Material Science of Steels

Chapter 5 and 6: Toughness, Materials Damage and Fracture

Univ. Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Ulrich Krupp

Topics
I. Strength 1: Stress-strain diagram
II. Strength 2: Flow curves and anisotropy
III. Strengthening Mechanisms 1
IV. Strengthening Mechanisms 2
V. Toughness and Fracture behaviour
VI. Materials damage and toughness analysis
VII. Cyclic load
VIII. Material behaviour at high temperatures
IX. Cold formability
X. Economic significance of the material steel
XI. Lifecycle Assessment of steel products
XII. Fabrication of steel products: Hot strip processing
Topics
VI. Toughness, materials damage and fracture
1. Examples
2. Ductile and brittle fracture
3. Introduction Fracture Mechanics
4. Critical stress intensity facture – fracture toughness
5. The J integral
6. Fatigue crack propagation
7. Case study – threshold stress intensity range and the Kitagawa diagram
Structural Integrity Concepts Today

neglection of:
• cyclic deformation and fatigue crack
initiation,
• microcracks due to processing.

experience based material requirements:

Viaduc de Millau:
pylons of steel • max. stresses << yield stress
• ductile material behavior

stress analyis:
conclusions:
• stress limitation within the
structure, • conservative design – heavy weight and
not sustainable
• avoid plastic deformation: • quantitative damage assessment
smax < Rel!
required!!

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Liberty ships

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Boiler exposlion

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ICE accident in Eschede (June 1998)
polygonsiation and fatigue

residual
fracture

crack initiation Richard et al. Proc. ICF11 Turin CD ROM

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De Havilland Comet

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Point Pleasant Bridge (1967/West Virginia)

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Aloha accident

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14

Titanic

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Titanic desaster
due to brittle
steel?

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Titanic – steel analysis

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Ductile and brittle failure

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Intercrystalline fracture due to P

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Hydrogen-induced intercrystalline failure

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Transcyrstalline Cleavage

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21

Cottrell model for cleavage

• slipband intersection in one grain

• new dislocations due to applied stresss s
• merging of dislocations causes clevage of (001) plane

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Higher and lower shelf

cohesive strength
sT ≠ f(T)
cleavage brittle fracture with
plastic deformation
sT brittle fracture dimple fracture
without plastic
deformation

yield strength Re

temperature
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Temperature dependence of fracture mechanism

microscopic cohesive strength

stress

yield strength ReL / technical yield point Rp0.2

transition
temperature Ti
temperature

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24

Mechanism of ductile failure

stage 1:
pore formation due to
dislocation reactions at
hard microstructure
constituents or triple points

stage 2:
pore growth

stage 3:
pore coalescence =>
microcrack
crack propagation

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25

Mechanisms of pore coalescence

secondary pores between shear bands between coalescence of

primary pores primary pores primary pores
at hard particles due to strain localization

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26

Influence of purity level

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Fractography: tensile test

Al, Ca, S, O

Al, Ca, S, O
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Identification of pore-forming microstructure constituents
1000000
Number of
M/A-
100000 constituents
Number of Number of
per mm2
carbide secondary
precipitates voids
log (Nomber per mm )

10000 per mm2

2

per mm2

1000

Number of
100 primary
Number of voids
inclusions per mm2
10 (>11 mm)
per mm2

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Fractography: Si precipitates in cast Al alloys

20µm

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Fractography: UFG Al alloy (AA5083)

200nm

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Introduction: Fracture Mechanics
• stress distribution around elliptical hole
• maximum tangential stress

• flat ellipse: (a/b) = 10

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 21𝜎

• circular hole: a = b
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3𝜎

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Introduction: Fracture Mechanics
Stress field at crack tip according to GRIFFITHsche (SNEDDON 1946):
1 𝜑 𝜑 3𝜑
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐾𝐼 cos 1 − sin sin
2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2
1 𝜑 𝜑 3𝜑
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐾𝐼 cos 1 + sin sin
2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2
1 𝜑 𝜑 3𝜑
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝐾𝐼 cos sin cos
2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2
1
singularity
𝑟

𝐾𝐼 = 𝜎 𝜋𝑎

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Crack opening modes

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Crack propagation according to Griffith (1)
s
• assumption: stress s leads to elastic deformation only
• the elastic strain due to crack propagation
results in energy release We
  s2  a
WE 
E
• crack propagation results in the generation of
2a newsurfaces. this requires the energy W0
benötigt:
W0  4  a   0
s

Crack propagation,
if energy release is higher than the required surface energy

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36

Crack propagation according to Griffith (1)

dWE dW0
condition for crack propagation:: 
da da

s    a  2  0  E

Accordingly, the stress intensity factor K is

defined as:
a
K s   a  f  
W 

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Stress intensity factors

Interpolation for mode I stress intensity factors:

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Stress intensity factors

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Stress intensity factors

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40
Fracture Toughness nickel
alloys
titanium
(critical stress intensity steel
alloys
copper
factor for alloys
rupture)
aluminum
alloys

fracture toughness KIc

cast iron

wood
engng
polymers ceramics

polymer
foam concrete

yield strength

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Critical stress intensity factor KIC (fracture toughness)
load
loading rate:
1
0,55 𝑏𝑖𝑠 2,75 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚
𝑠
expansion
given:
W = 50mm
B = 25mm
a= 25mm

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Critical stress intensity factor KIC (fracture toughness)

Summary –KIc according to ASTM E 399:

1) dimensioning – specimen thickness criterium:

2
𝐾𝐼𝑐
𝐵 ≥ 2,5
𝑅𝑝0,2
estimation of KIc or literature survey or Rp0,2 / E

2) fatigue pre-crack

fatigue precrack

plastic zone Kfmax / E ≤ 0,0032 m0,5

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 Critical stress intensity factor KIC (fracture toughness)

Summary –KIc according to ASTM E 399:

force F

1
0,55 … . 2,75 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚
𝑠

starter notch fatigue pre-crack rupture

displacement v

𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3
𝑎ത =
3
Δ𝑎 < 0,1 𝑎ത
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Critical stress intensity factor KIC (fracture toughness)

Summary –KIc according to ASTM E 399:

4) check requirements for a valid KIc-value

a) check, if plane strain conditions are fulfilled
2
𝐾𝑄
𝐵, 𝑎 ≥ 2,5 not fulfilled? repeat test with  B*1,5
𝑅𝑝0,2
b) check symmetry of fatigue pre-crack
c) check stress intensity at fatigue pre-craclk
𝐾𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≤ 0,6 ∙ 𝐾𝑄
5) report

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Application of the critical stress intensity factor KIC (fracture toughness)

material

pr
K Ic  s aY s 
2t
leackage before fracture criterion?
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Elastic-plastic fracture mechanics – The J integral
s
if plastic zone size at crack tip exceed a certain limit, then
 s 2  a 2
WE 
E
is not valid any more, since s induces also plastic
deformation.
2a KIC-value is not valid!

s
path-independent J integral
 u 
J   W  dy  Tn  ds 

x 

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Conversion J integral to K

 
2 2
K KI
plane stress:J  plane strain: J  1  2
(ESZ) E (EVZ) E
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Yielding fracture mechnics

Stretch zone:

SZWc = critical stretch zone width

SZHc = critical stretch zone height

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Crack resistance curve

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J integral – single specimen method

crack length determination by multiple unloading

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Yielding fracture mechanics – single specimen approach

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The J integral – single specimen approach
𝑁
𝐽𝑄 = 𝐽𝐼𝐶 = 122
𝑚𝑚

𝐽 = 𝐴 ∙ Δ𝑎 𝐵

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Fließbruchmechanik
Fatigue crack propagation da/dN

Δ𝐾 = Δ𝜎 ∙ 𝜋 ∙ 𝑎 ∙Y

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐼,𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅= =
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐾𝐼,𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑑𝑎 𝑚
= 𝐶𝑃 ∙ Δ𝐾𝐼 𝑃
𝑑𝑁
2
∆𝐾𝑡ℎ
𝑎𝑐 =
𝜋 ∙ 𝜎 2 ∙ 𝑌𝐼2

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