groups, written documents, and case studies. Open-
ended questionnaires and interview guides are commonly used in qualitative studies because they
allow participants to express themselves more freely. When it comes to explaining complex
issues, it has the advantage of providing more detailed information while also being cost-
efficient. Findings, on the other hand, are rarely generalizable to other populations or
communities. It is also more challenging to analyze, and gathering the data takes time (Scribbr,
2019).

Conversely, quantitative research uses measurable variables to examine the relationship

between them to test objective theories. Its goal is to quantify data and extrapolate the outcomes
to a larger population. Subsequent data, such as government statistics, health system metrics, and
census information, are frequently incorporated into quantitative studies. Conclusions can be
generalized if the sampling procedure is well designed and the sample is representative of the
population under study. In addition, data can be very precise, consistent, and dependable.
However, one of its drawbacks is the difficulty in locating related secondary data, and the data
itself may be insufficient to explain more complex issues.

4. Select and discuss 2 Theories of Human Development and relate it with our discussion on
the topic Human Development life span approach.

Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

 Jean Piaget had the most significant influence on the study of cognitive development in
the history of developmental psychology. Despite his belief that everyone goes through similar
four stages of cognitive development, he declared that people progress over the stages at varying
paces (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian 2010). To start, during the sensorimotor stage, newborns engage
with and discover about their surroundings by connecting their sensory encounters with their
motor movements. Consequently, over nine months, the idea of object permanence slowly takes
shape. As defined by Jean Piaget, object permanence is the ability to retain a mental image of a
thing even when it is not physically present. After the sensorimotor stage, infants enter the next
stage, called the preoperational stage. In this stage, children learn to solve simple problems by
using symbols, such as words or mental images, and thinking or talking about things that are not
currently existing. In addition, two of children's cognitive limitations include issues with
conservation and egocentric thinking. First, conservation is the idea that despite changes in the
physical arrangement of an object, its quantity remains constant. The second issue children face
in the preoperational stage is that egocentric thinking causes them to make mistakes or
misbehave. Egocentric thinking is the inclination to view and conceive of the world solely from
one's point of view and to have difficulty appreciating the views of others. Followed by the
preoperational stage, children begin the concrete operational stage, wherein they are capable of a
wide range of logical mental operations on concrete objects. According to Piaget's findings,
children have mastered the fundamental rules of the physical world by the time they reach the
age of seven. This does not signify that children are equipped to live autonomously with their
family, but rather that they are eager to acquire the essential abilities needed to perform in
society (Cohen, 2011). The fourth and last stage in Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development
is the formal operational stage. During this stage, the ability to think logically and solve abstract
problems develops in adolescents and adults.

Furthermore, as adolescents enter the formal operational stage, they tend to believe that
others are always looking over their shoulders and evaluating them. The imaginary audience is a
term used to describe this phenomenon. The personal fable is another regard of adolescent
thought that is associated with egocentric thinking. This refers to an adolescent's belief that they
are invulnerable, unique, and particular. In sum, Piaget's theory has had a significant result on
our knowledge of cognitive development for three reasons. First, his theory was notably more
extensive than those available at the time. Second, his theory sparked a massive quantity of
study, leading to different cognitive development theories. Third, many of Piaget's concepts have
been validated and reproduced.

Psychosocial Theory on Human Development

According to the theory of psychosocial development by Erik Erikson, each stage of life
is developed in a specific order by personality. Unlike Freud's psychosexual phases theory,
Erikson's theory is based on an individual's psychosocial development, which describes the
influence of social experiences throughout a person's life (Cherry, 2021). Moreover, according to
psychosocial theory, people go through eight stages of development from childhood until late
adulthood. These stage are classified as: Trust vs. Mistrust (age 0 - 1½) its most fundamental or
basic quality (hope), Autonomy vs. Shame (age 1½ - 3) fundamental quality (will), Initiative vs.
Guilt (age 3 - 5) fundamental virtue or quality (purpose), Industry vs. Inferiority (age 5 - 12),
Identity vs. Role Confusion (age 12 - 18) fundamental quality (fidelity), basic virtues of Intimacy
vs. Isolation (age 18-40) (love), Generativity vs. Stagnation (age 40 - 65) fundamental quality
(care), Ego Integrity vs. Despair (age 65+) fundamental quality (wisdom). Therefore, according
to Erikson, these stages, which are built on basic values, are distinctive qualities that the ego
might employ to address subsequent crises, to which the effective completion of each phase
advances the development of a positive personality and the attainment of core ideals. (McLeod,
2018). Furthermore, Erik Erikson's psychosocial theory of stages plays a crucial role in forming
a feeling of personal identity and social interactions that will impact development and behavior
throughout the rest of the person's human life span, including the events from infancy and
maturity and later life.

5. Select 2 major topics covered in the midterm that interest you most and explain its
relevance. No duplication of topics that are already discussed in the previous questions.
Noteworthy also to mention and discuss your advocacy song (1) and its significance.

The Science of Psychology

 Psychology is perhaps the most mysterious and prone to misunderstandings among the
general public among all the sciences. Even though its language and ideas have permeated the
everyday culture, most people have only a vague understanding of what psychology is and what
psychologists do. In brief, the science of psychology is the scientific investigation of the human
mind and behavior. In addition to motivation and information processing, this vast field
encompasses questions about normal and abnormal behavior, the state of one's mental health and
mental illness, and how individuals and groups function in society. Psychology is a vast subject,
and the findings it produces have implications for every one of us. The study of psychology does
not necessarily lead to better health, but it does give a better understanding of personal, family,
and professional relationships in general and how they work in particular.

Moreover, applying psychology to everyday life can help improve communication, enrich
careers, and build self-confidence. Most importantly, studying psychology necessitates critical
thinking, which is a critical skill to have. It is beneficial when people need to solve problems,
make decisions, or decide what to believe or do reasonably and reflectively. Indeed, psychology
has given us many ideas in its short history that have changed the way we think and helped us
understand ourselves, other people, and the world we live in. Quoting French philosopher Paul
Valery, "The purpose of psychology is to give us a completely different idea of the things we
know best."

Sensation and Perception

The earliest and most significant concepts in psychology are sensation and perception, a
part of a study in neurology. As learned in this area, a stimulus causes the body to react or
become excited. People have senses such as sight, hearing, and taste are activated by feeling or
sentiment that assists us in absorbing information from the environment. On the other hand,
perception is the process of consciously organizing, interpreting, and experiencing stimuli.
Hence, our senses provide a clear image of our environment based on our shared incentives,
which our minds recognize and understand. Therefore, it is vital to understand that feeling arises
when a person encounters or sees something that comes into contact with their body. It helps to
know when an experience occurred, how they perceived what happened, how it makes people
feel, whether it is good or bad, like they have been in a similar situation before. As sensation and
perception are broad topics, many things could happen during the process, such as transduction.
Our sensory organs are involved in transduction during sensation. It refers to the conversion of
information into cerebral activity, the brain's language. So the term "transduction" is used to
describe the process of converting a physical signal from the outside environment into neurons in
the brain. Moreover, despite the differences, sensation and perception work together to detect the
presence of stimuli and changes in them. The study of feeling and perception is significant for
our everyday lives since psychologists' expertise is used in so many ways to help so many
individuals.

Advocacy song
 Kehlani begins the song with a powerful message for anyone dealing with depression: It
is okay to talk about how you feel. As Kehlani sings in the song's hook, "I don't know nobody
who thinks they're somebody 24/7. I don't know nobody who smiles at everybody 24/7." Toxic
positivity is the belief that no matter how bad things are in one's life, one should maintain a
positive outlook. When we use positive affirmations excessively, we risk invalidating our own or
others' feelings and endangering them at a time when they are already in a vulnerable position.

Consequently, it is never a bad idea to express feelings, and if you are not feeling well, do
not be afraid to let others know that, too. Indeed, we all have limits, and our responsibilities can
push us to the brink of those limits. Remember to rest when you are exhausted; cry freely when
you are sad. If you are going through a difficult time, ask those who care about you for help.
Allow yourself as much time as you require to experience the emotion and come to terms with it.
No matter what the outside world says, you do not have to be perfect, and it is okay not to be
okay.

References:
Burkeman, O. (2018, February 14). Getting to know you. The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2009/mar/06/psychology-understand-yourself
Cherry, K. (2020, March 28). 10 Most Influential Psychologists in History. Verywell Mind.
https://www.verywellmind.com/most-influential-psychologists-2795264

Cherry, K. (2021, July 18). Understanding Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development.

Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-
development-2795740

Clever Product Development. (2020, May 2). QUANTITATIVE vs QUALITATIVE

RESEARCH explained: differences, and when to use each [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IzN_HgBK2uQ

Cohen, L. (2011). The Handy Psychology Answer Book (The Handy Answer Book Series) [E-
book]. Visible Ink Press.

Elliott, R., Bohart, A., Watson, J., & Murphy, D. (2018). Therapist empathy and client outcome:
An updated meta-analysis. Psychotherapy, 55(4), 399–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000175

Farber, B., Suzuki, J., & Lynch, D. (2018). Positive regard and psychotherapy outcome: A meta-
analytic review. Psychotherapy, 55(4), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000171

Holdershaw, J. & Gendall, P. (2008). Understanding and predicting human behaviour.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228475561_Understanding_and_predicting_human_be
haviour

Kehlani - 24/7 Lyrics | AZLyrics.com. (2016). AZLyrics.

https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/kehlani/247.html

Kolden, G., Wang, C., Austin, S., Chang, Y., & Klein, M. (2018). Congruence/genuineness: A
meta-analysis. Psychotherapy, 55(4), 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000162
Mata, R. (et.al), (2016). Tuzkegee Syphilis Experiment. Science Direct.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/tuskegee-syphilis-experiment

McLeod, S. A. (2018). Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

Muscente, K. (2020). The History of the Belmont Report. Teachers College, Columbia
University. Retrieved from https://www.tc.columbia.edu/institutional-review-board/irb-blog/the-
history-of-the-belmont-report/?
fbclid=IwAR2jZg4FCQ0sVYOacdw_0TCpa78hmBQ5vttcOq_rbfoHRjpmCTKD5gWoSrQ

Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G., & Wagenaar, W. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard’s
Introduction to Psychology (15th ed.) [E-book]. Wadsworth Pub Co.

Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP). (2021). The Belmont Report. HHS.Gov.
Retrieved from https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html

Plotnik, R., & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2010). Introduction to Psychology (9th ed.) [E-book].
Cengage Learning.

Scribbr. (2019, November 15). Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: The Differences Explained
[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a-XtVF7Bofg