minerals
Article
Development and Validation of an Online Analyzer for Particle
Size Distribution in Conveyor Belts
Claudio Leiva 1, * , Claudio Acuña 2 and Diego Castillo 1






Citation: Leiva, C.; Acuña, C.;
Castillo, D. Development and
Validation of an Online Analyzer for
Particle Size Distribution in Conveyor
Belts. Minerals 2021, 11, 581. https://
doi.org/10.3390/min11060581
Academic Editor: Saija Luukkanen
and Thomas Mütze
Received: 30 March 2021
Accepted: 26 May 2021
Published: 30 May 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Minerals 2021, 11, 581. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11060581
1 Department of Chemical Engineering, Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta 1270709, Chile;
triniclemspa@gmail.com
2 Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María,
Valparaíso 2390123, Chile; claudio.acunap@usm.cl
* Correspondence: cleiva01@ucn.cl; Tel.: +56-552655903
Abstract: Online measurement of particle size distribution in the crushing process is critical to
reduce particle obstruction and to reduce energy consumption. Nevertheless, commercial systems
to determine size distribution do not accurately identify large particles (20–250 mm), leading to
particle obstruction, increasing energy consumption, and reducing equipment availability. To solve
this problem, an online sensor prototype was designed, implemented, and validated in a copper ore
plant. The sensor is based on 2D images and specific detection algorithms. The system consists of a
camera (1024 p) mounted on the conveyor belt and image processing software, which improves the
detection of large particle edges. The algorithms determine the geometry of each particle, from a
sequence of digital photographs. For the development of the software, noise reduction algorithms
were evaluated and selected, and a routine was designed to incorporate morphological mathematics
(erosion, dilation, opening, lock) and segmentation algorithms (Roberts, Prewitt, Sobel, Laplacian–
Gaussian, Canny, watershed, geodesic transform). The software was implemented (in MatLab Image
Processing Toolbox) based on the 3D equivalent diameter (using major and minor axes, assuming an
oblate spheroid). The size distribution adjusted to the Rosin Rammler function in the major axis. To
test the sensor capabilities, laboratory images were used, where the results show a precision of 5%
in Rosin Rambler model fitting. To validate the large particle detection algorithms, a pilot test was
implemented in a large mining company in Chile. The accuracy of large particle detection was 60%
to 67% depending on the crushing stage. In conclusion, it is shown that the prototype and software
allow online measurement of large particle sizes, which provides useful information for screening
equipment maintenance and control of crushers’ open size setting, reducing the obstruction risk and
increasing operational availability.
Keywords: comminution; image analysis
1. Introduction
The field of image analysis is a key area for the implementation of solutions that
improve quality within industrial automation processes, where different digital image
processing techniques are used [1]. The use of this technology carries with it a competitive
advantage within the companies that use it, being able to have an increase in produc-
tion, improvement in the quality of the products, and a reduction in production and
manufacturing costs [2].
One of the main lines of image analysis research is the automatic particle recognition
process. Automation allows establishing precise and objective forms of control, whereas
manual systems are subject to exhaustion and routine on the part of the operator, causing
poor or inconsistent control [3–5]. Image analysis applications can be found in areas such
as PCB (printed circuit boards) fault detection, food, silicon foil, and granulometry, to name
a few. However, it should be noted that each analysis is directly associated with the type of
application in which it is desired to occupy.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 2 of 15

A method designed for face pattern recognition, for example, can hardly be applied to
that of printed circuits [6–8].
There are two basic conditions that a system must meet to improve the quality of
processes: the first case is efficiency, which is related to the least number of false positives
and negatives; the second is speed: the idea is that the production process is not affected by
the time it takes for the inspection and therefore increases or maintains, at least, the speed
of production.
Segmentation is one of the initial stages in the image analysis process; however, its
application allows separating and detecting, in a first phase, the regions of interest, which
are later classified. Segmentation is commonly considered one of the most complex tasks
in image processing [2,9]. Research in this area is extensive, but it is specific in relation
to the material being analyzed. To have a better control in the crushing process, taking
images of the conveyor belts, it is sought to design and implement an algorithm that allows
determining all the regions with particles, particularly large particles (20–250 mm), from
which their geometric properties can be extracted, through analysis of digital images, and
the size distribution of these particles can be determined. The quality in the detection
of particles is a fundamental point in the construction of a solution, for which it must be
quantifiable. To do this, a comparison algorithm must be used that effectively specifies the
number of false positives and false negatives found in the detection of particles.
In the development of this research, segmentation strategies such as the use of the
Canny method [10,11] for edge detection (a comparison study [12] showed that, among the
different types of edge detection algorithms, the Canny filter is the algorithm with the best
performance) and the use of the distance transform [13] to complement watershed segmen-
tation [14,15], which has been studied and improved throughout various studies [16–23],
will be analyzed, in addition to other digital processing techniques for noise reduction
such as the median filter, the Gaussian filter, and the average filter, in order to evaluate
the developed solution. To develop the watershed, the algorithm proposed in Vincent’s
research [24] is the one with the best quality and performance, and it is also integrated
with the MATLAB software. This type of system also presents an opportunity for the
implementation of deep learning, as shown in other investigation works [25].
In Chile, there are many mining deposits in which sensors and analyzers are required
to help their production processes. In particular, the crushing and grinding process is
where energy consumption requires the greatest attention. An alternative for controlling
the process is measuring and analyzing the particle size distribution in the feed, in the same
way as for the milling stage, where particle size distribution sensors do not demonstrate
sufficient robustness in operation, particularly for large particle sizes (above 20 mm). A
large particle size is a consequence of operational problems in the classification stage
(screening), i.e., screen rupture, which requires prompt maintenance in order to reduce
major problems in downstream stages. The presence of oversized particles may produce
equipment plugging or obstruction. This condition limits the operational time availability.
This situation motivates the development of particle size analyzers. To carry out this
control, it is necessary to stop a part of the production to obtain samples and send them to
a laboratory for a granulometric analysis. This, in addition to causing production losses
due to stopped time, is not a representative measure due to the volume of transport that
the conveyor belts have.
The solution consists of a device together with online image processing software
that allows the determination of particle sizes with statistical significance for 2D images
from a 3D sample. Alternative technologies based on images, X-ray diffraction, and laser
diffraction have been developed for particle size measurement at a range below 50 mm,
which is not the required range for primary to tertiary crushing. In addition, commercial
devices such as CAMSIZER or QCPIC are for bench-scale applications. A complete review
of particle size technologies is described in [26].
This solution contemplates a set of image analysis processing techniques, separated
into independent phases. This makes it possible to analyze and quantify the quality in each
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 3 of 16

Minerals 2021, 11, 581 3 of 15

This solution contemplates a set of image analysis processing techniques, separated
into independent phases. This makes it possible to analyze and quantify the quality in
each
phasephase in such
in such a waya that,
way if
that, if an adjustment
an adjustment is required
is required at anyatpoint
any point
in thein the process,
process, it
it is not
is not necessary to modify the entire algorithm; only the variable which controls
necessary to modify the entire algorithm; only the variable which controls that phase isthat phase
is altered,
altered, allowing
allowing a change
a change inin the
the overall
overall result.
result.

2.
2. Materials
Materials and
and Methodology
Methodology
2.1. Software
2.1. Software and
and Hardware
Hardware Tools
Tools Used
The main
The mainsoftware
softwaretool toolused
usedwas wasMATLAB
MATLABR2008a R2008a(The
(TheMathWorks,
MathWorks,PortolaPortolaValley,
Valley,
CA,USA),
CA, USA),version
version7.6.0.12063a,
7.6.0.12063a, “Toolbox”
“Toolbox” (The
(The MathWorks,
MathWorks, Portola
Portola Valley,
Valley, CA,CA,
USA)USA)
for
for image processing version 6.1, and “Toolbox” for image acquisition
image processing version 6.1, and “Toolbox” for image acquisition 3.1. The operating sys- 3.1. The operating
system
tem usedused
waswas Microsoft
Microsoft Windows
Windows XP (Microsoft,
XP (Microsoft, Redmond,
Redmond, Washington,
Washington, DC, USA)
DC, USA) Pro-
Professional
fessional version
version 5.1.804013
5.1.804013 SP3.SP3.
Within the
Within the laboratory
laboratory hardware,
hardware, an an Intel
Intel Pentium
Pentium core
core 22 processor
processor with with aa 2.2
2.2 GHZ
GHZ
clock frequency
clock frequency was was included,
included,withwith2 2GB GBofof DDR3
DDR3 RAMRAMmemory
memory with a 600
with MHZ
a 600 bus. bus.
MHZ The
hard drive was 160 GB with a speed of 7200
The hard drive was 160 GB with a speed of 7200 RPM SATA. RPM SATA.
For taking
For takingand andtesting,
testing,ananIntel
Intel Pentium
Pentium III III processor
processor withwith a clock
a clock frequency
frequency of
of 600
600 MHz, 128 Mb of RAM, and a 10 GB hard drive was used.
MHz, 128 Mb of RAM, and a 10 GB hard drive was used. The standard USB 1.1 port was The standard USB 1.1 port
was used
used to connect
to connect the cameras
the cameras (IP camera
(IP camera 1024 1024 p, shutter
p, shutter speedspeed
1/2000 1/2000
s). s).
The system
The system is is composed
composed of ofaasetsetofofstages,
stages,where
where each
eachof of
themthemis analyzed
is analyzedindepen-
inde-
pendently, allowing quantifying and analyzing the advantages and disadvantagesitsofuse.
dently, allowing quantifying and analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of its
In Figure
use. 1, a general
In Figure diagram
1, a general of the of
diagram proposed segmentation
the proposed processprocess
segmentation is presented, without
is presented,
specifically
without considering
specifically the filtersthe
considering tofilters
be used to in
be each
usedstage.
in each stage.

Figure 1. General segmentation process.

Figure 1. General segmentation process.
In addition to analyzing the different strategies for each of the stages, two segmen-
In addition were
tation methods to analyzing the different
developed, used for strategies
the process forofeach
eachofof
the stages,
them [27].two
Thesegmenta-
first was
tion methods
composed were developed,
by using used forand
the Canny method, thethe
process
secondofmethod
each of used
themthe[27]. The firsttrans-
watershed was
composed
form. Theby using thebetween
difference Canny method, and the second
the procedures lies in method
the edgeused the watershed
detection methodtrans-
to be
used since,
form. in the case
The difference of Canny,
between theitprocedures
is necessary toin
lies perform
the edge derivative
detectionoperations
method totobeobtainused
the regions
since, in the with particles.
case of Canny, Onit isthe other hand,
necessary in the case
to perform of the operations
derivative watershed to transform,
obtain the it
is necessary to carry out a procedure that eliminates the noise appended
regions with particles. On the other hand, in the case of the watershed transform, it is to the binary
image product
necessary of the
to carry out selected
a procedurethreshold level [28].the
that eliminates There
noise areappended
different to
types
the of noiseimage
binary in an
image, such
product asselected
of the Gaussian, impulsive,
threshold frequency,
level andare
[28]. There multiplicative
different types noise [29], which
of noise makes
in an image,
reduction
such difficult.impulsive, frequency, and multiplicative noise [29], which makes re-
as Gaussian,
duction difficult.
2.2. Processing and Noise Reduction
It has been
2.2. Processing experimentally
and Noise Reductiondetermined that the median filter [30] has a better perfor-
mance compared to the Gaussiandetermined
It has been experimentally filter and the average
that filter, mainly
the median due
filter [30] to athe
has elimination
better perfor-
of a large part of the noise, in addition to preserving the edges of the particles,
mance compared to the Gaussian filter and the average filter, mainly due to the elimina- as seen in
Figure 2.
tion of a large part of the noise, in addition to preserving the edges of the particles, as seen
in Figure 2.
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 4 of 15
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 4 of 16

(e) (f) (g)

Figure 2. (a) Original image; (b) application of 3 × 3 median filter; (c) application of 9 × 9 Gaussian filter with σ = 1; (d)
Figure 2. (a)application
Originalofimage; (b) application
9 × 9 average of 3 ×images
filter; (e–g) binarized 3 median
(using filter; (c) application
Otssu algorithm) of 9by×subtraction
and contour 9 Gaussian filter with σ = 1;
of original
of 9 × 9 average filter; (e–g) binarized images (using Otssu algorithm) and contour by subtraction of
image.
(d) application
original image.

In Figure 2b, the median filter is applied, using the original image, shown in Figure 2a,
as the input image, observing that the edges of the structures are not preserved (Figure 2e).
The Gaussian filter is used in Figure 2c, where the blurring of the particles is combined with
the surrounding regions, determining the possible edges of particles (Figure 2e). Finally, in
Figure 2d, the application of the average filter (9 × 9 window) depicts clear borders. The
Figure 2e–g are binarized images (using Otssu algorithm) from Figure 2a–c respectively.
 Minerals 2021, 11, 581 5 of 16

In Figure 2b, the median filter is applied, using the original image, shown in Figure
2a, as the input image, observing that the edges of the structures are not preserved (Figure
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 2e). The Gaussian filter is used in Figure 2c, where the blurring of the particles is combined 5 of 15
with the surrounding regions, determining the possible edges of particles (Figure 2e). Fi-
nally, in Figure 2d, the application of the average filter (9 × 9 window) depicts clear bor-
ders. The Figure 2e,f and g are binarized images (using Otssu algorithm) from Figure 2a–
c respectively.
2.3. Edge Detection
2.3.1. Sobel
2.3. Edge Operator
Detection
2.3.1. Sobel Operator
The Sobel operator is a discrete differential that calculates an approximation to the
The Sobel
gradient operator
of the is a discrete
intensity differential
function of anthat calculates
image. As itan can
approximation
be seen in to Figure
the 3b, applying
gradient of the intensity function of an image. As it can be seen in Figure 3b, applying the
the Sobel operator to Figure 3a is not sufficient for edge detection. While it denotes easily
Sobel operator to Figure 3a is not sufficient for edge detection. While it denotes easily
visible edges
visible edges moremore vividly,
vividly, it also it alsoedges
shows showsthatedges
are the that
resultare the result
of noise, of the
drift, and noise, drift, and the
irregular shape
irregular shape of of
thethe image.
image. With With theofhelp
the help of the minimum
the minimum eliminationelimination
operation to-operation together
getherthe
with withSobel
the Sobel function,ititis
function, is possible
possible toto
eliminate areasareas
eliminate wherewhere
hypothetical parti-
hypothetical particles will
cles will not be found.
not be found.

Figure (a)(a)
Figure 3.3. Original
Original image;
image; (b) application
(b) application of the Sobelof the Sobel
operator in (a).operator in (a).

2.3.2. Canny
2.3.2. CannyOperator
Operator
The Canny method more accurately detects the edges of structures because it is less
The Canny method more accurately detects the edges of structures because it is less
sensitive to noise since it uses a Gaussian filter to reduce it. However, it generates many
sensitive
open edges,to noise
which since
is why it isitnecessary
uses a Gaussian
to carry out filter to reduce
the dilation, filling, it.
andHowever,
erosion pro-it generates many
open edges,
cess. Before whichthe
applying is why
Canny it is necessary
operator on thetoimage,
carry unnecessary
out the dilation,
areas werefilling, and erosion process.
elimi-
Before
nated byapplying
multiplyingthethe Canny
binarization operator on theimage.
of the original image,Withunnecessary
the discretizedareasimage were
of eliminated by
Figure 4a and with
multiplying thethe 16 discrete values
binarization shown
of the in Figure
original 4b, the
image. resultthe
With is Figure 4c, whichimage of Figure 4a
discretized
allows the Canny operator to help find the edges of the particles. This results in Figure 4d,
and with the 16 discrete values shown in Figure 4b, the result is Figure 4c, which allows the
where an improvement in the detection of the edges is appreciated, in comparison to the
Canny
Gaussianoperator to help
filter and Otssu find the(Figure
binarization edges2g),of the particles.
as well Thisinresults
as a decrease in Figure
false edges or 4d, where an
improvement
those introduced by in noise.
the detection of the edges is appreciated, in comparison to the Gaussian
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 filter and Otssu binarization (Figure 2g), as well as a decrease in false edges or those
6 of 16
introduced by noise.

Figure
Figure (a) Original
4. (a)4.Original image;
image; (b) (b) discretized
discretized image;
image; (c) cropped (c) cropped
image; (d) Canny image; (d)
application. Canny application.

2.4. Cutting of Regions

Once the binarization and the detection of the edges have been obtained, the regions
of interest are generated, in which it is possible to find hypothetical particles. To do this,
the original binarized image shown in Figure 5a was smoothed, using the opening and
closing morphological operators, generating smoother edges, as seen in Figure 5b. This
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 6 of 15

Figure 4. (a) Original image; (b) discretized image; (c) cropped image; (d) Canny application.

2.4.
2.4.Cutting
CuttingofofRegions
Regions
Once
Once the binarizationand
the binarization andthe thedetection
detectionofofthe
theedges
edges have
have been
been obtained,
obtained, the
the regions
regions
of
of interest are generated, in which it is possible to find hypothetical particles. Todo
interest are generated, in which it is possible to find hypothetical particles. To dothis,
this,
the
the original
original binarized
binarizedimage
image shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 5a5a was
was smoothed,
smoothed, using
using the
the opening
opening and
and
closing
closingmorphological
morphologicaloperators,
operators,generating
generatingsmoother
smootheredges,
edges,asas seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 5b.
5b. This
This
operation
operationtends
tendstotoincrease
increase the
the internal
internal details
details of
of the
the threshold
threshold regions.
regions.

(a)Binary
Figure5.5.(a)
Figure Binaryimage;
image;(b)
(b)smoothed
smoothedbinary
binaryimage.
image.

As it can be appreciated in the red circles in Figure 5, the internal details are exalted for
As it can be appreciated in the red circles in Figure 5, the internal details are exalted
a better fit with the edges. Subsequently, this image was eroded, and the gaps were filled
for a better fit with the edges. Subsequently, this image was eroded, and the gaps were
(Figure 6a), in order to then expand the edges generated by Canny (Figure 4d) and subtract
Minerals 2021, 11, 581
filled (Figure 6a), in order to then expand the edges generated by Canny (Figure 4d)7and of 16
them from this image, generating regions in which it is possible to find the hypothetical
subtract them from this image, generating regions in which it is possible to find the hypo-
particles, as shown in Figure 6b.
thetical particles, as shown in Figure 6b.

Figure 6. (a) Filled and eroded image; (b) binary image subtraction and Canny’s dilated edge.
edge.

2.5. Elimination
2.5. Elimination of
of Over-Segmentation
Over-Segmentation
Gray scale images can
Gray scale images can be
be transformed
transformed into
into 3D
3D space.
space. InIn this
this type
type of
of image,
image, each
each pixel
pixel
is transformed into a 3D shape using its coordinate (x, y) as the position and its
is transformed into a 3D shape using its coordinate (x, y) as the position and its gray level gray level
as the
as the elevation. The 3D
elevation. The 3D representation
representation applied
applied to
to the
the original
original image
image (Figure
(Figure 4a)
4a) with
with aa
gray level between 0 and 255 can be seen in Figure 7. The areas that represent peaks are
gray level between 0 and 255 can be seen in Figure 7. The areas that represent peaks are
the regions
the regions where
where the
the hypothetical
hypothetical particles
particles can
can be
be found,
found, and
and the
the valleys
valleys or
or low
low areas
areas are
are
regions where
regions where there
there is
is no
no interest
interest for
for the
the meeting
meeting ofof particles.
particles. This
This interpretation
interpretation can
can be
be
used to eliminate over-segmentation, since, as seen in the peaks, there are also valleys, but
used to eliminate over-segmentation, since, as seen in the peaks, there are also valleys, but
they are clearly areas where it is possible to find a particle.
they are clearly areas where it is possible to find a particle.
 is transformed into a 3D shape using its coordinate (x, y) as the position and its gray level
as the elevation. The 3D representation applied to the original image (Figure 4a) with a
gray level between 0 and 255 can be seen in Figure 7. The areas that represent peaks are
the regions where the hypothetical particles can be found, and the valleys or low areas are
regions where there is no interest for the meeting of particles. This interpretation can be
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 7 of 15
used to eliminate over-segmentation, since, as seen in the peaks, there are also valleys, but
they are clearly areas where it is possible to find a particle.

3Drepresentation
Figure7.7.3D
Figure representationofofananimage.
image.

An Animage
imagecontains
containsmultiple
multiplelocal
localminimum
minimumorormaximum
maximumregions,
regions,butbutonly
onlyoneoneglobal
global
minimumand
minimum andmaximum.
maximum.These
Thesemaximum
maximumandandminimum
minimumvalues
valuesare
areused
usedfor
fora amorpho-
morpho-
logicalreconstruction,
logical reconstruction,segmenting
segmentingthetheimage
imagethrough
throughthe
thewatershed
watershedtransform.
transform.
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 To find these minima, the edges found by Sobel (Figure 8a, from Figure 3b) were 8used,
of 16
To find these minima, the edges found by Sobel (Figure 8a, from Figure 3b) were
and the image segmented by Canny (Figure 6b) was used as a mask, resulting
used, and the image segmented by Canny (Figure 6b) was used as a mask, resulting in in Figure 8b.
Figure 8b.

Figure
Figure 8.
8. (a)
(a) Sobel
Sobel image;
image; (b)
(b) image
image generated
generated by
by “imimposemin”.
“imimposemin”.

2.6. Watershed
Watershed Transform
After applying the edge detection and over-segmentation elimination methods, with
the search for minima, the watershed transform was applied. To To improve the performance
of the found regions, one of the advantages of this transform is that it only segments the
regions based on the images generated by the previous processes.
processes.
watershed transform
The watershed transform generates
generates regions
regions which
which are the limits or edges of the
“floods”
“floods” that
that it
it affects.
affects. AA clear
clear example
example can
can be
be seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 9b,
9b, where
where the
the transform
transform is
is
applied to Figure 9a, from Figure
applied to Figure 9a, from Figure 8b. 8b.
 After applying the edge detection and over-segmentation elimination methods, with
the search for minima, the watershed transform was applied. To improve the performance
of the found regions, one of the advantages of this transform is that it only segments the
regions based on the images generated by the previous processes.
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 The watershed transform generates regions which are the limits or edges of the 8 of 15
“floods” that it affects. A clear example can be seen in Figure 9b, where the transform is
applied to Figure 9a, from Figure 8b.

Figure
Figure 9. (a)
9. (a) Gradient
Gradient image;
image; (b) watershed
(b) watershed transform.
transform.

AsAs it can
it can be seen
be seen in Figure
in Figure 9b, there
9b, there is already
is already a first approximation
a first approximation of hypothetical
of hypothetical
particles.
particles. However,
However, it is itstill
is necessary
still necessary to determine,
to determine, in away,
in a better better
the way,
shapesthe
ofshapes
the of the
regions.
regions. ForFor
thisthis purpose,
purpose, the resulting
the resulting imageimage was complemented
was complemented (Figure
(Figure 9b), and the9b), and the
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 previous
previous segmented
segmented image
image waswassubtracted
subtracted (Figure 6a),6a),
(Figure generating newnew
generating regions with
regions 9 ofa16 a closer
with
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 9 of 16
closer approximation
approximation to the
to the hypotheticalparticles
hypothetical particles to
to be
becharacterized,
characterized, asas
shown
shownin Figure
in Figure 10b.
10b.

Figure
Figure10.
10.(a)(a)
Watershed result;
Watershed (b) subtraction
result; result.result.
(b) subtraction
Figure 10. (a) Watershed result; (b) subtraction result.
In
Inorder
orderto to
further refine
further the segmentation
refine process,process,
the segmentation the watershed transform was
the watershed ap-
transform was
pliedIn
to order
the to further
maxima refine
found inthe
the segmentation
image process,
resulting from the
thewatershed transform
subtraction (Figure was ap-
10b), in 10b), in
applied
plied to to the maxima found in the image resulting from the subtraction (Figure
order to the
know,maxima
with afound
wide in the image
margin, resultingregions
the probable from the subtraction
where (Figure
a possible 10b), in
hypothetical
ordertotoknow,
order know,withwith
a a wide
wide margin,
margin, the the probable
probable regions
regions where where
a a possible
possible hypothetical
hypothetical
particle can be found, as seen in Figure 11.
particlecan
particle canbebefound,
found,as as seen
seen in Figure
in Figure 11. 11.

Figure 11. Watershed segmentation to establish regions of possible particles.

Figure
Figure11.
11.Watershed
Watershedsegmentation to establish
segmentation regions
to establish of possible
regions particles.
of possible particles.
The resulting segmentation was multiplied with the previous resulting image (Figure
10b), The
Theresulting
and the finalsegmentation
resulting segmentation
segmentation was
was
was multiplied
multiplied
generated with thethe
towith previous
process resulting
previous the image
resulting
and extract (Figure
image (Figure 10b),
characteristic
10b), and the
and the final
properties final segmentation
segmentation
(Figure was
wasthem
12a), coloring generated
generated to process
to process
for better and extract
and extract
identification (Figurethe the characteristic
characteristic properties
12b).
properties (Figure 12a), coloring them for better identification (Figure 12b).
(Figure 12a), coloring them for better identification (Figure 12b).
 Figure 11. Watershed segmentation to establish regions of possible particles.

Minerals 2021, 11, 581 The resulting segmentation was multiplied with the previous resulting image (Figure 9 of 15
10b), and the final segmentation was generated to process and extract the characteristic
properties (Figure 12a), coloring them for better identification (Figure 12b).

12.(a)(a)Final
Figure12.
Figure Final segmentation
segmentation result;
result; (b) colorized
(b) colorized imageimage fordetail.
for better better detail.
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 10 of 16

2.7. Property Extraction

Once each of the hypothetical particle regions was segmented and extracted, we
2.7. Property Extraction
proceeded to extract the characteristic properties of each of these regions. To do this, the
Once each of the hypothetical particle regions was segmented and extracted, we pro-
“region props” function was used, which was implemented in the Matlab image analysis
ceeded to extract the characteristic properties of each of these regions. To do this, the “re-
“Toolbox”. Each of these characteristics returns one or more values that correspond to the
gion props” function was used, which was implemented in the Matlab image analysis
measurements
“Toolbox”. Eachcarried
of these out, providing
characteristics the pixels
returns one or as a reference.
more values thatIn addition,toeach
correspond the of these
measurements is multiplied by a conversion factor which indicates the measurement
measurements carried out, providing the pixels as a reference. In addition, each of these to be
calculated
measurementsby the number of
is multiplied bypixels.
a conversion factor which indicates the measurement to
be calculated by the number of pixels.
2.8. Comparison Strategy
2.8. Comparison Strategy problem when proposing algorithms that perform image processing
A quite complex
A quite
is to have complex problem
a quantitative when proposing
measurement algorithms
of their that perform
performance, image
not only processing
in terms of processing
is to which
time, have a can
quantitative measurement
be a relevant of their
factor, but alsoperformance,
in terms of thenot quality
only in terms
of theof pro-
processing.
cessing time, which
In addition, can be a relevant
segregation occursfactor,
whilebut also in terms
particles of the qualityas
are transported, ofathe pro-
consequence of
cessing.
the conveyor belt vibrations. This phenomenon is well known from plant experience, and
In addition, segregation occurs while particles are transported, as a consequence of
itthe
hasconveyor
recentlybelt
been modeled
vibrations. and
This studied [31].
phenomenon Thisknown
is well particle
from segregation settlesand
plant experience, down small
particle
it has recently been modeled and studied [31]. This particle segregation settles down smallFigure 13.
sizes, while larger particles emerge to the surface of the bed, as shown in
This biassizes,
particle in the sampling
while procedure
larger particles emerge(2Dtoimaging)
the surface oversamples
of the bed, aslarge
shownparticles.
in Figure This bias
allows
13. Thisabias
better characterization
in the sampling procedure of larger particles,
(2D imaging) which islarge
oversamples the main objective
particles. This of the
bias allows ain
technology, better characterization
order of larger particles,
to detect classification failureswhich is the main
(screening) andobjective
to reduceof the
subsequent
technology, in
operational order to detect
problems classification
downstream duefailures (screening)
to particle and to
plunging inreduce subsequentor tertiary
the secondary
operational
crushing stage. problems downstream due to particle plunging in the secondary or tertiary
crushing stage.

Figure 13. Manual marking on a conveyor belt (the width of the conveyor belt is represented in
Figure 13. Manual marking on a conveyor belt (the width of the conveyor belt is represented in
blue arrow).
blue arrow).
The problem validation is, fundamentally, in having something to compare the per-
formance with, that is, an ideal of the treated image, since, as shown many times, that does
not exist unless a person conducts it manually, for example, marking with a specific color
in the case of touching objects, as shown in Figure 13.
Figure 13 represents the conveyor belt in operation. To evaluate the performance
 Minerals 2021, 11, 581 10 of 15

The problem validation is, fundamentally, in having something to compare the perfor-
mance with, that is, an ideal of the treated image, since, as shown many times, that does
not exist unless a person conducts it manually, for example, marking with a specific color
in the case of touching objects, as shown in Figure 13.
Figure 13 represents the conveyor belt in operation. To evaluate the performance
achieved by the segmentation, it is measured by classifying 2 classes of tests that help
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 measure the performance of the system [30]. These classes are constituted by the11set of
of 16
segmented regions with defects, and those free of defects or that are regular; for this, the
“sensitivity” and “1-specificity” tests must be determined.
• ForFalse
FP: each positives.
of the comparison cases,
The number ofitpoints
is expected
wheretoa obtain
particlethe following:
was found but it should
• FP:have
not Falsebeen.
positives. The number of points where a particle was found but it should
• not have been.
FN: False negatives. The number of points where a particle was not found but it
• FN: False
should havenegatives.
been. The number of points where a particle was not found but it
• should have been.
VP: True positives. The number of points in successful particles.
•• VP:True
VN: True negatives.
positives. The
The number
number of
of points
pointsin successful
that particles.
are not part of a particle but are cor-
• VN: True
rectly negatives. The number of points that are not part of a particle but are
detected.
correctly detected.
These four parameters were used to conduct the sensitivity test, where its equation
is: These four parameters were used to conduct the sensitivity test, where its equation is:

𝑉𝑃
VP
S𝑆n𝑛== (1)
(1)
𝑉𝑃+
VP +FN
𝐹𝑁
Additionally,
Additionally,for
forthe
the“1-specificity”
“1-specificity”test,
test,the
therepresentative
representativeequation
equationis:
is:
𝐹𝑃
1 − 𝑆 = FP (2)
1 − S p𝑝= 𝑉𝑁 + 𝐹𝑃 (2)
V N + FP
The first of the Sn indicators takes the value 1 in the case of recognition of all particle
points,The
andfirst
0 inofthe Sn indicators
thecase takes theany
of not recognizing value 1 in the
particle case of
points. recognition
This indicator of all particle
shows if the
particles that are being searched were found or not, that is, it provides a measure forifthe
points, and 0 in the case of not recognizing any particle points. This indicator shows the
particles that are being searched were found or not, that is, it provides a
sensitivity of the algorithm that is being measured to the test case that is being applied. measure for the
sensitivity of the algorithm
The indicator 1 − Sp takesthat
theisvalue
being0measured
in the casetoof
thea test caserecognition
perfect that is being
ofapplied.
the edge
1 − S
points, varying up to 1 in the case of detecting any false positives correctly. Unlike the
The indicator p takes the value 0 in the case of a perfect recognition of edge
the first
points, varying up to 1 in the case of detecting any false positives correctly. Unlike the first
indicator, this shows the relative number of points that failed to be detected as edge
indicator, this shows the relative number of points that failed to be detected as edge points,
points, that is, it shows the precision of an algorithm in the test case that it is measuring.
that is, it shows the precision of an algorithm in the test case that it is measuring.
This way of comparing can be questioned since, as shown many times, an algorithm,
This way of comparing can be questioned since, as shown many times, an algorithm,
in general, tends to partially fail, or, sometimes, it is not totally successful but works badly
in general, tends to partially fail, or, sometimes, it is not totally successful but works badly
in parts. In any case, this way of comparing is a practical and repeatable technique.
in parts. In any case, this way of comparing is a practical and repeatable technique.
Figure 14 presents an example of the comparison method used to calculate the vari-
Figure 14 presents an example of the comparison method used to calculate the vari-
ables VP, VN, FP, and FN. In this way, the “sensitivity” and “1-specificity” can be calcu-
ables VP, VN, FP, and FN. In this way, the “sensitivity” and “1-specificity” can be calculated
lated when the values of each pixel of the two images are analyzed, and the comparison
when the values of each pixel of the two images are analyzed, and the comparison can
can be conducted.
be conducted.

Figure14.
Figure Representationofofthe
14.Representation thedifferences
differencesbetween
betweenideal
idealand
andsegmented
segmentedimages.
images.

2.9. Industrial testing

During the commercial validation period, an ANALITA sample prototype was in-
stalled to analyze the material carried by the conveyor belt E-135 of the secondary and
 Minerals 2021, 11, 581 11 of 15

2.9. Industrial testing

During the commercial validation period, an ANALITA sample prototype was in-
stalled to analyze the material carried by the conveyor belt E-135 of the secondary and
rals 2021, 11, 581 tertiary crushing plant. This belt is the intermediate point between the 2 12 crushers;
of 16 therefore,
it is an important point of reference on the size and quality of the transported material.
It is worth mentioning that the tests were conducted with an old USB 1.0 data com-
munication
However, for test analysis, standard, which does
it is sufficient to seenot
theprovide
behaviorallofthe
thefeatures
sensor inthat its successors bring.
industrial
sites. However, for test analysis, it is sufficient to see the behavior of the sensor in industrial sites.
Around of
Around 215 samples 215photographic
samples of photographic
images wereimages were
taken for taken of
a period for30a min,
period of 30 min, which
which
provided an average material of 300 tons, as seen in Figure 15,
provided an average material of 300 tons, as seen in Figure 15, which were analyzed and which were analyzed and
compared with the curves of the percentage passing
compared with the curves of the percentage passing by weight of such belt. by weight of such belt.

Figure 15. Sample

Figure 15. Sample belt
belt images.
images. (a)
(a) and
and (b)
(b) represent
represent different
differentimage
imagesamples
samplesof
ofthe
thetotal
totalof
of215.
215.

The revision of the tests carried out made it possible to formulate the observations
The revision of the tests carried out made it possible to formulate the observations
detailed in the following points.
detailed in the following points.
2.10. Global Observations of the Test
2.10. Global Observations of the Test
The tests were compared against the results of historical samples, since, due to the
The tests were
very compared
nature againstoperation,
of the mining the resultsit of
washistorical samples,
not possible since,
to obtain duecontrast
a real to the of the same
very nature of the mining
analyzed operation,
material it was not possible to obtain a real contrast of the
(counter-sample).
same analyzed material (counter-sample).
It should be mentioned that the test methods differ in the way of obtaining the different
It should be mentioned
classes of material, that the test
mainly methods
because differ
of the in the way
sampling method of obtaining
with Tylerthe dif- Although
meshes.
ferent classesthey
of material, mainly because of the sampling method with Tyler meshes.
classify the material according to a diameter established by each type of mesh, its Alt-
hough they classify the material
representation according
of the passingtopercentage
a diameteris established
based on by theeach type
total of mesh,
weight of the particles,
its representation of the
retained passing
by said mesh,percentage
contrary to is based
how the onclassification
the total weight of the particles,
is conducted by means of image
retained by said mesh,since
analysis, contrary tocarried
this is how theout classification
with respect is to
conducted
the amount by means
that is of image by a certain
retained
analysis, since thiswith
limit, is carried out with
the number respect
of total to the amount
particles. that of
For reasons is retained
the densityby of
a certain
the material under
limit, with the number
study, of totalobtained
the results particles.vary
For according
reasons oftothe thedensity
margins of of
thethis.
material under
study, the results Toobtained
determine varythe
according to the margins
distributions, 2 differentof this.
classification methods were carried out.
To determine the characteristic
First, the distributions, size
2 different classification
that defines the ISOmethods
standardwere carried out. sizes was
for granulometric
First, the characteristic size that and
taken as a reference, defines the ISO percentages
the passing standard forwere granulometric sizes was
counted according to the amount
taken as a reference,
under that andsizethewith
passing percentages
respect were
to the total counted
amount accordingFor
of particles. to the
the amount
second method, the
percentiles
under that size were to
with respect counted,
the totaland the corresponding
amount of particles. Forsizesthe
were derived.
second method, the
The tests were carried out together
percentiles were counted, and the corresponding sizes were derived.with the same conveyor belt, without extracting
The testsdata from
were the control
carried room orwith
out together otherthePLC (programmable
same conveyor belt, logic controller)
without control equipment.
extracting
data from the control room or other PLC (programmable logic controller) control equip-
ment. 3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Rosin Rammler Model Fitting
3. Results and Discussions
From a sequence of images collected from the conveyor belt (Figure 15), particles
were detected
3.1. Rosin Rammler based on the algorithm proposed in this communication. The detection
Model Fitting
From a sequence of images collected from the conveyor belt (Figure 15), particles
were detected based on the algorithm proposed in this communication. The detection ac-
curacy is 60–67%, as described and analyzed in Section 3.3. Geometrical properties were
determined for each detected particle, and size classification for the maximum length was
 Minerals 2021, 11, 581 12 of 15

Minerals 2021, 11, 581

accuracy is 60–67%, as described and analyzed in Section 3.3. Geometrical properties 13 of 16
were
determined for each detected particle, and size classification for the maximum length was
performed based on the geometric progression (Tyler mesh), with a size between 2000 and
100,000 microns. The particle size distribution was obtained by adjusting a mathematical
modelmodel
representing the phenomenology
representing of the crushing
the phenomenology process. process.
of the crushing The RosinTheRammler
Rosin dis-
Rammler
tribution model is the most accurate model for comminution processes in the case
distribution model is the most accurate model for comminution processes in the case of of large
particle sizes
large (crushers).
particle The modelThe
sizes (crushers). wasmodel
adjusted
wasby applying
adjusted minimumminimum
by applying least squares
least to
squares
the residual (model and maximum particle length frequency). The results for two
to the residual (model and maximum particle length frequency). The results for two types of types
crushing stages (shown
of crushing stages in Figurein15)
(shown are plotted
Figure 15) arein Figurein16.
plotted Figure 16.

FigureFigure 16. (a) Granulometric

16. (a) Granulometric curves curves of samples.
of samples. (b) Sensor
(b) Sensor curve. curve. For images
For images shown shown in Figure
in Figure 15. 15.

From this plot, the precision of the adjusted model shows that particle detection and
From this plot, the precision of the adjusted model shows that particle detection and
classification correspond to a phenomenon of particle comminution. The mean adjusting
classification correspond to a phenomenon of particle comminution. The mean adjusting
error in Figure 16a is 1.6%, while in Figure 16b, it is 4.8%. The deviation in the range of
error in Figure 16a is 1.6%, while in Figure 16b, it is 4.8%. The deviation in the range of
small particles, under 6000 microns, is a consequence of the limited detection capability for
small particles, under 6000 microns, is a consequence of the limited detection capability
6.35 mm particles. The lower detection capability can be fixed by increasing the camera
for 6.35 mm particles. The lower detection capability can be fixed by increasing the camera
resolution. However, the main objective of this technology is to detect large particles sizes,
resolution. However, the main objective of this technology is to detect large particles sizes,
not the whole distribution. In this case, for large particles, the error of model fitting is lower
not the whole distribution. In this case, for large particles, the error of model fitting is
and suitable for application in troubleshooting detection.
lower and suitable for application in troubleshooting detection.
3.2. Statistical Analysis
3.2. Statistical Analysis
As it can be seen in Table 1, the correlation analysis of Analita vs. the sample average
As it can be
reaches seen in Table
a correlation 1, the correlation
of 99.71% within the analysis
100% and of20%
Analita vs. which
range, the sample
showsaverage
a very good
reaches a correlation
precision in sizeofdeterminations
99.71% within the 100%
within and
that 20% range, which shows a very good
range.
precision in size determinations within that range.
Table 1. Correlation between % passing weight and % passing amount.
Table 1. Correlation between % passing weight and % passing amount.
- Analita Sample Average
- Analita Sample Average
Analita 1 -
Analita
Sample Average 1 0.99 - 1
Sample Average 0.99 1

To verify the reliability of the correlations, an analysis of variance was performed

To verify the reliability of the correlations, an analysis of variance was performed to
to determine if there are differential effects between the Tyler mesh method and Analita
determine if there are differential effects between the Tyler mesh method and Analita im-
image analysis. It can be seen in Table 2 that the value obtained for the F statistic is less
age analysis. It can be seen in Table 2 that the value obtained for the F statistic is less than
than its critical error value (0.08 < 4.07), which shows that Analita is a valid method to
its critical error value (0.08 < 4.07), which shows that Analita is a valid method to deter-
determine the distribution of granulometric size particles.
mine the distribution of granulometric size particles.
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 13 of 15

Table 2. Analysis of variance.

Origin of Sum of Degrees of Average of Critical Value

F Probability
Variations Squares Freedom Squares for F
Between groups 0.01237656 1 0.01237656 0.08022357 0.77838609 4.07265366
Within groups 6.47958603 42 0.15427586 - - -
Total 6.49196259 43 - - - -

3.3. Performance Testing and Comparison

The class classification strategy [32] was used to measure sensor performance. For
this, a set of images of particles prepared and taken in the laboratory was used (samples 1
to 6). These were previously segmented and processed through Analita. Then, both were
compared, calculating each of the classification values, resulting in Table 3.

Table 3. Performance analysis in sensitivity and accuracy.

False Sensitivity
- False Positives True Negatives True Positives Accuracy (1 − Sp)
Negatives (Sn)
Sample 1 98,774 4628 56,848 152,058 60.62% 8%
Sample 2 69,703 2439 101,606 139,743 66.72% 2%
Sample 3 79,562 6817 81,159 149,043 65.20% 8%
Sample 4 84,110 5701 80,216 146,726 63.56% 7%
Sample 5 85,068 2181 65,858 160,609 65.37% 3%
Sample 6 149,874 0 68,333 94,618 38.70% 0%
Average 94,515 3628 75,670 140,466 60.03% 4.58%

On average, “Analita” has a detection sensitivity (accuracy) to particles of 60% in any

image, meaning it will be able to recognize an average of 60% of the particles. Additionally,
it has a maximum of almost 67%. Furthermore, the degree of precision of model fitting, on
average, is 4.6%, being in a better case 2%, as seen in sample 2.
These results are favorable for the algorithm since they allow the size of the particles
to be properly established. It is worth mentioning that sample 6 is an image produced on
a computer. When comparing this image, a worse result is appreciated compared to the
one taken from the camera, where it only reaches a sensitivity of 38.7%, but instead, it has
a perfect recognition of those particles, achieving a precision of 0% (perfect fit) due to no
false positive spots emerging.
With these data, it can be demonstrated that the system is capable of segmenting and
analyzing 60% of the particles captured by the images.

4. Conclusions and Future Remarks

A hardware and software system for online measurement of particle size distribution
based on image analysis was developed and implemented. This analyzer was created
by separating the process into stages, such as image acquisition and enhancement, noise
reduction and processing, edge detection, region cutting, over-segmentation elimination,
watershed transform application, and property characterization, which were finally used
to create the size distribution. The prototype and software demonstrated the technical
feasibility of using this system in industry. Tests were carried out that showed that the
sensor manages to be a suitable tool for particle size analysis.
With the comparison and performance strategy procedure, it was obtained as a result
that the sensitivity, that is, the average amount of particles that the analyzer manages to
detect in an image, is 60% of the particle area, and the precision (model fitting) is 5%. The
analyzer was validated at a mining company of Chile, where an average error of 4.78%
was obtained when the Rosin Rambler model was adjusted. Nevertheless, with the Rosin
Rammler modeling method, this error was reduced to 1.61% for a coarse material; therefore,
this device can be used to determine size distributions on conveyor belts. In addition to
Minerals 2021, 11, 581 14 of 15

this, the most appropriate algorithms could be established to reduce noise, improve the
contour of the particles, and optimize the segmentation time through Matlab software.
This system also presents an opportunity for the use of machine learning or deep learn-
ing, which would substantially improve its performance and would have the advantage of
not needing such repeated adjustments.

Author Contributions: D.C. was responsible for the data collected and the data cleaning. D.C.
and C.A. were responsible for the selection and the validation of parameters used on the model’s
generation, D.C. and C.L. was responsible for the pre-processing and the validation and interpretation
of results. All authors contributed to the design of the experimental design and writing and reviewing
the final manuscript All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: All raw data remain the property of the university that allowed this
study. The input data used to support the findings of this study are available from the correspondent
author’s email with appropriate justification.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Universidad Católica del Norte and 2030 Project for the
material support provided and their collaboration with this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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