WEEK 4

INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

LESSON 3: UNDERSTANDING THE BASICS IN CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

1.1 Foundations of Criminological Research

Research is a systematic inquiry that describes, explains, predicts, and controls an observed
phenomenon that involves an inductive and deductive method. Inductive methods analyze the
observed phenomenon and identify the general principles, structures, or processes underlying the
phenomenon observed. Deductive methods verify the hypothesized principles through
observations. The purposes are different: one is to develop explanations, and the other is to test
the validity of the explanations.

What Are the Purposes of Research?

The importance of identifying the purpose in a research process is classified into four types:

1. Basic Research This type of research is done purposely to understand and explain. It takes in a form of
theory that explains the phenomenon under investigation to give its contribution to knowledge. This explores
the what, why, and how questions, which are descriptive in nature.
2. Applied Research This type of research purposely helps people understand the nature of human
problems, which pursue potential solutions to human and societal problems. It is more prescriptive in nature,
focusing on how questions.
3. Evaluation Research (Summative and Formative) It studies the processes and outcomes aimed at
an attempted solution, which is to improve human intervention within specific conditions. Its purpose is to
judge the effectiveness of a program, policy, or product.
4. Action Research It aims to solve specific problems within a program, organization, or community. Data
collection in this type of research tends to be informal and the people in the situation are directly involved.

1.2 Fundamentals of Research

What Is a Research Process?

Raagas (2010) described research as a scientific study that involves the quest for answers to
unsolved problems. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or theories that
will be helpful in predicting future occurrences. Lastly, research is based on observable experience or
empirical evidence. This means that it demands accurate observation and description, uses valid and
reliable data gathering procedures, and carefully designs procedures.

In addition, Raagas (2010) cited in his book that Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996) described the following stages
of conducting a research study:

1. Identify a significant research problem. In this stage, find out the research questions that are significant
and feasible to study.

2. Prepare a research proposal. A research proposal usually consists of sections, including introduction,
literature review, research design, research method, data analysis and protection of human subject section,
and timeline.

3. Conduct a pilot study. The purpose is to develop and try out data collection methods and other
procedures.

4. Conduct a main study.

5. Prepare a report.
Further, it also explained that overlapping of these five stages may occur in a different order which depends
on the nature of the study. Qualitative studies that involve emergent research design may gather and
analyze some data before developing the proposal, or a pilot study can be done before writing a research
proposal or not at all.

1.3 Research Design

The research design refers to the overall strategy that the researcher chooses to integrate into the
different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby ensuring that it will effectively
address the research problem. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data. Note that the research problem determines the type of design the researcher should use, not the
other way around.

A research design's function is to ensure that obtained evidence enables the researcher to effectively
address the research problem logically and unambiguously as possible. In social sciences research,
obtaining information relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence
needed to test a theory, evaluate a program, or accurately describe and assess meaning related to an
observable phenomenon.

Given all these, a common mistake made by researchers is by beginning the investigations far too early
before critically thinking about what information is needed to address the research problem. The overall
research problem will not be adequately addressed and conclusions drawn will run to be unconvincing.

Describing research designs can vary considerably but any well- developed design will achieve the
following:

1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection, particularly in relation to any valid
alternative designs that could have been used.
2. Review and synthesize previously published literature associated with the research problem.

3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses (i.e., research questions) central to the problem.

4. Effectively describe the data that will be necessary for an adequate testing of the hypotheses and
explain how such data will be obtained.

5. Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining whether or not the hypotheses
are true or false.

The organization and structure of the section of the research paper devoted to describing the research
design (usually part of the introduction) will vary depending on the type of design the researcher is using.

Action Research Design

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristics cycle whereby initially an
exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for
some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out (the "action" in action research)
during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies
are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or a valid
implementation solution for the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in

nature and is intended to foster a deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing
and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.
Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem. It involves the detailed and
comprehensive study of an individual or group of people to understand and explain the underlying factors
that cause their behavior. The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory
and model actually apply to the phenomena in the real world.

Causal Design

Causality studies are used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing norms
and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal
effect happens when variation in one phenomenon (independent variable) leads to or results in variation in
another phenomenon (dependent variable). Determining causality requires the following conditions: (1)
empirical association, (2) appropriate time order, and (3) non-spuriousness.

Cohort Design

A cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving members of a
population that the subject or representative member comes from and who are united by some commonality
or similarity. In a quantitative perspective of a cohort study, it takes note of statistical occurrence within a
specialized subgroup, united by similar characteristics that are significant to the research problem under
investigation. In qualitative framework, generally gathers data using methods of observations.

There are two types of cohorts: open and closed. The former involves a population that is defined
by just being part of the study in question and being monitored for the outcome. The researcher under this
can only calculate rate-based data (e.g., incidence rates and variants). The latter involves participants who
enter into the study at one defining point in time and presumes that no new participants can enter the cohort.
In short, the number of participants in the study remains constant.

Cross-sectional Design

A research design that has no time dimension and relies on existing differences rather than
following the intervention. Groups are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation.
The cross-sectional design can only measure differences among a variety of people, subjects, or
phenomena rather than a process of change, As such, researchers using this design can only employ a
relatively passive approach in making causal inferences based on findings.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where,
and how associated with a particular research problem. It cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why.
Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to
describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

Experimental Design

Experimental research is used where there is time priority in a causal relationship, there is
consistency in a causal relationship, and the magnitude of the correlation is great. This research design
specifies an experimental group (independent variable) and a control group. Both groups are measured on
the same dependent variable.
Exploratory Design

Exploratory design is used when there are few or no earlier studies about a research problem that
can be relied upon to predict an outcome. Gaining insights and familiarity is the focus in the preliminary
stage of investigation of the research problem.

Exploratory designs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in studying an
issue or what methodology would effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.

Historical Design

This research design is used to purposely collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to
establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. Secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary
evidence are used in this research design.

Longitudinal Design

Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and
magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time
periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational
study sometimes referred to as a panel study. A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and
makes repeated observations.

Mixed method Design

This method of research is mainly focused on drawing the strengths of both quantitative and
qualitative data gathering procedures to be able to formulate a holistic interpretative approach in order to
generate possible solutions or new understandings of the research problem.

Observational Design

This is a research design that draws conclusions by comparing subjects against a controlled group.
The two general types of this research design are (1) direct observational design and (2) unobtrusive
observational design. In the former type, the people are aware that they are under observation, while in the
latter, they are unaware that they are being observed.