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IMPACT OF DIETARY PATTERNS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF

ZIMBABWEAN COLLEGE STUDENTS

by

MOLYN MPOFU

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION IN CURRICULUM STUDIES

in the

DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF VENDA

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University of Venda

PROMOTER: PROF. A. P. KUTAME

CO-PROMOTERS

DR H.N. MUTSHAENI

PROF. L.L. MALIWICHI

2015

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DECLARATION OF OATH

I declare that this thesis entitled, "IMPACT OF DIETARY PATTERNS ON

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF ZIMBABWEAN COLLEGE STUDENTS", is my
own work and has not been submitted in any form for another degree or diploma at
any university or other institution of tertiary education. All sources that have been
used or quoted derived from published or unpublished work of others have been
indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.

Signature ____________________________Date

(Molyn Mpofu)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to thank the Almighty God. I say 'Ebenezer' thus far the Lord has
taken me. I stood by Proverbs 16 verse 3 that says, "Commit your works to the LORD
and your plans will be established."

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my promoter, Prof. A.P. Kutame for the
continuous support of my Ph.D. study, for his patience, motivation and immense
knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this
thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my Ph.D.
study.

I would also like to thank my co-promoters: Dr. N.H. Mutshaeni and Prof. L.L.
Maliwichi who have been my emotional anchors through not only the walk of my
studies, but my entire life. Without their precious support it would have not been
possible to complete this research.

I place on record, my sincere thank you to the Univen Research Directorate and
Work Study for the financial and moral support. The Dean of the School of Education,
Dr. M.P. Mulaudzi and the entire staff for the sincere and valuable guidance and
encouragement extended to me.

I would like to extend my innermost appreciation for the support I received from the
Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development in
Zimbabwe. The Principal of J.M. Nkomo Polytechnic Dr. N. Moyo for her
encouragement and support, and I remember her farewell gesture to me, "A
successful young lady" and I believed her words would one day come to pass.

Loving thanks to my sister Visi Muriel Mbulaheni, for the stimulating discussions, the
sleepless nights we worked together before deadlines and for all the fun we have had
in the last three years.

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To my lovely sisters Locadia Manwa and Sithulisiwe Bhebhe, who played such
important roles along the journey, as we mutually engaged in making sense of the
various challenges we faced and in providing encouragement to each other at those
times when it seemed impossible to continue.

I thank my fellow mates, Trenance Khoza, Mr N. Khoza, Buyisani Dube and M.

Chiweshe, who were always there for me. I would not have made it without their
support.

I would like to thank my family; my mother, my husband and my two lovely sons
Tinomuwongaishe Tawanda Mpofu and Tadiwanashe Winslow Zanamwe for
supporting me spiritually throughout the writing of this thesis and my life in general.

Last but not the least, I would like to thank my family, The Family Covenant Church
and our dear father, Bishop H. Muzhari and Pastor E. Muzhari, you indeed picked us
up from the dung hill. Shalom.

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DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to the following people:

 my son, Tadiwanashe Winslow Zanamwe, who has grown into a

wonderful 5 year old in spite of his mother spending so much time away from
him working on this thesis.

 my son, Tinomuvongaishe Tawanda Mpofu, for being such an

encouraging voice.

 my husband, Learnmore Zanamwe, has been proud and supportive of

my work and who has shared the many uncertainties, challenges and
sacrifices for completing this thesis

 my mother, Mary Chingowo, who has been my role-model for hard

work, persistence and personal sacrifices and who instilled in me the
inspiration to set high goals and the confidence to achieve them

 my sister, Locadia Manwa, who stood by me in every area of my

life throughout this journey

 my dear son Khotso Liston Ncube for assisting me in many ways

throughout this study

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ABSTRACT:

College students in Zimbabwe were facing many challenges in adopting proper

dietary patterns which promote learning. This study sought to establish the impact of
Socio-Economic factors and dietary patterns in particular on the academic
performance of college students in Zimbabwe. The study established challenges that
were faced by college students in making choices of dietary patterns that promote
learning. Factors that influence choice of dietary patterns for college students were
established in this study. The case study was Joshua Mqabuko Nkomo Polytechnic
College in Zimbabwe with a population of 206 students and a sample of 102
participants was purposively selected. A mixed-methods research, using quantitative
and qualitative approaches was employed and questionnaires, interviews,
observation and document analysis were used to collect data. Findings are presented
from both questionnaire and interview data in combination, with interview data playing
the role of supplementing quantitative findings and probing detailed information.
Quantitative data was analysed using the IBM SPSS Version 23.0 while qualitative
data was coded into themes and synthesised into quantitative data to support or
refute quantitative data. Research indicates that diet quality and overall health status
of college students are among the prominent factors which contribute to poor student
academic performance worldwide. The experiences and perceptions held by the
college students and cooks were investigated. The main study findings showed that if
students follow proper dietary patterns they may perform well in their studies since
relationship between nutrition and academic work lies on the notion that a healthy
body is able to maintain a healthy mind, which suggests that certain risk factors for a
physically ill-health are also risk factors for cognitive impairment. This study made
recommendations for dietary patterns that promote learning in academic domains. It
also developed a model valuable for dietary patterns.

Keywords: college students, dietary patterns, food consumption patterns, nutrition,

nutrients, academic performance

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ACRONYMS

B.M.I Body Mass Index

G.P.A Grade Point Average

H.E Home Economics

IPM Information Processing Model

JMN POLY Joshua Mqabuko Nkomo Polytechnic

Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and
MoHTESTD Technology
Development

U.N United Nations

U.S.A United States of America

WHO World Health Organization

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ITEM DESCRIPTION PAGE

Declaration of oath (i)

Acknowledgements (ii)

Dedication (iv)

Abstract (v)

Acronyms (vi)

Table of contents (vii)

Appendices (xix)

List of Tables (xxi)

List of Figures (xxiv)

CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION AND OVERVIEW OF THE

STUDY
1
1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Statement of the problem 4

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the study 5

1.4 Research questions 5

1.5 Definitions of key concepts 6

1.5.1 College students 6

1.5.2 Dietary patterns 6

1.5.3 Food consumption patterns 6

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1.5.4 Nutrition 6

1.5.5 Nutrients 7

1.5.6 Nutritional status 6

1.5.7 Academic performance 6

1.6 Research design and methodology 7

1.6.1 Research design 7

1.6.2 Research methodology 8

1.6.2.1 Population 8

1.6.2.2 Sampling strategies and sample 8

1.6.2.3 Instruments 9

1.6.2.4 Data collection procedures 9

1.6.2.5 Data analysis 9

1.7 Significance of the study 9

1.8 Delimitation of the study 10

1.9 Ethical consideration 10

1.10 The Research structure 10

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 12

2.1 Introduction 12

2.2 Theoretical framework 12

2.2.1 Human needs theory 13

2.2.2 Vygotsky's socio-cultural need for achievement theory 14

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2.2.3 Information-Processing Model (IPM) 14

2.3 Explaining diet and nutrition 15

2.3.1 Healthy diet 15

2.3.2 Dietary guidelines 17

2.3.3 Considerations of dietary guidelines 17

2.3.3.1 Age 17

2.3.3.2 Physical activity 18

2.4 Food groups and their functions 20

2.4.1 Starchy foods (Cereals, breads and grains) 20

2.4.2 Meat, fish, eggs and nuts 20

2.4.2.1 Beef 21

2.4.2.2 Chicken 22

2.4.2.3 Fish 22

2.4.2.4 Beans 22

2.4.2.5 Nuts 23

2.4.3 Fats, oils and sweets 23

2.4.4 Milk and milk products 24

2.4.5 Fruits 24

2.4.6 Vegetables 25

2.5 Factors that influence students' food consumption patterns 25

2.5.1 Biological factors that influence food consumption patterns 26

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2.5.1.1 Hunger and satiety 26

2.5.1.2 Palatability 27

2.5.1.3 Taste 27

2.5.2 Economic influences 28

2.5.2.1 Family monthly income and cost of food 28

2.5.2.2 National food security 28

2.5.3 Physical influences 29

2.5.3.1 Accessibility 29

2.5.3.2 Education-Awareness of nutritional requirements 29

2.5.4 Socio-cultural influences 35

2.5.4.1 Culture 35

2.5.4.2 Family factors 38

2.5.4.3 Peers 38

2.5.4.4 Meal patterns 39

2.5.4.5 Meal planning 40

2.5.4.6 Social setting 41

2.5.5 Psychological influences 42

2.5.5.1 Stress and role overload 42

2.5.5.2 Mood 48

2.5.5.3 Influence of environment on college students' food 49

consumption patterns.

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2.5.5.4 Importance of good nutrition for college students 49

2.5.5.5 Nutrition for the College Student 50

2.6 Considerations when making food choices 50

2.6.1 Cost of food 50

2.6.2 Food availability 51

2.7 Nutrition disorders 51

2.7.1 Malnutrition 51

2.7.2 Weight gain and obesity 52

2.7.3 Nutrition deficiencies 53

2.8 Relationship of dietary patterns and learning (Nutrition and 54

brain function)

2.9 Availability of systems to cater for students' nutritional needs to 58

support their learning

2.10 Students' dietary patterns and the effects of nutrition on their 60
learning
2.11 Factors that Affect the Nutritional Requirements of an 63

Individual.
2.12 Conclusion 64

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 65

3.1 Introduction 65

3.2 Research design 66

3.3 Research methodology 66

3.3.1 Population 67

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ITEM DESCRIPTION PAGE

3.3.2 PHASE 1: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD 67

3.3.2.1 Sampling strategies and sample 67

3.3.2.2 Quantitative data collection procedures 69

3.3.3 PHASE 2: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD 72

3.3.3.1 Sampling strategies and sample 72

3.3.3.2 Qualitative data collection procedures 73

3.4 Training Research Assistants 78

3.5 Data triangulation 79

3.6 Trustworthiness of the study 79

3.6.1 Credibility 79

3.6.2 Conformability 80

3.7 Delimitation of the study 81

3.8 Ethical consideration 81

3.9 Significance of the study 82

3.10 Conclusion 83

CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND 84

DISCUSSION
4.1 Introduction 84

4.2 Demographic data 84

4.2.1 Age 85

4.2.2 Sex distribution 86

4.2.3 Residential accommodation 87

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4.2.4 Religion 88

4.2.5 Home background 89

4.2.6 Family monthly income 90

4.2.7 Body Mass Index (BMI) 92

4.2.8 Physical activity 94

4.2.9 Nutrition knowledge 95

4.3 Food consumption patterns followed by college students 96

4.3.1 Nutrient Intake 96

4.3.2 Food Frequency 98

4.3.2.1 Consumption of fats, oils and sweets 98

4.3.2.2 Consumption of starchy foods (Cereals, breads and grains) 99

4.3.2.3 Consumption of Meat, fish, eggs and nuts 101

4.3.2.4 Consumption of milk and milk products 104

4.3.2.5 Consumption of vegetables 105

4.3.2.6 Consumption of fruits 106

4.3.2.7 Water intake per day 107

4.3.3 Eating Patterns 108

4.3.3.1 Access to favourite meals 109

4.3.3.2 Favourite meal constitutions 110

4.3.3.3 Number of meals taken per day during the week 111

4.3.3.4 Number of meals taken during weekends. 113

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4.4 Factors that influence college students' food consumption 113

patterns

4.4.1 Influential factors of food consumption patterns 114

4.4.2 Inconsistent standard feeding times among resident students 115

negatively influenced students' food consumption patterns
4.4.3 Religious beliefs influenced food consumption patterns for 117
some students.

4.4.4 Study related stress led to disorganised and erratic feeding 119
schedules among both resident and non-resident student.
4.4.5 Unplanned haphazard food consumption patterns for non- 122
resident students.

4.4.5.1 Availability of funds 123

4.4.5.2 Health consideration 123

4.4.5.3 Lack of nutrition knowledge 125

4.4.6 Comment about the prices of your favourite meals 125

4.4.7 Food provision 126

4.4.8 Meal planning 127

4.5 Impact of dietary patterns on academic performance of college 130

students
4.5.1 Relationships of food nutrients and academic performance 131

4.5.2 Students' perceptions on impact of dietary patterns on their 137

academic performance
4.5.2.1 Do you feel the same when you go for class having had 137
breakfast and when you have not?
4.5.3 Rank order of factors attributed to academic performance 139

4.5.4 Inadequate food supply 140

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