Traditional Methods of Irrigation

In this method, irrigation is done manually. Here, a farmer pulls out water from
wells or canals by himself or using cattle and carries to farming fields. This method
can vary in different regions.
The main advantage of this method is that it is cheap. But its efficiency is poor
because of the uneven distribution of water.  Also, the chances of water loss are
very high.
Some examples of the traditional system are pulley system, lever system, chain
pump. Among these, the pump system is the most common and used widely.
1. Describe the different types of indigenous irrigation methods in you
locality and how to increase the irrigation command area.
Ans:
Irrigation is the process of applying water to the crops artificially to fulfil their
water requirements.

Methods of Irrigation
Irrigation can be carried out by two different methods:

 Traditional Methods
 Modern Methods
Paddy, Jute, Mustard, Sugarcane and Grass pea are mainly cultivated in our
Gopalganj region. Irrigation system mainly requires for paddy production.
Irrigation of the land is mainly done with the help of motor pumps. First a tube
well is placed. Then a motor pump is connected to the tube well. From there the
water is extracted and supplied to the land through drains or pipes. Two types of
drains are used there. One is made of clay and the other is made of concrete.
However, farmers mostly use concrete drains. This is because a lot of water is
wasted and the cost is high in clay drains. However, farmers are now more inclined
towards polythene pipes. The amount of water wasted in polythene pipes is almost
zero. That is why it is being used more now. Irrigation is also applied to the land
by pumping water from rivers or canals. Most of the vegetables grown in our area
are on the banks of the river. Where irrigation water is applied to the land manually
from the river. Lots of vegetables are grown in the backyard or on the land next to
the house. Where water is irrigated manually with the help of water from tube
wells.
2.  Explain the different steps of irrigation canal design.
Ans:
Steps of irrigation canal design:
1. Determine the area of the cross sections from the continuity equation.

Q = AV or A= Q/V

2. Determine the hydraulic radius R from the Manning formula.

1
V= n R2/3 S1/2
Slope s and n are normally given.

3. Determine the wetted perimeter from the relation.

P= A/R

4. Determine the depth, D and bed width B from the values of A and P obtained
above

By solving equations given below.

A= (B+ZD)D
P=B+2D√ (1+Z2)
Solve and obtain values of b and d
3. Explain the characteristics curves of a centrifugal pump.
Ans:
Characteristics curves of a centrifugal pump:
Centrifugal pumps have well defined operating properties which vary with the type
of pump, manufacturer and model. These properties are expressed as characteristic
curves. These curves, also known as performance curves, show the inter-
relationship between capacity, head, power and efficiency of a pump at a given
speed. A knowledge of the pump characteristics enables the selection of a pump
which is best adapted to a particular set of conditions, thus obtaining high value of
efficiency at a low operating cost. To illustrate the performance of a pump, it is
usual to plot the head, the power input and efficiency as ordinates against the
capacity as abscissa, at a constant pump speed (Fig.1). The net positive-suction
head, when shown, is also plotted as ordinate (Fig.1). About 6 to 12 values are
taken during a pump test to plot the points. Smooth curves are drawn, joining the
points.

Head-Capacity Curve
The head-capacity curve (Fig.1) shows how much water the pump will deliver at a
given head. As the discharge increases, the head decreases. Thus, the curve will dip
downward to the right. When a pump is operated against a closed valve, the head
generated is referred to as the shut-off head. The efficiency of the pump at this
point is zero as there is no discharge, but the pump requires energy to drive.

Efficiency-Capacity Curve
The efficiency-capacity curve (Fig.1) shows the relationship between the
efficiency and the capacity of a pump. The efficiency may be observed to increase
from 0, when the discharge is 0, to a maxi mum, and then decrease. There is
generally only one peak efficiency, which is related to a specific capacity.
Efficiencies vary with the type of pump, manufacturer and model.

Fig.1 Typical characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump

Input Power-Discharge Curve
The input power is referred to as the brake horse power required to drive a pump.
The curve is, therefore, commonly called bhp-Q curve (Fig. 1). The brake horse
power for a centrifugal pump increases as the discharge increases, reaching a peak
at a somewhat higher rate of discharge than that which produces the maximum
efficiency. The nature of the curve varies with the speed of the pump. Hence, the
optimum operating speed must be considered while selecting a pump to obtain
high efficiency.

Net Positive Suction Head Versus Discharge Curve

The net positive suction head required versus discharge curve is known as
NPSHR-Q curve (Fig. 1). The NPSHR is the amount of energy required to move
the water into the eye of the impeller. It is a function of the pump speed, impeller
shape, liquid properties and discharge rate. If the energy is not sufficient to move
the water into the eye of the impeller, the liquid will vaporize and cavitation will
occur. The net positive suction head available must be more than the net positive
suction head required

(NPSHR). Sometimes this curve is missing from the set of characteristic curves
supplied by the manufacturers. In such cases, the requirement of the net positive
suction head may be ascertained from the manufacturer.

Usually, curves showing different characteristics are plotted on the same graph
(Fig. 2). Often, several curves representing different pump speeds or impeller
diameters are drawn on the same graph.
 Fig.2 Typical characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump

4. Explain the different types of flood mitigation measures.

Ans:
Structural Mitigation Strategies:

Levees: A levee is an embankment constructed by engineers out of organic

materials such as earth and stone, in order to prevent the flooding from a free
flowing body of water in a specific location such as a residential community.

Flood walls: Flood walls are constructed out of materials such as concrete or steel
in order to control the flow of flood waters and prevent the flooding of specific
areas.

Fills: A fill is an area of land dug out usually behind a levee in order to capture
excess flood waters and prevent flood damage to human structures.

Dams: The primary purpose of this structure unlike a levee is to retain water, not
to manage flood water. A dam can produce hydroelectricity as well as regulate
water levels by opening and closing the retaining doors.
Reservoirs: The man-made lakes produced as a result of the creation of a dam
which can slow the flow of the river downstream. Furthermore, a reservoir can be
used for fresh water for a community as well as a preserve for fish and wildlife.

Reducing bed roughness: This method of mitigation smooths the bed of the river,
which allows for the river to flow faster and reduces the likelihood of a flood.

Altering stream channels: This strategy is similar to reducing the river bed's
roughness. It additionally creates a "V" in the river's bottom. This deepens, as well
as increases, the speed of the river, reducing the risk of flooding because the water
flows away from the floodplain areas quicker.

Non-Structural Mitigation Strategies:

Land use planning and zoning tools: Local municipalities can institute zoning
laws in their comprehensive plans in order to prevent development of residential
and commercial properties in high risk flood prone areas. This planning can further
restrict where buildings can be constructed, as well as if these buildings must be
flood-proofed. Flood-proofing is a process that involves raising the foundation of
the building, berms, flood walls, and/or sealant in order to prevent or reduce the
damages inflicted from flood waters. Lastly, local municipalities can impose
eminent domain upon a landowner if their property has been deemed as a high
recurrence property.

Education: Homeowners and renters need to educate themselves before moving

into a new home to determine if their home is in a floodplain area. This link will
give you access to Federal Emergency Management Administration's (FEMA)
Map Service Center. By identifying if your potential home is in a floodplain area,
you can decrease your risk of being a flood victim.

Environmentally sensitive area protection: Areas such as wetlands can be

protected by locally by preventing development in those areas. Furthermore,
through the use of eminent domain, a local area can reclaim areas and return them
to their natural states.
Flood forecasting and warning methods: By using methods, such as a stream
gauge, local officials can determine whether or not a river or creek will flood based
on the level of the water and how quickly it is rising.

Planning: By a local municipality creating a comprehensive and all hazard

mitigation plan, communities can reduce the risk of flood damages to property and
life. These plans can be very extensive.