Building Services Full Notes PDF

Unit-1.
0
Water Supply System
Objectives of water supply
 To reduce the water borne disease in the community.
 To provide adequate quantity of water for different purpose.
 To make water throughout the year.
 To provide water within easy reach so that journey required for the collection of work is
easy.
 To provide kitchen gardening and animal husbandry.
 To provide reliable water supply
In total, the objective of water supply is to provide sufficient quantity of water as per the
requirement with reasonable quality even in the worse situation as far as possible. To do this the
cost should be economical and water should be available in safe and reliable way to the
community.
Impacts of Water supply

These are two types of impact due to water supply system
Immediate impacts
* Fetching time is saved
*Mitigation of disease
*Planned cities
* Improves Economy
*From existance of life to the
recreation purposes(from
Positive Immediate problems to
impacts Daily household and industrial
purposes)
Long term impacts

Impacts of water *Increases the socio-economic
condition of people
*Increases the living standard of
people
*Reduces downstream water and

affects the aquatic life.
Negative *Decreases the GWT
impacts
*May creates conflict among the
users in the downstream due to lack
of quantity of water.
*Problem of water logging and vector
breading if there is no proper
drainage facility
Class note Building Services Page 1

Need to protect water supply
Over the past decade, human access to drinking water has been gradually increasing. Overall
water coverage in Nepal is reported to be 82%, which reflects a 9% increase in the five-year
period from 2001 to 2006 (NDHS 2001 and NDHS 2006).This suggests an average growth in
water coverage of 1.8%per annum. However, the National Demographic Health Survey reports
that the proportion of people who spend over 15 minutes a day fetching water is 34%. This is
similar to Water Aid in Nepal's (WAN) estimate done in 2004. WAN contends that water
coverage is 48%, if a reasonable water fetching time (15 minutes) is factored into the calculation.
However, it cannot be assumed that this 48% have access to safe water. The proportion of people
who consume water without household treatment (e.g., boiling) is as low as 15%.
Next to the air, the other important requirement for human life to exist is water. Water is available
in various forms such as rivers, lake, streams etc. The earliest civilizations organized on the banks
of major river systems and required water for drinking, bathing, cooking etc. But with the
advancement of civilization the utility of water enormously increased and now such a stage has
come that without well organized public water supply scheme, it is impossible to run the present
civic life and the develop the towns. The importance of water from only a quantity viewpoint was
recognized from the earliest days and the importance of quality come to be recognized gradually
in the later days. The earliest recorded knowledge of water quality and its treatment are found in
Sanskrit literature “Sushuri Sanhita” compiled about 2000 B.C. It deals with storage of drinking
water in copper vessels, exposure to sunlight, filtering through charcoal, sand etc.
The correlation between water quality and incidence of diseases was first established in 1849 by
Dr. John snow when cholera appeared in London during the summer and 14,600 deaths were
reported. But Dr. snow unable to convince the authorities and public with the evidence of
available data. The water borne diseases like typhoid, dysentery, cholera etc the concept of water
borne diseases was well accepted by 1900.
Protected water supply means the supply of water that is treated to remove the impurities and
made safe to public health. Water may be polluted by physical and bacterial agents. Water is also
good carrier of disease causing germs. The causes of outbreak of epidemics are traced to pollute
water and poor sanitation hospital is continued to be flooded with the sick due to ignorance about
health continues to be profound. However during the last few decades, improvements in the
public health
Protection by supplying safe water and sanitation to all the people in the developing countries. In
1977, united nations declare to launch a movement known as “HEALTH FOR ALL BY THE
YEAR 2000 A.D.” Pure and whole some water is to be supplied to the community alone can bring
down the morbidity rates. Due to the following causes water should be protect.
Importance and necessity of water supply system:
 For household purposes such as drinking, cooking, washing, bathing etc.
 For watering of lawns and gardens
 For heating and air-conditioning purposes.
 For growing of crops.
 For street washing
 For fire fighting.
 For recreation in swimming pools, fountains and cascades.
 For hydropower, steam power and various industrial processes.
 For transporting sewage, cleaning of surrounding and environment.
 For developing animal husbandry.

Components of water supply project:
There are four components of water supply project or water supply scheme.
 Collection works:
In collection works, water is collected from the source. There are two major source of water.
Surface water and ground water. In order to collect surface water, dams and barrages are
constructed whereas to collect ground water, tube wells are used.
 Treatment works:
In treatment works, water obtained through the source is treated. Most of the surface water need
treatment as it is contaminated by suspended particles. Ground water may or may not need
treatment. One of the problems with ground water is high salt concentration. It is more expensive
to treat this. In such case surface water is used, when ground water contains high
salt concentration. Ground water may also contain elements like iron, magnesium.
If collected water is contaminated with pathogens, it must be treated to kill the germs. So
treatment works may or may not be the part of water supply project.
 Transmission works:
If source of water is away from the community, transmission work is required to transport water
the treatment plant and then the treated water from treatment plant to the community. In some
cases, transmission work may be eliminated.
 Distribution works:
In Distribution works, treated water is supplied to the consumers at the point of use from
overhead tanks.
Following two requirements should be fulfilled while distribute water to the community:
i. Quantity of water must be sufficient according to demand.

ii. Pressure should be sufficient.
Water supply and Public Health:

Water is the key factor which predominantly affects the health situation of the people. Number of
infectious diseases will be spread in the community if there is not appropriate facility of water
supply and bad management of sanitary. Most of the diseases are outbreaks via water. They may
be the following types -
1. Water borne diseases: - are caused by pathogenic organism, which spread through water
supplies (contaminated or faecal). Some important water borne diseases are –Typhoid,
Paratyphoid, Diarrheas, Hepatitis, Dysentery etc.These disease may be further grouped as-
a) Bacterial diseases: i) Typhoid fever: caused by bacterium salmonella typhi.
ii) Paratyphoid fever: Due to ingestion of contaminated food specially
milk, frozen eggs and other dairy products. Caused by bacterium
Salmonella paratyphoid A, B or C
iii) Cholera: caused by bacterium vibrio cholera.
iv) Bacillary Dysentery: Due to ingestion of food contaminated by flies
etc.
b) Protozoal diseases: i) Amoebiasis ii. Amoebic dysentery
Caused by protozon entamoeba histolytica. Lives in human large intestine forming cyst.

C) Virus diseases: Poliovirus, Coxsakie virus etc.
d) Worm diseases.
2. Water washed diseases: - Due to lack of water for personal hygiene. Ex-Scabies, Trachoma.
3. Water based diseases: Diseases transmitted by aquatic animals. E.g. Bilharzias, Guinea worm,
Lung flukes.
4. Water vector: Infection spread by insects that lives or depends on water. Malaria, Yellow
fever, Hookworm etc.
Apart from these there are number of other diseases which may cause health hazard to the people
so proper supply of water with sufficient quantity as well as good quality of water is needed for
the betterment of public health. While supplying the water to the community care should be taken
in all the water works including collection to distribution system. Sustainable improvement in
health and well being for people water consumption at household level should increase with
increased level of quality as well as better sanitary facility.

Chapter—2.0
Introduction to water Sources
For Water supply scheme, the first task is selection of source of water. The sources of water
should be such that may provide adequate quantity of water. Availability of water from the source
should be at least equal to the demand. Availability of water from the source which is either
surface or ground finally depends upon the rainfall. Hence source of water supply scheme should
be such that it provides adequate quantity of water even in severe draught condition.
The various sources of water available on the earth can be classified in to the following two
categories.
1. Surface sources & 2. Underground sources
1. Surface sources: -
 Rivers
 Lakes
 Ponds
 Streams
 Impounded reservoir
 Oceans, generally not used for water supply at present.
 Fog water, rain water harvesting and reclaimed water (not in
syllabus)
2. Underground Sources: -
 springs
 Infiltration galleries
 Wells
Before starting the explanation of all of above sources let us discuss about certain terms.
Definition of certain terms commonly used in this chapter.
Rainfall and Runoff: - Precipitation is caused by external dynamic cooling of air with moisture
at higher altitude. All water sources receive their supply of water from the precipitation. It is the
primary sources of all water available on the earth and includes rainfall, snow, hail and sleet. The
water of precipitation further goes off in the following ways.
Runoff: - The net quantity of water which flows over the surface of ground when rainfall occurs.
The run-off in the rivers during storms is called flood runoff while the run off in the rivers due to
snow and seepage of underground water during dry weather is known as dry weather runoff.
Rainfall characterized by its intensity, duration and frequency. Rainfall is directly proportional to
rainfall characteristics. The drainage area characteristics include nature, topography, shape, size,
condition of area etc.
Runoff coefficient:- Is the ratio of surface runoff to the total rainfall on the area in the fixed
interval of times. The run off coefficient depends on the following factor.
Percolation: - A certain portion of water as it reaches on the surface of earth it penetrates in to the
ground known as percolation.
Evaporation:-some portion of precipitated eater gets evaporated from river, lakes, wet places in
the form of vapors due to sunlight.
Transpiration:-the phenomenon of water evaporating through vegetation is known as
transpiration. The amount of runoff depends on (1) rainfall characteristics and (2) Drainage
(catchment) area characteristics.
Aquifer: - an aquifer is a saturated bed or geologic formation which yields water is significant
quantity e.g. sand bed

Aquitard: - is semi pervious geology formation transmitting water at a very slow rate compared
to aquifer.
Aquiclude:- is a formation that may contain water but is incapable of transmitting significant
qualities e.g. clay bed.
Aquifuge: - is an impervious formation that neither contains nor transmits water e.g. granite,
basalt.
Unconfined aquifer: - is one in which groundwater possesses a free surface open to the
atmosphere.
Artesian aquifer :- (or Confined aquifer):-Ground water is confined under pressure by
overlaying & underlying aquitards or aquiclude

Surface sources: -
Surface sources are those sources of water in which the water flows over the surface of earth
hence directly available for water supplies. All sources can be categorized in to following.
1. River: - Rivers are born in the hills (mountains) hence they are the most important and
principal sources of water supply for large cities. These may be perennial or non perennial.
From non perennial sources, flood waters are stored in reservoirs constructing dams etc for use
during the lean period.
 Rivers water is not pure. It contains dissolved, suspended & colloidal impurities including
many pathogens while sewage is discharge into it. But river water has self-purification
action by which it automatically becomes clean after traveling certain distance. Generally
river water is contaminated hence need screening, sedimentation filtration and
chlorination.
2. Stream: - Streams are formed by surface runoff. Small streams are not suitable for water
supply scheme in large cities. Hence streams are widely used for rural water supply schemes
especially in highly areas. But larger and perennial types of streams are used for sources of
water in small cities by providing storage reservoirs, barrage etc across them.
The quality of water from stream is not so good hence need some sedimentation and chemical
treatments (in some extend) are needed.
3. Mountains and sometimes in plain Terai also natural depressed basins (large water bodies)
are formed. Rain water, stream water and spring waters are also get collected at these
besins.Large basins are used for water supply in big cities but in small basins the quantity of
water is inadequate hence can be used only for small cities or town. The quantity of water in
lake depends upon the basins capacity, catchment area porosity of ground annual rainfall etc.
The quantity of water in lake is comparatively more pure and doesn’t require treatment when
situated at high altitude.
4. Ponds: - Lakes are formed in hilly areas; likewise ponds are formed on plain areas where
rainwater is collected in rainy seasons. The quantity of water in pond is generally very small
and contains large amount of impurities. Hence pond water cannot be used for water supply
scheme but used for washing clothes animal bathing gardening purposes etc.
5. Impounded reservoir: - impounded reservoirs are the lake formed behind a dam or weir
constructed across the river. When the discharge of river is low during the dry seasons and
inadequate, for such situation, the surplus water during raining trapped by building dam.
Impounded reservoirs are the main source of water for large cities.
The impounded reservoirs are developed at such places on the river where submergence of
area on the upstream side is small and basins of reservoir formed ism cup shaped. Nowadays
multipurpose reservoirs are constructed for the provision of irrigation, power generation in

addition to water supply. The quality of water from reservoir is not pure hence needed full
treatment.
GROUND SOURCES: -
Ground water is obtained from precipitation on the earth surface, which gradually percolates to
the subsurface through porous strata or openings through rock formation. Water available from
wells, tube wells, infiltration galleries etc are called ground water. Ground water is drawn from
the aquifers.
As compared to the surface sources, ground water is relatively free from the pollutants and its
quality is more reliable.
The different sources of ground water are-
1. Spring Gravity spring

Non gravity spring
Under the gravity spring there are
Depression spring
Artesian spring
Surface spring
2. Wells Shallow wells

Deep wells
Artesian wells
Tube wells
3. Infiltration galleries
1. Spring: The natural outflow of ground water at the earth’s surface constitutes a spring. A
spring indicates outcropping of water table. Pervious layer sand witched between two impervious
layers give rise to a natural spring. The quantity of water from spring is generally low; hence it
couldn’t provide sufficient quantity of water for big cities. Certain springs sometimes discharges
hot water due to the presence of sulpher in them called hot springs.
Formation and types of springs: - Formed under three

general condition of geological formation.
 Depression Spring: when the ground water table rises
high it gets exposed to the surface where the topography
falls below the water table. Since the level of water table
varies from seasons to seasons, flow through such springs
also varies.
Artesian spring: In this type the underground water comes

to the surface under pressure (hydraulic) i.e. water flow
through some confined aquifer. Since water comes out
under pressure, they are provide higher yield and able to
provide almost uniform quantity of water.

 Surface spring: Sometimes impervious obstructions supporting the underground storage
becomes inclined causing rises to water table and gets
exposed to the ground surface.
Generally the quality of water through spring is pure and
need not any treatment plant. But sometimes present iron
and manganese.
 Non gravity springs are formed due to the volcanic eruption or earth quake.
2. Wells:-Wells is a hole usually vertical, excavated in the ground for bringing groundwater to the
surface. Generally there are three factors which control the development of wells. These are
a) Porosity & permeability of aquifers
b) Earth’s surface geology
c) Amount of water which is stored in different layers of the earth.
Wells can be classified into following four heads-
i) Shallow wells
ii) Deep wells
iii) Tube wells
iv) Artesian wells.
Shallow Wells: (open wells or dug wells):-are those types of wells which
get their water from the uppermost previous layer of the earth’s surface. They are generally dug
wells having diameter 2-6 meter Fig: Dug well
1. Up to depth 7m and soil is compacted type no need of lining.
2. Lining of well staining (thickness of staining wall 30-50 cm )
Sometimes also called draw wells
Quantity: - since water obtained from the uppermost layer, they provide only limited quantity of
water.
Quality: - since shallow wells draw water from the topmost water bearing stratum, its water is
liable to contaminated by the rain water.
Shallow wells sometimes also called gravity wells because the surface of water surrounding the
wells is at atmospheric Pressure.
Deep Well: - These wells get their water

from water bearing strata lying below
impervious layer. It is based on the principal
that percolates and finally reaches for the
well site. During travel it gets purified. It is
also known as pressure well.
Quality:-Deep water is safe and does not
require any treatment sometimes needed
hardness treatment.
Tube well: -
It is also a form of deep wells. To obtain large discharge mechanically, tube wells, a long pipe or
a tube is bored deep into the ground, intercepting one or more water bearing strata. Blind hollow
steel pipes and perforated steel pipes (strainer pipe) both are used in this well.

Tube wells have 5 to 20 cm diameter pipes. The quantity of water available from a tube well is
more than other types of wells. Discharge =40-50.00 e/sec. water obtained from tube wells is
generally safe and doesn’t require any purification.
Depth of tube wells depends on ---quality of water expected from the wells.
A) Strainer type Tube well:

It is the most common and widely used type of tube well in
which the combination of strainer pipes and blind pipes is
introduced into the ground. The pipes are so adjusted that the
strainer type pipe rest on the water bearing strata and blind pipe
on the impervious strata. The strainer consists of a fine wire
mess (or screen) wrapped round a slotted or perforated pipe with
a small angular space between the two. The water enters the
pipe through the wire mess and hence the sand particles having
size less than the mesh openings are prevented from entering.
The strainer type tube well is generally unsuitable for very fine
sandy strata due to the chances of chocking of the strainer.
The diameter of bore hole or casing pipe for a strainer type tube
well is generally kept 50 to 100 mm more than the diameter of
tubewell.After the casing pipe is removed the annular space
between the well and surrounding strata is backfilled with gravel.
B) Cavity type Tube well:

It consists of a pipe sunk into the ground and resting on the
bottom of a strong clay layer. It does not utilities strainers and
hence it draws its supplies from the bottom and not from the
sides as in the case of strainer type. In the initial stage of
pumping fine sands comes out with water and consequently a
cavity is formed at the bottom. The water from the aquifer
enters into the well through this cavity. As the pumping is
continued the spherical area of the cavity increases outward with
the result that the velocity of flow is reduced and consequently
the sand particles stop entering in to the tube.
C) Slotted type Tube well:

It consists of a pipe which is slotted for part of its length at one
end and for the rest of the length it is plain pipe. The slotted
portion of pipe is normally 5 m long and it penetrates the
confined aquifer. These slots are usually 25 to 30 mm and
spacing is around 10 to 12 mm.To prevent the entering of sand
particles it is surrounded by a mixture of gravel and coarse
sand (called shrouding).Shrouding should done before the
withdrawal of casing pipe and shrouding must extend upto 3 to 4
m above the top level of slotted portion of pipe. The diameter of
casing pipe is kept 200 to 250 mm more than the diameter of
well pipe.

D) Perforated type Tube well:
It is used if water table is shallow and for obtaining water for
temporarily. Pipes are drilled to make perforations and these holes are
covered by jute ropes or wires which act as strainer for preventing the
flow of sand particles.
Artesian Wells:-
In this well, there is no need of installation of pumps. Water flows out of automatically under
pressure. The velocity of flow depends upon the hydraulic pressure of water.
Artesian condition develops at a place where
a water bearing strata is enclosed between
two impervious layers in such a way that
hydraulic gradient line is above the ground
level at the site of wells.
Quantity is quite large also can be used for
irrigation purposes. The water obtain from
such well is quite safe and does not require
any purification. Mostly exists is valley
portion of hill.
Infiltration galleries:
-Are horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow depths (3-5m) along the bank
of river through water bearing strata. They are also called horizontal wells. They tunnels are
generally constructed of stone or brick masonry.
Their shape is generally circular or rectangular
and they are covered by graded sand and gravel.
Water enters into it through drain porous pipes.
The galleries are often constructed parallel to the
river bed.
The galleries are laid at some longitudinal slope
so that water collected into the galleries under
force of gravity. After coming from galleries it is
collected into the slump well, from where it is pumped, treated and distributed to the consumer.
Rain water Harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the capture, diversion, and storage of rainwater for a number of different
purposes including landscape irrigation, drinking and domestic use, aquifer recharge, and storm
water abatement. Rainwater harvesting is an ancient technique and in popularity due to the
inherent quality of rainwater and interest in reducing consumption of treated water. Rainwater is
valued for its purity and softness. It has a nearly neutral pH, and is free from disinfection by-
products, salts, minerals, and other natural and man-made contaminants.
Archeological evidence attests to the capture of rainwater as far back as 4,000 years ago, and the
concept of rainwater harvesting in China may date back 6,000 years. Ruins of cisterns built as
early as 2000 B.C. for storing runoff from hillsides for agricultural and domestic purposes are still
standing in Israel.
Advantages and benefits of rainwater harvesting are numerous

 The water is free; the only cost is for collection and use.
 The end use of harvested water is located close to the source, eliminating the need for
complex and costly distribution systems.
 Rainwater provides a water source when groundwater is unacceptable or unavailable, or it
can augment limited groundwater supplies.
 The zero hardness of rainwater helps prevent scale on appliances, extending their use.
 Rainwater is superior for landscape irrigation.
 Rainwater harvesting reduces flow to storm water drains and also reduces non-point
source pollution.
 Rainwater harvesting reduces consumers’ utility bills.
Basic Components
Regardless of the complexity of the system, the domestic rainwater harvesting system (Figure
below) comprises six basic components:
 Catchment surface: The collection surface from which rainfall runs off. The roof of a
building or house is the obvious first choice for catchment. For additional capacity, an
open-sided barn – called a rain barn or pole barn – can be built. Water quality from
different roof catchments is a function of the type of roof material, climatic conditions,
and the surrounding environment.
Fig: Catchment areas of three different roofs

 Gutters and downspouts: Channel water from the roof to the tank. Gutters are installed
to capture rainwater running off the eaves of a building. Some gutter installers can
provide continuous or seamless gutters. The most common materials for gutters and
downspouts are half-round PVC, vinyl, pipe, seamless aluminum, and galvanized steel.
Seamless aluminum gutters are usually installed and are more expensive than other
options. Regardless of material, other necessary components in addition to the horizontal
gutters are the drop outlet, which routes water from the gutters downward and at least two
45-degree elbows which allow the downspout pipe to snug to the side of the house.
Additional components include the hardware, brackets, and straps to fasten the gutters and
downspout to the fascia and the wall.
 Leaf screens, first-flush diverters, and roof washers: components which remove debris
and dust from the captured rainwater before it goes to the tank
 One or more storage tanks, also called cisterns. The storage tank is the most expensive
component of the rainwater harvesting system. The size of storage tank or cistern is
dictated by several variables: the rainwater supply (local precipitation), the demand, the
projected length of dry spells without rain, the catchment surface area, aesthetics,
personal preference, and budget. Fiberglass, wood, Polypropylene, metal, concrete,
Ferrocement etc can be used for storage of rain water.
a) Fiberglass b) Polypropylene
c) Wood d) Concrete
 Delivery system: gravity-fed or pumped to the end use
 Treatment/purification: for potable systems, filters and other methods to make the water
safe to drink.
Fig: Typical rainwater harvesting installation

Fog collection:
In general, fog brings us inconvenience to our daily life. However, have you ever thought of using
fog as an alternative water source? In fact, in some arid but foggy places, fog could serve as an
efficient water supply.
This innovative technology is based on the fact that water can be collected from fogs under
favorable climatic conditions. Fogs are defined as a mass of water vapor condensed into small
water droplets at, or just above, the Earth's surface. The small water droplets present in the fog
precipitate when they come in contact with objects. These fogs have the potential to provide an
alternative source of freshwater in dry region if harvested through the use of simple and low-cost
collection systems known as fog collectors. Research suggests that fog collectors work best in
coastal areas where the water can be harvested as the fog moves inland driven by the wind.
However, the technology could also potentially supply water for multiple uses in mountainous
areas should the water present in stratocumulus clouds, at altitudes of approximately 400 m to
1200 m, be harvested.
Fog or dew collection is an ancient practice. In South America’s Atacama Desert and in Egypt,
piles of stones were arranged so that condensation could trickle down the inside walls where it
was collected and then stored.
Fog collectors look like tall volleyball nets slung between two poles, but they are made of a
polypropylene or polyethylene mesh that is especially efficient at capturing water droplets. When
the fog rolls in, the tiny droplets of water cling to the mesh and as more and more cluster together,
they drip into a gutter below that channels the water to a water tank. Fog collectors, which can
also harvest rain and drizzle, are best suited to high-elevation arid and rural areas; they would not
work in cities because of the space constraints and water needs of an urban environment.
Harvested fog water meets the World Health Organization’s drinking water standards. Not only
do they supply ample drinking water, they provide enough water for villagers.
Experimental projects conducted in different location indicate that it is possible to harvest
between 5.3 l/m2/day and 13.4 l/m2/day depending on the location, season, and type of collection
system used.
Fog harvesting efficiencies were found to be highest during the spring and summer months and
lowest during the winter months. A minimum fog season duration of half a year might serve as a
guideline when considering the feasibility of using this technology for water supply purposes;
however, a detailed economic analysis to determine the minimum duration of the fog season that
would make this technology cost-effective should be made. In general, fog harvesting has been
found more efficient and more cost-effective in arid regions than other conventional systems.

Fog collectors tap a natural, atmospheric source of water that is often underestimated though
virtually limitless. The amount of water available from fog per meter squared of collection surface
is greater than that of rain water in many locations of Nepal. The fog water collection project in
Dhoje Danda, Dhankuta, produces over 600,000 liters of water per year, which is two times
greater than the demand of the small community.
Suitability
The following factors affect the volume of water that can be extracted from fogs and the
frequency with which the water can be harvested:
 Frequency of fog occurrence, which is a function of atmospheric pressure and circulation,
oceanic water temperature, and the presence of thermal inversions.
 Fog water content, which is a function of altitude, seasons and terrain features.
 Design of fog water collection system, which is a function of wind velocity and direction,
topographic conditions, and the materials used in the construction of the fog collector.
Advantages
 No energy is needed to operate the system or transport the water.
 Maintenance and repair requirements are generally minimal
 Capital investment and other costs are low in comparison with those of conventional sources
of potable water supply used, especially in mountainous regions.
 The water quality is better than from existing water sources used for agriculture and domestic
purposes.
Disadvantages
 This technology might represent a significant investment risk unless a pilot project is first
carried out to quantify the potential rate and yield that can be anticipated from the fog
harvesting rate and the seasonably of the fog of the area under consideration.
 If the harvesting area is not close to the point of use, the installation of the pipeline needed to
deliver the water can be very costly in areas of high topographic relief.
 The technology is very sensitive to changes in climatic conditions which could affect the water
content and frequency of occurrence of fogs; a backup water supply to be used during periods
of unfavorable climatic conditions is recommended.
Stone shower:
The source of water in the stone shower is groundwater through seepage and groundwater
infiltration.
Kathmandu's population relied on natural streams, ground water, wells, and stone spouts for
centuries before Nepal's exposure to the western world.
Stone spouts were the first systematic attempt to deliver clean drinking water some distance away
from its source. Stone spouts were introduced to the Valley during the Lichhavi period, in the
5th to 7th centuries. Mangaldhara of Patan is the oldest remaining stone spout in the Valley. Stone
spouts were built and still exist all over the country. Some are
still used to collect household water and as public bathing
spots. Stone and metal crafts evolved with the stone spouts as
new construction methods and designs were employed.
The Nepali government now states that it provides safe

drinking water to 70 percent of the population in rural areas
and 83 percent in urban areas. However, despite much
progress, a steady supply of uncontaminated drinking water is
far from the reality.

The traditional source of water in most of the town and villages of Nepal was primarily wells and
stone spouts. For bathing and laundry they use to go to the spouts or rivers in earlier time. Later
piped water service was available. The quantity of water to supply in big city and town is
inadequate in quantity and quality depends upon the sanitary condition of the surrounding
location.
Conservation Pond:
Ponds are an essential freshwater habitat for plants and animals. They play a central role in
maintaining high regional biodiversity. In addition, ponds have many other functions relating to
education, recreation, economy, hydrology, culture and aesthetics.
Natural and man-made ponds provide an enormous range of habitats for freshwater plants and
animals. Protecting these vulnerable ecosystems is a vital part of freshwater conservation. As
well as hundreds of common and widespread species, ponds provide a refuge for some of our
most endangered wetland plants, invertebrates and amphibians.
The critical step that will achieve this is making sure that ponds have clean water. If ponds have
poor water quality this:
• Significantly reduces the pond’s wildlife value
• Often creates long-term management problems means that ponds silt up faster
It has low levels of pollutants, particularly:
• Nutrients like nitrate and phosphate
• Heavy metals like copper and zinc
• Residues of man-made compounds like pesticides
Pollutants can get into a pond from many places, including stream and ditch inflows, runoff from
agricultural land, and roads and tracks. Once in a pond, these pollutants accumulate in water and
sediments, and can move between the two. This degrades the pond and its wildlife potential for
the long term.

To ensure ponds stay clean throughout their lifetime, locate ponds in catchments that are ‘natural’
areas like woodland, scrub, rough grassland or unimproved permanent pasture. Water sources for
ponds apart from rainwater, there are three main sources of water for ponds (Figure above):
(i) Surface water
(ii) Groundwater
(iii) Inflow streams, ditches or springs
Ponds may be fed by a combination of these water types and their relative importance can vary
during the year. In general, the cleanest water sources are (i) groundwater, and (ii) surface water
that drains from un-polluted areas.
Ponds with an inflow stream usually fill up quickly (figure below) than ponds without inflows fill
very slowly. The permanent water phase of 1 m deep pond can last well over 100 years.
Figure: Stream- fed ponds are short lived compared to ponds with no inflow (cases of Braitain)

Unit 3.0
Water supply system (Distribution system and house water plumbing)
Service connection
A service connection is a connection from distribution system to the consumer. A domestic
service connection consists of Brass or Bronze ferrule, goose neck, stops cock or curbs value,
mains service pipe and water meter.
1) Brass or Bronze ferrule: - A right angled sleeve made of brass or bronze is ferrule. It is joined
to an opening drilled in the water main and screened down with a plug. Ferrule is inserted in
the main, most usually an under pressure, connection which can be inserted without shutting
down the main. It size varies from 1 to 5 cm bore.
2) Goose neck: - Goose neck is provided to allow flexibility for the possible settlement,
displacement or change in length of pipe. This consists of 40 to 50 cm long curved piece of
flexible pipe made of brass, copper or lead. It prevents the breaking of the main service pipe
due to movement and provides flexibility at the function.
3) Saddle: it is used in place of ferrule for mains of AC or PVC pipes
4) Stop cock or curb valve: - Before service pipe enters the house premises, a stop cock called
curb value is provided. In case of non- payable of water bill and during repair and
maintenance these values are closed. A stop cock is felted by the house owner just inside the
boundary of house.
5) Communication pipes: It is a pipe taking off from the ferrule for the house connection. It is
owned and managed by the water supply authority. Communication pipe terminates at the
boundary of the consumers premises.
6) Main service pipe: - Service pipe is a pipe used for conveying water from a water main to the
building. It is subjected to water pressure and is usually connected to the water mains in the
street through ferrule. It may of various materials and its usual diameter varies from 12 to 40
mm.
7) Water meter: It is installed to measure the flow. It is an integrating meter that it records the
total flow upto the time of measurement. Generally 12.5 mm to 18.75mm rotary water meters
are installed either at the beginning or at the middle of the service pipe. A masonary pit is
constructed around it. It has facility of sealing by the water supply authority
Service pipe connections may be rigid or flexible. In the case of rigid, service pipe is directly
connected to the ferrule while for flexible, a bent lead brass or copper pipe about 60 cm long is
inserted between ferrule and service pipe.

Materials of service pipes and size of pipe –
Service Pipe:
The pipe extending from the street distribution main to the house or consumer’s meter is known
as service pipe Connections to the existing main are made by the water undertaker. The house or
building service pipe connection is made to the main and service pipe is run to a stop valve near to
the site boundary of the building to be served. The stop valve is situated either immediately
outside or inside the boundary. The purpose of the stop valve is to enable the water undertaker to
disconnect the water supply where there is a waste of water in the building served, or nonpayment
of water rate or charge.
Service pipe is further divided into.
→ Communication pipe: - Lies between the service main and the boundary of the premises.
→ Supply pipe: - Part of service pipe which is not a communication pipe.
→ Distribution pipe: - Any pipe conveying water from storage tank.
. The following materials are commonly used for service pipes.

i) Copper pipe or brass pipe.
ii) Galvanized iron either lined or unlined.
iii) Lead pipe
iv) Polythene pipes.
 Copper pipe :-
 It is non – corrosive with most water. It is used in better grade houses and where ground
water is highly corrosive to steel pipe.
 It has considerable strength, reasonable ductility and is obtainable in long lengths.
There are available in two forms.
a) Heavy gauge and b) light gauge.
Heavy gauge is used for high pressure work like in industrial. But where pressure doesn’t exceed
1.5 kg/cm2 and for internal domestic work, height gauge copper pipe are used.
 G.I. pipe :-
 Are used where water is suitable.
 Corrode more readily in soft and acid water but they are stronger and can be used in hard
water area when they withstand the hammering needed to remove the scale.
 Lead pipe :-
 Highly resistance to corrosion.
 Highly flexible.
 High hydraulic coefficient of flow.
 Due to cumulative poisoning effect, when goes in solution, it is not preferred.
 Polythene pipe :-
 Are used in internally and externally for cold water service pipe only.
 It is lower in cost.
 It is non – corrosive.
 It is height in weight.
 Can be installed with ordinary tools.
 Doesn’t require threading.
 It has some insulating value.

Size of service pipes: -
The minimum size for a water service pipe is 3/4" and this will likely be sufficient for most
residential homes, however to properly determine the required size of the water service pipe there
are a number of factors to consider:
 Total water demands of all the fixtures, appliances, auxiliary uses and future demand possibilities.
 Rise in elevation to the highest fixture, from the point where it enters the building
 The minimum pressure in the distribution mains at the proposed point of connection.
 Length of service pipe required.
 No & types of plumbing fixtures in the building and the max rate of flow required.
The size of service pipe for a single house is generally half inch. But the size varies according to
flow requirement and no. of occupants. By knowing the rate of flow and the desired velocity, pipe
diameter can also be calculated.
Flow required
Plumbing fixtures (l/min)
Good Reasonable
Kitchen Tap 10 7
Bath tap(cold) 25 15
W.C. flushing cistern 10 7
It is assumed that one of each of these is in operation a maximum demand rate of 29 to 45 l/min is
obtained. Knowing the flow velocity and rate of flow the diameter can be found. Alternatively the
diameter of service pipe can also be fixed on the basis of occupants in the house as given by
No of Occupants 4 8 24 60
Dia of service pipe (mm) 12.5 20 25 30
Appurtenances
The various devices fixed along the water distribution system are known as Appurtences. The
necessities of the various appurtenances in distribution system are as follows
1. To control the rate of flow of water

2. To release or admit air into pipeline according to the situation
3. To prevent or detect leakages
4. To meet the demand during emergency and
5. Ultimately to improve the efficiency of the distribution
Water meter
Water meter: - It is a device which measures the amount of water flowing through the service
pipes. It is usually fixed in a brick masonry chamber. The chamber is constructed underground.
Water meter used on distribution system may be of 2 types.
i) Inferential meter ii) Positive or displacement meter.
i) Inferential meter: - Measures the velocity of flow across a x section whose area is known. In
this type, velocity is directly proportional to discharge. Usually used for high flow. Ex – rotary
and turbine meter.
ii) Positive or displacement meter: - Used for relatively low flows. This meter works on the
principle of displacement and records the no of times a container of known volume is filled and
emptied with water. Types of displacement meter in use include reciprocating, rotary oscillating
and nutating dice meter. Nutating type is commonly used.

Characteristics of good water meter
1. It shouldn’t offer any resistance to the flow of water.
2. It should register both small and large flows.
3. It should be easy to maintain and repair.
4. All of its parts should be non- corrosive and durable.
5. It should be economical.
6. It should prevent back flow passing though it and shouldn’t liable to clogging.
7. It should have good capacity with reasonable head loss.
8. It should be capable of working at all pressure efficiently.
9. It should be provided screens on its inlet side.
10. It should record even slight leakage.
Advantages of metering:-
1) The wastage of water is reduced.
2) Payment only for consumer used.
3) Careless consumers are penalized and investigation of waste water can be easily carried out.
4) The load on treatment plant reduces.
Dis- advantage:-
1) Corporation may go in loss if meter becomes defective.
2) Less use of water for gardening etc.
3) In sanitary condition increases.
4) Installation cost is more.
5) Main Terence is also costly.
6) Loss of head.
Valves
In water works practice, to control the flow of water, to regulate pressure, to release or to admit
air, prevent flow of water in opposite direction valves are required.
The following are the various types of valves named to suit their function
1. Sluice valves
2. Check valves or reflex valves
3. Air valves
4. Drain valves or Blow off valves
5. Scour valve
Valves are device which are used for controlling the flow of water in the pipe line. For domestic
water supply systems, two types of valves are commonly used.
a) Globe valve and b) Gate valve.

Globe valve: - It is used in distribution system. The globe type stop valve is used to control the
flow of water at high pressure. To close the flow of
water the crutch head handle is rotated slowly in a
clockwise direction gradually reducing the flow, thus
preventing sudden impact and the possibility of
vibration and water hammer.
It is usually made of brass. Globe valves are widely
used in wash basin, kitchen, sink, showers, and bath
tub etc. It consists of dice which is forced down by a
screw against a circular seat. Globe valve is
economical, versatile, durable and simple. It has
advantage of quicker opening and closing, of longer life and of being more easily repaired. Its
main disadvantage is the loss of head due to tortuous passage of the valve.
Gate valve: - Also called sluice valve and most

commonly used in water works. Gate valves also
controls the flow equally well from either
direction. The gate or sluice valve is used to
control the flow of water on low pressure
installations.
It is used in pipe lines for conscience in
manually closing the pipes. They are made of
cast iron and brass mounting. They are usually of
solid wedge type or of the double dice type. It
offers less resistance to flow than globe valve. These valves may be completely or partially
opened or closed. They are located on the following position.
 At outlets of intake.
 At outlets of reservoir.
 At break pressure tank.
 At street corners.
 At branch points.
SLUICE VALVES
These are also known as gate-valves or stop valves. These valves
control the flow of water through pipes. These valves are cheaper,
offers less resistance to the flow of water than other valves. The
entire distribution system is decided into blocks by providing
these valves at appropriate places. They are provided in straight
pipeline at 150-200m intervals. When two pipes lines interest,
valves are fixed in both sides of intersection. When sluice valve is
closed, it shuts off water in a pipeline to enable to undertake
repairs in that particular block. The flow of water can be controlled by raising or lowering the
handle or wheel.
CHECK VALVE or REFLUX VALVE

These valves are also known as non-return
valves. A reflux valve is an automatic
device which allows water to go in one
direction only. The swing type of reflux
valve as shown in fig 7.2 is widely used in
practice. When the water moves in the
direction of arrow, the valve swings or rotates around the pivot and it is kept in open position due
to the pressure of water. When the flow of water in this direction ceases, the water tries to flow in
a backward direction. But this valve prevents passage of water in the reverse direction.
Reflux valve is invariably placed in water pipe, which obtain water directly from pump. When
pump fails or stops, the water will not run back to the pump and thus pumping equipments will be
saved from damage.
AIR VALVES
These are automatic valves and are of two types namely
1. Air inlet valves
2. Air relief valves
1. AIR INLET VALVES

These valves open automatically and allow air to enter into the pipeline so that the development
of negative pressure can be avoided in the pipelines. The vacuum pressure created in the down
streamside in pipelines due to sudden closure of sluice valves. This situation can be avoided by
using the air inlet valves.
AIR RELIEF VALVES

Sometimes air is accumulated at the summit of pipelines and blocks the flow of water due to air
lock. In such cases the accumulated air has to be
removed from the pipe lines. This is done automatically
by means of air relief valves.
This valve consists of a chamber in which one or two
floats are placed and is connected to the pipe line. When
there is flow under pressure in the pipeline water
occupies the float chamber and makes the float to close
the outlet. But where there is accumulation of air in the
pipeline, air enters the chamber, makes the float to come down, thus opening the outlet. The
accumulated air is driven out through the outlet.
DRAIN VALVES OR BLOW OFF VALVES

These are also called wash out valves they are provided at all dead ends and depression of
pipelines to drain out the waste water. These are ordinary valves operated by hand.

SCOUR VALVES
These are similar to blow off valves. They are ordinary valves operated by hand. They are located
at the depressions and dead ends to remove the accumulated silt and sand. After the complete
removal of silt; the value is to be closed.
STOP COCKS
It is a valve fitted at the end of communication pipe and it
is under the control of water supply authority. The
purpose of stop cock is to stop the supply of water.
Temporary disconnections are made at the stopcock while
permanent disconnections are made at ferrule. The stop
cock is as shown in fig
WATER TAPS OR BIB COCKS:

These are the water taps which are attached at the end
of water pipes and from which the consumers obtained
water. It is operated from a handle, the water comes
out from the opening. The bib cocks may also be of
push type and they operate automatic.
The bib cocks should be water tight. The leaky bib
cocks are the source of waste of water. Fig shows
typical bob cock. Therefore it is advisable to repair or
replace such leaky bib cocks as early as possible
Table: Loss of water due to leaky Bib cock.
BALL VALVE:
A ball-check valve is a type of check valve with a ball without a hole for a disc.
A ball valve is a valve with a spherical disc, the part of the valve which controls the flow through
it. The sphere has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is in line with both
ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends

of the valve, and flow is blocked. The handle or lever will be in line with the port position letting
you "see" the valve's position. The ball valve, along with the butterfly valve and plug valve, are
part of the family of quarter turn valves.
Ball valves are used extensively in industrial applications because they are very versatile,
supporting pressures up to 1000 bars and temperatures up to 482°F (250°C). Sizes typically range
from 0.2 to 11.81 inches (0.5 cm to 30 cm). They are easy to repair and operate.
The body of ball valves may be made of metal, plastic or metal with a ceramic center. The ball is
often chrome plated to make it more durable.
AIR RELEASE VALVE

Air that is entrained in a flowing liquid will naturally rise and tend to collect at high points within
the system. This accumulation of air adds resistance to the liquid flow and can, under certain
conditions, completely block the flow. However, the most common phenomenon is increased line
resistance, requiring the pump to work harder, resulting in increased energy consumption. Such a
situation can continue unnoticed for a long time adding to the cost of operation.
Air Release Valves automatically exhaust these small amounts of air which collect at system high
points, while the system is flowing under pressure. This ensures the system will remain free of
trapped air pockets, thereby increasing the efficiency and decreasing the overall operating cost of
the system.
In operation, these valves are installed at high points in the system where air would naturally tend
to collect. Air bubbles entering the valve will displace
the liquid within the valve and lower the liquid level.
When the level drops to where it no longer buoys the
float, the float drops. This motion pulls the seat away from
the orifice, opening the valve and allows the air that has
accumulated in the upper portion of the valve to be
exhausted to atmosphere. As the air is exhausted, liquid
re-enters the valve, once again buoying the float, lifting it
until the seat presses against the orifice, closing the valve.
This cycle automatically repeats as often as necessary to
maintain an air free system.

The air release valve shall maintain closed position to prevent the loss of water by the positive
seating of a non corrosive float button against a smooth contact surface of exhaust orifice. It shall
automatically provide for the escape of air to the atmosphere, without the loss of water, when the
special ball float moves away from the orifice seat. The float shall be free floating within the
valve body. Linkages of levers attached to the float are not acceptable. The body of the valve shall
be of cast iron.
Where to install Air valves:
1. Peaks
2. Increased down slope
3. Decrease in upward slope
4. Long Ascents
5. Long Descents
6. Long Horizontals
7. Pumps
8. Large valves, cylinders and piping loops.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Air Release Valves cannot normally provide substantial vacuum protection
when used alone. When vacuum protection is necessary, use in conjunction with adequate
air/vacuum valves.
FIRE HYDRANTS
A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in case of fire. They are
located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads and also at junction roads.
They are of two types namely.
1. Flush Hydrants. 2. Post Hydrants
Flush Hydrants
The flush hydrants is kept in underground chamber flush with footpath covered by C.I. cover
carrying a sign board “F-H”.
Post Hydrants
The post hydrant remain projected 60 to 90cm above ground level as shown in fig .They have
long stem with screw and nut to regulate the flow. In case of fire accident, the fire fighting squad
connects their hose to the hydrant and draws the water and sprays it on fire.
A good fire hydrant
1. Should be cheap
2. Easy to connect with hose
3. Easily detachable and reliable

4. Should draw large quantity of water
Fig: Post fire Hydrants
PIPE FITTINGS
In addition to the pipes, valves, tapes, various types of pipe fittings such as unions, caps, plugs,
flanges, nipples, crosses, tees, elbows, bends etc are used during laying of distribution pipes The
common pipe fittings are shown in fig below-

STORAGE OF WATER IN BUILDINGS
House storage tank: -
In the buildings, the storage of water is required for the following purposes
1. For supplying the water to the consumers during non-supply hours
2. For reducing the maximum rate of demand on the water mains
3. For storage of watering during interruption to damage repair etc of the water mains
4. When the available head is insufficient to supply the water in each storey in multi
storey buildings
The storage of water in buildings is constructed of cast Iron, wrought iron, galvanized mild steel
plates or R.C.C. storage tanks. Storage tanks may be kept on the roof of the building or on the
ground and should be water-tight. The storage tank should be placed in such a position so that the
discharge of water can be readily seen. The tank should be provided with overflow pipe and drain
pipe near the bottom to clean the tank. The storage tanks are provided with outlet pipes to draw
the water.
The tank used at the top of a multi – storey building for storing water from distributing main is
called a storage tank. It is provided became.
i) In order to reduce the max rate of demand on the distributing mains.
ii) In order to maintain supply during non- supply period.
iii) In order to maintain supply if some repairing work is being carried out in the water mains.
The size of tank depends upon the house of supply at high pressure, rate and regularity of supply
etc.
 The tank built in such a way that the water remains clan.
 The tank should contain inlet, outlet, overflow, washout and vent pipe. Outlet level should
be 5 – 10 cm higher than the ground (bottom level)
 Overflow should be 2 cm below the top level.
 Washout should be bigger diameter and the tank is placed in shade.
ESTIMATING STORAGE CAPACITY

The quantity of water to be stored depends on the following factors.
a) Rate of supply of water from water works
b) Type of building such as residential, public or industrial
c) Whether water supply is continuous or intermittent
d) Frequency replenishment of overhead tanks, during the 24 hours
OVERHEAD STORAGE, UNDER GROUND STORAGE TANKS

When water is to be distributed at very high pressure elevated tanks may be constructed with steel
or R.C.C. R.C.C elevated tanks are very popular because 1. Long life 2. Little maintenance
3.Decent appearance
Recently prestresed R.C.C. tanks are coming up, because they are even economical than plain
R.C.C tanks. All the overhead tanks are provided with inlet, outlet, drain pipe, overflow pipe,
water level indicator, manhole, ladder, ventilating pipe, lightening conductor etc. About 60 to
100cm wide balcony is provided around the tank for inspection and maintenance of the tank.
These tanks can store large quantity of water as shown in the figure below-
Figure: Overhead Tank
UNDER GROUND STORAGE RESERVOIR

These reservoirs are used for storing and distributing clear water. These reservoirs are constructed
on high natural grounds and are usually made of stones, bricks, plain or reinforced cement
concrete. The side walls are designed to take up the pressure of the water, when the reservoir is
full and the earth pressure when it is empty. The position of ground water table is also considered
while designing these reservoirs. The floors of these reservoirs may construct with R.C.C slab or
square stone blocks resting on columns. To obtain water tightness bitumen compounds are used at
all construction joints. At the top of roof about 60 cm thick earth layers is deposited and
maintained green lawns to protect the reservoir from cold and heat. For aeration of water and

inspection, ventilation pipes and stairs are provided respectively as shown in figure below-
Figure: Underground Reservoir
Head Loss in Pipe and pipe fittings:

The loss of head of water due to friction in pipe depends upon the diameter, length ,velocity of
flow,smoothnessness of pipe, number of bends and other fittings etc.Darcey give the value of loss
of head (Major head loss) which is due the loss due to frictional resistance. The loss of energy or
head are also caused in pipes in account of the change in velocity of flowing fluid (either in
magnitude or direction).In case of long pipes these losses are quite small as compared with loss of
energy or head due to friction and hence termed as “Minor losses” which may be neglected
without serious error. Some of losses of energy or head which may be caused due to change in
velocity are indicated below-
1) Loss of energy or head due to sudden enlargement in a pipe is given as-
In which V1 and V2 are the mean velocity of flow in the smaller and larger sections of
pipe respectively.
2) Loss of energy or head due to sudden contraction in a pipe is given as –
In which V is the mean velocity of flow in the smaller sections of pipe.

3) Loss of energy or head at the entrance to pipe is given as-
In which V is the mean velocity of flow in the pipe

4) Loss of energy or head at the exit from the pipe is given as-
In which V is the mean velocity of flow at the exit section of pipe.

5) Loss of energy or head due to gradual contraction or enlargement in a pipe is given as-

In which V1 and V2 are the mean velocity of flow in the smaller and larger sections of pipe
respectively and K is the coefficient the value of which depends on the angle of
convergence or divergence and on the ratio of the smaller and larger cross sectional areas
of the pipe.
6) Loss of energy or head due to bend provided in a pipe is given as-
In which V is the mean velocity of flow in the bend and K is the coefficient which
depends upon the total angle of bend and the relative radius of curvature.
7) Loss of energy or head in various pipe fittings such as valves, couplings etc is given as-
In which V is the mean velocity of flow in the bend and K is the coefficient the value of which
depends upon the type of pipe fittings.
The losses from different pipe material could be found from the standard chart, table or using
various analytical formulas-
Resistance of fittings in equivalent lengths

Resistance to flow by different fittings expressed
as equivalent lengths in meters of straight pipes for
Fittings
various diameter(mm)
12 15 18 22 28 35
Bend 0.21 0.27 0.32 0.42 0.6 0.75
Elbow 0.47 0.6 0.74 0.95 1.2 1.5
Tee 0.57 0.74 0.93 1.23 1.7 2.25
Reduction 0.11 0.13 0.2 0.23 0.33 0.44
Enlargement 0.18 0.27 0.34 0.51 0.94 0.95
Valve or tap 2.7 4 5 7 9 12
PLUMBING SYSTEMS IN WATER SUPPLIES

The following are the requirements of plumbing systems in water supplies
1. Plumbing of water lines should be such as not to permit back flow from cistern and sinks
2. All joints shall be perfectly water tight and no leakage or spill at taps or cocks should be
allowed
3. Pipelines should not be carried under walls or foundations
4. It should not be close to sewers or waste water drains. There should not be any possibility for
cross connections.
5. When pipe lines are close to electric cables proper precautions for insulation should be
observed
6. Plumbing lines should be such as to afford easy inspection and repair of fixtures and Joints.
7. Number of joints should be less and the number of bends and tees should be less
8. It should supply adequate discharge at fixtures economical in terms of material and protected
against corrosion, air lock, negative pressure and noise due to flow in pipes and in flushing

MAINTENANCE OF PIPES
Hygienic quality and adequate flow in the pipe lines are to be maintained, preventive maintenance
of pipes includes the following
 Detection of leaks in faulty joints ferrule connections, pipes and fittings inside the
consumer premises,
 Detection of corrosion in pipes, fractures and replacement of these portions
 The wastage of water 15 to 25% of leakage through pipe joints should be brought down
to the minimum possible extent by adopting suitable preventive measures
 Cleaning of pipes by flushing and disinfection of pipes
 Protection against pollution Water Supply Engineering
The records of regarding the lengths of pipe laid, length of pipe repaired or replaced, expenditure
incurred, no. of fire hydrants , no. of service connections and all other relevant data in connection
with the distribution system should maintained for ready reference
HOT AND COLD WATER SUPPLY IN BUILDING

Cold water supply
1. Direct system of cold water supply
For efficient operation, a high pressure water supply is essential particularly at periods of peak
demand. The cistern may be located within airing cupboard or be combined with hot water
cylinder. Drinking water is available at every draw-off point and maintenance valves should be
lifted to isolate each section of pipework. At every outlet supplied from main, the possibility of
back siphonage must be considered. Back siphonage can occur when there is a high demand on
the main. Negative pressure can then draw water back into the main from a submerged inlet.
Figure-1
Indirect system of water supply
The indirect system of cold water supply has only one drinking water outlet, at the sink. In
addition to normal supply function of storage cistern it provides an adequate emergency storage in
the event of water main failure. The system require more pipeline than direct system and therefore
more expensive to install, but uniform pressure occurs at all cistern-supplied outlets. There is less
chances of back siphonage. Less noise and wear on fittings due to lower pressure and the
opportunity to install a balanced pressure shower from the cistern. Figure 2

Figure-1 Direct system of cold water supply

Figure 2- Indirect system of cold water supply
Direct system of hot water supply
The hot water from the boiler mixes directly with water in the cylinder. This system is not suited
to hard water, typically extracted from boreholes from chalks or limestone strata. When heated
the calcium precipitates to line the boiler and primary pipework, eventually ‘furring up’ the
system to render it ineffective and dangerous. The storage cylinder and associated pipework
should be well insulated to reduce energy losses.Figure-3
Indirect system of hot water supply
This system is used in hard water to prevent scaling or furring of boiler and primary pipe work.
Unlike the direct system, water in the boiler and primary circuit is not drawn off through the taps.
The same water circulates continuously throughout the boiler. The system is also used in
combination with central heating, with flow and return pipes to radiators connected to the boiler.
Boiler water temperature may be set by thermostat at about 80°C.Figure-4

Figure 3 Direct system of hot water supply

Figure -4 Indirect system of hot water supply
Hot water supply system

There are two hot water supply system, the central and the local. In the former, water is heated
and stored centrally for general distribution, and in the latter water is heated, or heated and stored
locally for local use. The difference between these systems is that with the central system hot
water is run to the site of the sanitary appliances from a central heat source, and with the local
system the heat source, gas or electricity, is run to the local heater which is adjacent to the
sanitary appliances.
The central system is suited,for example,to houses,hotels,offices and flats where a central boiler
fired by solid fuel,oil,gas or electricity heats water in bulk for distribution through a
straightforward vertical distributing pipe system with short draw-off branches leading to taps to
sanitary appliances on each floor.In large buildings,one heat source may serve two or more hot
water storage cylinders to avoid excessively long distribution pipe runs.
The local system is used for local washing facilities where the fuel- gas or electricity-is run to the
local heater either to avoid extensive i.e uneconomic supply or distributing pipe runs or because
local control is an advantage.
In some buildings it may be economicto use a combination of central and local hot water systems.

Central hot water supply:
From figure it will be seen that water is heated and stored in a central cylinder from which a pump
circulates it around a distributing pipe system from which hot water is drawn.

Local hot water supply:
Instantaneous gas water heater:
Gas instantaneous multi point Gas instantaneous Single point

Water heater water heater

Gas Water Heater

Solar heating of water

UNIT 4.0
Estimation method for water Quantity
Water requirement for various purpose: Domestic, livestock, commercial Industrial, civic,
fire fighting, compensating loosses and wastage
Water demand: It is the first task for the water supply engineers to determine the water demand of
the town or certain community. Demand means consumption of water by the community. For
design purpose first require an estimation of total amount of water required by the community
then search source to fulfill that demand. For estimating the water demand for a town or city rate
of demand, design period and population is required.
Demand depends upon the various factors hence it is impossible to determine the actual
demand. Certain thumb rule and empirical formulae are developed to determine the estimation of
water consumption. In general the equation used for the estimation of total demand of water by
the community is,
Q=p*q*365
Where, Q= Total quantity of water required in liters.
P = Population
q = Rate of water supply per capita per day in liter.
Besides drinking, water is used for industrial, commercial, fire fighting etc. There is also a
considerable amount of wastage through leaky joints, open taps and unauthorized tapping of
water. All these are summed up and the average per capita rate of water demand in liter is
calculated. Following are the various types of water Demand of City or town-
1. Domestic water demand
2. Commercial water demand
3. Industrial water demand
4. Livestock water demand
5. Public uses water demand
6. Fire demand
7. Compensated losses in wastes and thefts.
1. Domestic water demand: - Also called residence water demand. This includes water requirement
for drinking, cooking, and bathing, washing of clothes utensils and house and flushing of water
closets in private buildings. The quantity of water demand depends upon the habits of people,
Social status and climatic condition. The domestic water demand in Nepal is generally taken as
follows:
 112 lpcd for fully plumed houses.
 65 lpcd for partly plumed house.
 45 lpcd for rural areas achieved by public tap stands.
Details of domestic consumption
Purpose Water consumption (L/C/D)
1. Drinking 5
2. Cooking 5
3. Cleaning of utensils and houses 10
4. Cleaning of houses 10
5. Flushing of water closets 30
5.Washing clothes 20
6. Bathing 55
2. Commercial demand: - Commercial demand includes water demand for commercial

establishments such as for private offices, restaurants, cinema, theatres, motor garages and small
scale industries such as ice manufacturing, bottling plants etc. This quantity varies with the nature
of city and no and type of commercial establishment and institutions present in it. On average 20

l/h/d is usually considered to be enough to meet such commercial and institutional water
requirements. Although this demand may increase as high as 50 l/h/d for highly commercialized
cities. The commertial water demand in Nepal is generally taken as
 500-1000 liters/day for offices (depending on size)
 500 liters/bed/day for hospitals with beds.
 2500 liters/day for hospitals without bed and health clinics.
 200 liters/bed/day for hotels with bed.
 500-1000 liters/day for hotels without bed.
 500-1000 liters/day for restaurants and tea stalls etc.
3. Livestock demand: -It includes the water consumed by domesticated animals and birds like
horses, cows, pigs, chickens etc.
Description Water consumption in L/animal/day
1. Cow & buffalo 40 to 60
2. Horse 40 to 50
3. Small animals (Goat or sheep) 5 to 10
4. Dog 2 to 5
5. Birds 10/100 Birds
4. Public (civic) uses: - water required for public purposes is known as public demand. These
includes road washing cleaning public sewers, watering of parks, gardens, water fountains,
swimming pools, flushing of public water closets and urinals, hospitals, schools and colleges. This
is roughly equal to about 5 % of total consumption.
Activity Demand
Public gardens 1.4 L/m2/day
Street washing 1.0 L/m2/day
Sewer cleaning 4.5 L/h/d
Hospitals 340-450 L/bed/day
Hostels 135 L/h/d
Schools 45-135 L/h/d
5. Industrial demand: - Industries requires a large volume of water for manufacturing processes,
cooling, operations, steam generation, for processing and sanitation purposes etc. This part of
water is known as 'industrial demand'. Generally industrial and commercial demand is treated as a
single unit. There is no direct relation of this consumption with population.
Industry Unit of production water requirements in
Kiloliter/unit
1. Automobile Vehicle 40
2. Distillery kl 122-170
3. Fertilizer Tone 80-200
4. Leather ` 100 kg 4
5. Steel tone 200-250
6. Sugar tone 1-2
7. Textile 100 kg 8-14
8. Paper tonne 200-400
9. Petroleum refinery tonne 1.5-2.0
6. Fire demand: - water required for firefighting is usually known as fire demand. The demand
of water for extinguishing fire is small in a year but the rate of fire is very high. The water
required for firefighting should be easily available and always should store in the storage
reservoirs. Generally in thickly populated area and industrial area, fire breaks out and may
lead to serious damage hence should provide sufficient quantity of water for extinguishing the
fire. It is related as a function of population and estimate of the fire fighting demand is made
by the following formulas:

Kuichling's formula:-
Q=3182√ p
Where, Q =quantity of water in L/minute.
P = Population in thousands
Boston’s Formula: - Q = 5663 √p Where Q and p have the same meaning as that of earlier.
Freeman's formula: - Q = 1136 [p/5 +10] and X=2.8 √p
Where, Q= water required in L/minutes
P = population in thousands
X = no of simultaneous fire streams.
National board of fire underwriters formula: - Q = 4637 √p (1-0.01√p)

Ministry of urban development manual formula:-
Q =100√p
Where Q in Kiloliter/ day, population in thousand. It can be used when population is more than
50,000.
These formulas were developed for specific condition and location and cannot be directly used for
Nepalese context.
7. Loss and Waste of Water:

All the water supplied to the water mains doesn't reach to the
consumers. Some portion of it is lost in the pipelines due to defective pipe joints, cracked pipes,
loose valve and fittings.
Water looses from water distribution system consists of:

 Leakage and overflow from service reservoir.
 Leakage from mains and service pipe connection.
 Leakage and looses from consumer premises when they get unmetered household supplies.
 Under registration of supply meter.
 Large leakage and wastage from public taps.
All of these looses should be taken into account while estimating the total requirements
The quantity of water lost due to all of the above mentioned reasons is uncertain and cannot be
affectivity predicted. However, if the distribution system is 100% metered & well maintained the
losses hardly exceed 15% of total consumption. In a system where supply is partly metered partly
unmetered the looses may be upto 50% of the total supply.
Design period: Definition, selection basis, and significance of design period:
DESIGN PERIOD: water supply projects are designed to serve over a specified period of time
after completion of projects. The future period or number of years for which a provision is made
while planning and designing a water supply project is known as design period. These periods
should neither be too long nor too short. It is generally expressed in years and during this period
the components, structures and equipment of the water supply projects are supposed to be
adequate to serve the requirements. In Nepal, the design period water supply is taken as 15-20
years.
Factors affecting the design period:

I. The rate of interest of loans taken for the construction of the projects. If the rate of interest
is high, design period is low.
II. Useful life of pipes, structures & equipment used in the water works. If useful life is more,
design period is also more.
III. The anticipated rate of growth of population. If rate is more, design period is less.
IV. Funds available for the completion of the projects. If more funds are available, the design
period shall be less.
V. Efficiency of the component units of projects.
Per capita consumption: Defn, Per capita demand for various uses:
It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person and includes the
domestic use, industrial and commercial use, public use, waste & thefts etc. Mathematically, it
can be expressed as,
Per capita demand (q) in L/d/head
= Total yearly water requirement of the city in L
365* design population
In Nepal, for village area 45 L/h/d and for city or town 100-160 L/c/d are used in practice.
FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND IN A COMMUNITY:

Following are some of the common factors which affect the rate of demand, which must be
thoroughly studied & analyzed before fixing the per capita demand for design purposes. These
are:
i. Climatic condition: The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is more than cold
countries because of the use of air coolers, air conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns,
gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washing of clothes and bathing etc. But in very
cold countries sometimes the quantity of water required may be more due to wastage, because at
such places the people often keep their taps open and water continuously flows for fear of
freezing of water in the taps and use of hot water for keeping the rooms warm.
ii. People's habits: Different peoples have different habits regarding the personal hygiene and
cleanliness depending upon the topography and climatic condition.
iii. Industrial and commertial activities: As the quantity of water required in certain industries is
much more than domestic demand, their presence in the town will enormously increase per
capita demand of the town. As a matter of the fact the water required by the industries has no
direct link with the population of the town.
iv. Cost of water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water is more, less
quantity of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost is low.
v. System of supply: For intermittent supply of water the rate of demand of water is less and for
continuous supply system more rate of demand of water.
vi. System of sanitation i.e. Sewerage system: if there is provision of system of sewerage in the
town or city it increases the rate of demand of water.
vii. Metering of water supply: If there is metered water supply system consumers use water carefully
with minimum wastage, hence reduce the rate of demand of water. On the other hand without the
installation of meter there is more chances of losses hence increase the rate of demand.
viii. Distribution pressure: The rate of water consumption increase in the pressure of the building
and even with the required pressure at the farthest point, the consumption of water will
automatically increase. This increase in the quantity is firstly due to use of water freely by the
people as compared when they get it scarcely and more water loss due to leakage, wastage and
thefts etc.
ix. Public services: Availability of more facility for public services more will be the rate of demand.
x. Size of city: Water demand is more with increase of size of town because more water is required
in street washing, running of sewers, maintenance of parks and gardens.
xi. Availability of supplementary sources: if there is availability of more number of supplementary
sources more will be rate of demand of water.
xii. Quality of water: If the quality of water supplied is good, consumer uses more quantity of water.
Hence rate of demand of water increases with the improvement of quality of water.
xiii. Living standard of the people : The per capita demand of the town increases with the standard of
living of the people because of the use of air conditioners, room coolers, maintenance of lawns,
use of flush, latrines and automatic home appliances etc.

Variation in demand from average: Maximum, seasonal, daily, hourly consumption
(Fluctuation in consumption of water):
The average daily consumption of water is equal to (lpcd)
= Quantity required in 12 months
365* population
If this quantity of water is supplied at all the times it will not be sufficient because the demand
varies seasonally, monthly, daily and hourly. These variations are called fluctuations in demand.
This variation is expressed as percentage of annual average daily consumption. Some common
values are:
 Maximum seasonal consumption = 130% of annual average Daily (AAD) rate of demand.
 Maximum monthly consumption = 140% of AAD rate of demand.
 Maximum daily consumption = 180% of AAD consumption
 Maximum hourly consumption = 150% of average for the day.
Seasonal fluctuation: The water demand varies from season to season. The demand peaks during
summer. In summer the water demand is maximum, because the people will use more water in
bathing, cooling, lawn watering and street sprinkling. This demand will becomes minimum in
winter because less water will be used in bathing and there will be no lawn watering. The
variations may be upto 15% of the average demand of the year.
Fire accidents also generally occur during summer, hence increase demand. Seasonal variations
are mainly due to the presence of industries of seasonal nature and domestic requirements.
Daily Variation: This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions and
Character of city as industrial, commercial or residential. More water demand will be on Sundays
and holidays due to more comfortable bathing, washing etc as compared to other working days.
The maximum daily consumption is usually taken as 180% of the average
Consumption.
Hourly Variation: On Saturday and other holidays the peak hours may be about 8 A.M. due to
late awakening where as it may be 6 A.M. to 10 A.M. and 4 P.M. to 8 P.M. and minimum flow
may be between 12P.M. to 4P.M. when most of the people are sleeping. But in highly industrial
city where both day and night shifts are working, the consumption in night may be more.
The demand fluctuates from day to day and hour to hour depending on the activity of people.
People use more water during holiday other than the week. These demands will also increases on
festival days. Demand of water during 24 hours of a day doesn't remains constant. Peak demand
occurs during morning and evening (6-10 mornings 4-8 evening). Hence adequate quantity of
water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes,
service reservoirs and distributing pipes must be properly proportioned.
Socio-economic conditions affecting water demand:

Following are some of Socio-economic factors which affect the demand of water.
1. Public VS Private tap stand
2. Affluent VS Subsistence
3. Habits of people
4. Distance to tap stand
5. Urban VS rural
POPULATION FORECAST:
Necessity
Population forecast means prediction of population in future. First of all the design period is fixed.
The present population 9is obtained by the census office. The water supply scheme isn't designed
only for the present population but for the population expected in coming 2-3 decades. The
population increases by birth, decreases by death, increases by annexation, increases or decreases
by migration. The future increase in population depends on trade expansion, developments of
industries etc.
The population forecast is essential and useful for the following purposes.

 Used for water supply scheme
 It helps governments for the preparation of social employment and economic programmes.
 For workout the requirements in other public utilities (electric power, telecommunication etc)
 For workout the expected future traffic in transportation
 Also helps for collection of much other information.
Factors affecting population growth: In order to predict the future population, it is necessary to
know the factors affecting the population growth. These are:
1. Births 2.Deaths 3. Migrations 4. Annexations
All these factors influenced by social and economical factors and conditions prevailing in the
various communities. Ex- Birth rate decreased due to excessive family planning and legalized
abortions. The death rates may decreases with the development of medical facilities thereby
controlling infant mortality.
Migrations are dependent upon the industrialization and commercialization of particular cities or
towns. Besides these factors some other factors like War, natural havoc and disasters may reduce
the populations.
Methods of population forecast:

1. Arithmetic increase method
2. Geometric increase method
3. Incremental increase method
4. Changing rate of growth/decrease rate of increase method
5. Graphical extension method
6. Graphical comparison method
a) Arithmetic increase method: This is the simplest method of population forecast, though it
gives lower value compared to others. In this method, the increase in population from decade
to decade is assumed to be constant.i.e. Rate of change of population with time (dp/dt) is
constant.
Mathematically, dp/dt =constant=k
P2-p1 = K (T2-T1), Where p1 =population of last decade
P2 = population of first decade
(T2-T1) =N= no of decades
The future population Pn after n decade is given by
Pn = Po+nI
Where Pn= Future population at the end of n decade.
Po = Present population
I= Average increment for a decade.
This method is used for forecasting population of those large cities, which have reached their
saturation population.
b) Geometric increase method (Uniform percentage growth method) :-
This method is based on the assumption that the % increase in population from decade to decade
remains constant and the increase is compounded over the existing population every decade.
If the present population is P and the average % growth is Ig, the population at the end of n
decades will be
P1=Population after 1 decade =
Similarly P2 = population after 2 decade =

Similarly P3 = population after 3 decade =
Proceeding in the same manner, we can write
Where, Pn= future population after n decade

P0 = Initial population
Ig = average % increase in population.
n = no of decade.
The value of Ig can be calculated as
c) Incremental increase method: - This method is improvement over the above two methods. In
this method, the per decade growth rate isn't assumed to be constant as in the previous two
methods (i.e. arithmetic and geometric) but is progressively increasing or decreasing, depending
upon whether the average of incremental increase (increment over increase) in the past data is
positive or negative.
Average increase in population /decade is calculated by arithmetic increase method and that is
added to the average of the net incremental increase/decade once every future decade. This
method gives the value between arithmetic and geometric progression. Thus the future population
at the end of n decade is given by,
Where,
P= present population
I = average increase per decade
r= Average incremental increase
n= No. of decade.
Expression:
Let Po be the present population. The population P1 after one decade will be-
P1=P+I+1*r
Similarly, population P2 after 2 decades is P2= P1+I+2*r =P+2I+3r = P+2I+2(2+1)*r
2
Population after 3 decades is P3= P2+I+3*r =P+3I+6r = P+3I+3(3+1) r
2
Hence, by generalizing it, population Pn after n decade is,
4. Changing Rate of increase/Decrease rate of growth method: It is similar to the geometric

increase method except that instead of a constant value of the percentage increase in population
per decade a decreasing value of % increase in population per decade is adopted for each future
decade. For determining the decreasing value of % increase in population per decade for each
future decade, the average decrease in the percentage increase in population per decade is worked
out and it is subtracted from the latest percentage increase in population per decade for each
successive future decades.
Let r1, r2, r3............rt are the % increase in population and average decrease in % increase in
population per decade is r’ where r’ = [(r1-r2) + (r2-r3) +................... (rt-1-rt)]1/t-1
=
The prospective population P1 after 1 decade from the latest population Po is
Similarly,
By generalizing it we get,
Where, Pn = future population at the end of n decade.

Po =present population
r’ =Average decrease in percent increase in population per decade.
This method is considered suitable for large cities for which the population is approaching the
saturation limit and in cases where the rate of growth is showing a downward trend.

Unit 5.0
Assessment of Water Quality
Different types of water (as per quality)

Wholesome water
Absolutely pure water is never found in nature and which contains only two parts of hydrogen and
one part of oxygen by volume. But the water found in nature contains number of impurities in
varying amounts. The rainwater which is originally pure also absorbs various gases, dust and
other impurities while filling. This water when moves on the ground further carries silt, organic
and inorganic impurities. The removal of the turbidity, odour and smell is considered as good and
removal of dissolved substances is considered as “chemically pure”. But removal of substances
like calcium, magnesium Iron, Zinc etc completely is not good for health. These minerals are
required for tissue growth and some act as prophylactic in preventing diseases. Therefore
wholesome water is defined as the water which containing the minerals in small quantities at
requisite levels and free from harmful impurities. Chemically pure water is also corrosive but not
wholesome water. The water that is fit for drinking safe and agreeable is called potable water.
The following are the requirements of wholesome water.
1. It should be free from bacteria
2. It should be colourless and sparkling
3. It should be tasty, odour free and cool
4. It should be free from objectionable matter
5. It should not corrode pipes
6. It should have dissolved oxygen and free from carbonic acid so that it may remain fresh
Fresh Water:
Fresh water may come from either a surface or ground source, and typically contains less than 1%
sodium chloride. It may be either "hard" or "soft," i.e., either rich in calcium and magnesium
salts and thus possibly forming insoluble curds with ordinary soap.
Brackish Water:
Brackish water contains between 1 and 2.5% sodium chloride, either from natural sources around
otherwise fresh water or by dilution of seawater. Brackish water differs from open seawater in
certain other respects. The biological activity, for example, can be significantly modified by
higher concentrations of nutrients. Fouling is also likely to be more severe as a consequence of the
greater availability of nutrients.
Distilled or Dematerialized Water:
The total mineral content of water can be removed by either distillation or mixed-bed ion
exchange. In the first case, purity is described qualitatively in some cases (e.g., triple-distilled
water), but is best expressed, for both distilled and dematerialized water, in terms of specific
conductivity. Water also can be dematerialized by reverse osmosis or electrodialysis.
Potable Water
Potable water is fresh water that is sanitized with oxidizing biocides such as chlorine or ozone to
kill bacteria and make it safe for drinking purposes. By definition, certain mineral constituents are
also restricted. Water suitable for drinking, having pleasant taste and usable for domestic purpose
is called potable water.
Palatable Water:
Water, at a desirable temperature, that is free from objectionable tastes, odors, colors,
and turbidity. To be palatable water should be free of detectable taste and odors. It is synonymous
to the potable water. Water which is well aerated but free from excessive temperature, colour,
turbidity, taste and odour and aesthetically acceptable is called palatable water.
Polluted water: Water unfit for public health or domestic purpose due to the contain of various
pathogens and other contaminations.

Contaminated water:
Water containing harmful matter and toxic as well. Water consisting of microorganisms,
chemicals, industrial and other waste, large number of pathogens that cause diseases is called
contaminated water.
Infected water:
Water containing pathogenic microorganism are called infected water.
Impurities in water: Suspended, colloidal & dissolved
The impurities in water can be classified into 3 types.
I. Suspended impurities: - are those which remain suspension in solution. They neither
settle down nor dissolve in water. It includes silts, clay, algae, fungi, organic and inorganic
matter etc. All of these impurities are microscopic and make water turbid. These also
impart collier, taste, disease and odour to water. The suspended impurities are removed by
sedimentation. The concentration of suspended matter in water is measured by turbidity.
These suspended impurities can be removed by either sedimentation or filtration.
II. Colloidal Impurities: - The finely divided or electrically charged particles of solid such
that their small quantities are not visible to the naked eye. They are neither in suspension
nor in solution. These particles are so small that they cannot be removed by ordinary
settling tank. Most of the color of the water is due to the colloidal impurities.
Size of colloidal particles = 1 microns (0.0001 mm) to 1 milimicrons (0.000001 mm).
Their quantities are determined by color test. All of the colloidal impurities are usually
associated with organic matters containing disease producing bacteria hence source of all
types of epidemics. It is difficult to remove simply by ordinary type of filter unit.
III. Dissolved impurities: - are impurities in water in the dissolved state, which cannot be
removed by filtration unless and until they are converted into insoluble form. Dissolved
gases like NH3,H2s, SO2,CO2 and soluble minerals like Ca2+,Mg2+, Fe2+,Mn2+,Na+,HCO3-
,CO32-,Cl-,SO42-,and F-are sources of dissolved impurities. The amount of dissolved
impurities is normally expressed in ppm and is obtained by weighting the residue left after
evaporation. Dissolved impurities cause odour, taste, colour, acidity and smell.
Effects of impurities:
Impurity Constituents Effects
1. suspended a. Bacteria  Some cause diseases
Impurities b.Algae,Protozoa  Odour , colour, turbidity
c. Silts, clay  Murkiness or turbidity
d. Vegetables matters  Odour,colour,alkalinity
e. Dead animals  Diseases, germs
2.Dissolved A. salts
Impurities 1. Calcium & Magnesium
a. Bicarbonate  Alkalinity, Hardness
b.Carbonate  Alkalinity, Hardness
c.Sulphate  Hardness
d.Chlorides  Hardness, Corrosion
2. Sodium
a. Bicarbonate  Alkalinity, Softening effect
b. carbonate  Alkalinity, Softening effect
c.Fluoride  Mottled enamel of teeth
d.Chloride  Taste
e. Sulphate  Foaming in boilers
B. Metals & Compounds
1. Iron Oxide  Taste, red colour corrosiveness, hardness
2. Manganese  Black or Brown colour
3. Lead  Cumulative poisoning

4.Arsenic  Toxicity, poisoning
5.Cadmium  Toxic, illness
6.Cyanide  Fatal
7.Silver  Discoloration of skin, eyes
8.Nitrates  Blue baby, infant poisoning, acidity
9.Selenium  Highly toxic to animals, fish
10. Boron  Affects central nervous system
11.Barium  Toxic effect on heart, nerves.
C.Gases
A. Oxygen  Corrosiveness to metal
B. carbon dioxide  Acidity, corrosiveness
C. H2S  Odour, acidity, corrosiveness
3. Organic A. Suspended
Impurities 1. Vegetable  Colour,Taste,Acidity
2. Animal(dead)  Produce harmful disease germs, alkalinity
B.Dissolved
1. Vegetable  Produce Bacteria
2. Animal(dead)  Cause pollution of water and
disease germs
Drinking water standard

Unit 6
Sanitary system
Introduction
Sanitation: Prevention of spreading of diseases which are dangerous for the health of public. This
can be achieved by controlling the concerning factors which spread disease and then disposed
them effectively.
Objective
Constructing, operating, maintain rural sanitation works as well as maintaining sewerage. Also
can be work in solid waste management and disposal area.
Objective of sewage disposal:
 To take out human excreta
 To takeout other kinds of waste.
 To prevent the risk of diseases spread speedily.
 To increase the aesthetic approach of the community.
 To prevent pollution of source of water.
 To use as a fertilizer element in the sewage.
Importance: The affects from waste substance
 Health hazard(over 50 infections are transmitted through excreta from infected person to
healthy person)
 Naissance
 Insect breading
 Aesthetic appearance
 Pollution
Sanitation approaches must be resource minded, not waste minded. Similarly, there can be no
equity as long as half the world’s population goes without even basic sanitation. A system of
sanitation that contributes towards the goals of equity and a sustainable society must meet or at
least go some way towards meeting the following criteria:
Disease prevention
A sanitation system must be capable of destroying or isolating faecal pathogens.
Environment protection
A sanitation system must prevent pollution and conserve valuable water resources.
Nutrient recycling
A sanitation system should return nutrients to the soil.
Affordability
A sanitation system must be accessible to the world’s poorest people.
Acceptability
A sanitation system must be aesthetically inoffensive and consistent with cultural and social
values.
Simplicity
A sanitation system must be robust enough to be easily maintained with the limitations of the
local technical capacity, institutional framework and economic resources.
Successful implementation of these criteria requires an understanding of sanitation as a system.
The criteria also require that all the components of the system are considered together, not just
one or two, when designing and making sanitation systems work. The main components of that
system are nature, society, process and device.
SYSTEM OF SANITATION:
For the disposal of waste products of town and city two works are required.
A. Collection works
B. Disposal works.
The following two methods are commonly adopted for such purposes.
1. Conservancy system 2. Water carriage system

1. Conservancy system: Also called dry system. Although it is out of date system but in some
underdeveloped countries, small cities it is prevailing .Different types of refuse, waste and excreta
are collected, conveyed and disposed off separately by different methods in this system. Hence it
is called conservancy system.
Merits:
1. cheaper in initial cost
2. The quantity of sewage reaching at the treatment plant before disposal is low
3. As the storm water goes in drains (open channels) the sewer section will be small.
Hence no silting and deposits in the sewer lines.
Demerits:
1. The system is insanitary, crude and inhuman and unhygienic.
2. risk of epidemics
3. There is pollution at disposal site & creates nuisance
4. Depends on mercy of the sweepers.
2. Water carriage system: In this system, water is the main substance for collection and
conveyance of sewage therefore it is called water carriage system. In this system, the excremental
matters are mixed up in large quantity of water and are taken out from the city through properly
designed sewerage system. They are then disposed off after necessary treatment in a satisfactory
manner.
In this system 99.9% consists of water and the remaining 0.1% is solid matter. All of these solid
remains in suspension in the sewage and don’t change the specific gravity of water. Hence all of
the hydraulics formulae can be used for designing of sewage system
Merits:
1. It is hygienic method (no human agency)
2. Perfect sanitation system.
3. Due to closed conduct less risk of epidemics
4. Absence of foul gases and creates healthy environment
5. Occupies less space being single sewer.
6. Due to more quantity of water self cleaning velocity can be achieved even at low gradient.
7. Land required for disposal work is less.
8. Sewage after treatment can be used for various purposes.
9. No need of human agency hence no risk.
Demerits:
1. Very costly in initial cost
2. Maintenance cost is also high.
3. During monsoon large volume of sewage is to be treated whereas small volume is
treated in remaining year.
SYSTEM OF SEWARAGE:
The sewerage system can be classified as-
a. Combined system
b. Separate system
c. Partially separate system
1. Separate system: When sanitary sewage is taken in one set of sewer where as storm and
surface water is taken in another sets of sewers it is called separate system.
Suitability:
a. If rainfall is heavy and is for short period or rainfall does not take place all the
year.
b. If sanitary sewage is to be pumped.
c. In rocky area.

d. If sewers have been laid before the actual development of the area, it is desirable to
adapt the separate system of sewerage
Advantage:
1. The sizes of sewers are small.
2. Sewage load on treatment plant is small.
3. Stream water is no polluted.
4. During disposal if sewage is to be pumped it is cheaper.
Disadvantage:
1. Maintenance cost is high. (As two sets of sewers are laid.)
2. Sewers being small, it is difficult to clean them.
3. Flushing is required at various points.
4. Strom water line comes into use only in rainy season. Therefore during dry
season they may become the dumping places for garbage and may get clocked.
2. Combined system: when only one set of sewers is laid for collecting and conveyance of both
the sanitary and storm sewage, this type of arrangement is called combined system.
Suitability:
a. In such areas having small rainfall which is continuous evenly throughout the
year.(Self cleaning velocity is available throughout the year)
b. In crowded area.(single sewer line)
c. Having less sewage.
Advantage:
1. No need of flushing.
2. Rain water dilutes the sewage therefore it can be easily and economically treated.
(Strength of sewage is reduced)
3. Maintenance cost is reasonable.
4. Size of sewer is large, hence easy to clean.
Disadvantage:
1. Initial cost is high.
2. Being large size, its handling and transportation is difficult.
3. Load on treatment plant is increases unnecessarily.
4. Storm water is unnecessarily polluted. During rainy season, storm water may over
flow and create unhygienic condition.
5. If whole sewage is disposed of by pumping it is uneconomical.
3. Partially separate system:
In the separate system, if a portion of storm water is allowed to enter in sewers carrying sewage
and remaining storm water flows in separate sets of sewers, it is called partially separate system.
Advantage:
a. Economical and reasonable size of sewers.
b. No flushing is required.
c. combines the advantage of two.
d .The works of house plumbing is reduced.
Disadvantage:
a. The cost of plumbing at the disposal plants is increased than separate system.
b. In dry weather, self cleaning velocity may not develop.

Comparison between separate and combined system
S.N. Items Separate system Combined system

1. Size of sewer Small Large
2. Sewage load on treatment plant Less More
3. Sewer set 1 2
4. Maintenance & cleaning Difficult Less difficult
5 Storm water No polluted Polluted
6. Clogging of sewer Frequently Rare
7. Pumping Less costly Costly
8. Working during dry flow Storm sewer may become Unsatisfactory flow.
dumping site.
9. Working during rain Satisfactory Overflow
10. Handling & Construction Less difficult Difficult
11. Suitability High intensity of flow Less intensity of flow
12. Overall cost Cheap High
13. Degree of sanitation Less degree of sanitation High degree of sanitation.
14. Location of place Difficult in narrow area. Suitable in narrow area.
Sanitation, Environment and public Health

Sanitation refers to hygienic practices of disposing human waste in ways that do not harm the
environment and general public health. Good sanitation greatly depends on household
responsibilities to choose, use, and maintain the technology, such as a toilet and a septic tank.
Most cities should also have a utility taking responsibility for a wastewater management system
that collects and treats wastewater coming from septic tanks and sewer lines before being released
back into the natural environment. In rural areas, community-managed systems are also required
to protect people’s health and environment.
The environment is one of the primary determinants of individual and community health.
Environmental conditions can adversely influence human health in many ways through exposures
to physical, chemical and biological risk factors, and through related changes in behavior in
response to those factors.
Globally, nearly one quarter of all deaths and of the total disease burden can be attributed to the
environment status. In children, environmental risk factors can account for slightly more than one-
third of the disease burden. These findings have important policy implications, as the
environmental risk factors can be modified by established, cost-effective interventions.
Evidences show that health and environment risks are significant and can be reduced. From the
analysis of the information obtained, the high risks resulting from natural factors are mainly
disease vectors, drought, floods and drinking water organic pollution for both rural and urban
settings. The high risk factors resulting from human activity are disease vectors, drought, floods,
drinking water organic pollution, deforestation, simple wastes, affects both rural and urban
settings whereas food contamination, indoor air pollution and outdoor pollution are specific for
urban settings. The results from the assessment of environmental risks to human health and
ecosystem degradation can hence be categorized into four broad categories namely, climate
change and related disasters; sanitation, hygiene and water pollution; chemicals, pesticides and
other hazardous waste management and air pollution.
Safe and hygienic way of disposal of human wastes is an increasing problem particularly in urban
and peri urban area resulting into high mortality, morbidity and decreasing community health,
sanitation and consequently productivity. Without safe water supply and sanitation facilities and
increasing resource constraints have led to rapid deterioration in quality of life and community
health in many developing countries which are likely to become further aggravated unless steps
are initiated to improve sanitation through inter-sectoral co-ordination, people’s participation,
innovative and appropriate technology for safe management of human waste and waste water
treatment and solid waste management. Human wastes from individual households and public

toilets through septic tanks, finally lead to nearby river or low land areas causing severe pollution
due to its higher BOD and pathogen counts.
The key to improved sanitation is a steady supply of clean water, appropriate technology,
behavior change, and environment-friendly wastewater management strategies. For many
countries in the developing world, setting up an efficient sanitation system, complete with running
water, is nowhere in sight. This reality makes communities highly vulnerable to epidemics, which
can be more costly to manage than what would have been needed to prevent one through simple
sanitation and wastewater measures.
Sanitation is not only about providing toilets for everybody. Sanitation is also about maintaining
the hygienic conditions brought about by having improved sanitation systems. A safe and clean
environment, in turn, would-
 Increase workers’ productivity and income because of reduced time spent on recuperating
from water-borne illnesses;
 Reduce expectant mothers’ susceptibility to diseases, and generally improve women’s
health; and
 Increase children’s potentials to reach higher levels of education hindered by the high
incidence of diseases and infant and child mortality.

Unit 7
Introduction to Sewage collection and treatment
Sewage disposal from Isolated, apartment or group housing

It is not possible to have water carriage system in all towns, villages. In such isolated building or
in rural areas no other matters except human excreta are safely disposed. In such areas, sewage is
not transported but onsite sanitation system is developed with onsite treatment and disposal of
sewage. So privies, septic tanks are useful in such areas. The purpose of sanitation is to reduce or
stop the spread of diseases by disposing of excreta safely and isolating it so that flies and other
insects cannot reach it and it cannot get into water supplies. Safe disposal of excreta alone may
not be enough to prevent the spread of cholera and other diarrhoeal diseases. Personal hygiene is
very important, especially washing hands after using the latrine and before cooking and eating.
Privies: Privies are commonly underground chamber or pit used for collection and disposal of
human excreta. It may be of masonry or just pit only generally with or without superstructure.
Different privies are used for safe collection and disposal of human excreta in isolated buildings
of unsewered areas but in Nepal the following privies are common.
 Pit privy
 VIP privy
 Pour flush toilet
1. Pit Privy or Pit latrine:
It is widely used in developing countries. In this type Pit is made to collect
and safe onsite disposal of human excreta. Simple pit latrine is appropriate
where water is limited, usually rural areas with low population density.
Problems of smell and poor acceptability can be addressed by proper slab
construction with a tight fitting cover. Pit privies should not be placed in
densely populated areas, boggy or marshy areas, or areas where soil is
minimal and bedrock is largely exposed.
Construction: It consists of the followings:

 A pit (90-120 cm in diameter or 1mX1m plan and 2-3 m deep), which may be lined or
unlined and covered with squatting plate seat with covered hole.
 Temporary foundations and superstructure are made to protect from rain and for
maintaining privacy.
 pit lining to prevent collapse and better standards of superstructure
When the digested sludge reaches up to the level of 50 cm below the top, the pit should be filled
with 50-75 cm thick earth layer and the superstructure and squatting seat is shifted to next
position. After 2 years the filled pit can be used.
2. VIP latrine: An improved version of the pit latrine which has better odour and fly control
therefore being more acceptable in medium population density situations and offering greater
social and health benefits. The VIP is a pit latrine with a screened vent installed directly over the
pit. The vent provides odor control and the screen on top of the vent prevents entry of insects
attracted by the smell. Filled pits are covered with soil for composting. There are two types of VIP
latrines: single pit and alternating-pit. For the latter, there are two adjacent pits below the toilet
room and one pit is used at any given time. When one pit becomes full, it is closed and the other
pit is used. By the time the second pit becomes full, the first has fully decomposed and becomes
innocuous. Materials in the filled pit are removed and the pit can then be returned to service till it
becomes full.

Single-pit VIP latrines are suitable for use in rural areas where the soil is deep and space is
available to construct succeeding pits. Alternating double-pit VIP latrines are appropriate for
urban areas where people can afford a permanent latrine that does not require relocating after
every few years.
VIP latrines can be used in areas where there are no on-site water supplies. Water is needed for
hand washing.
The VIP latrine allows smells to be drawn out of the vent pipe and thus is more pleasant to use
than the normal pit latrine. Flies cannot enter the latrine down the pipe due to the fly screen and if
a roof is fitted then any flies breeding in the pit fly up the vent to the light and are also trapped by
the fly screen.
The superstructure may be made from a variety of
materials and also follow local preferences. The vent
pipe should be 20cm or higher than the roof to enhance
ventilation. The floor should be made of high strength
concrete (1 part cement, 3 parts river sand), which
slopes toward the squat hole and is given a smooth
finish with a steel float. A good latrine floor is
important in controlling fouling and allowing regular
washing.
A fly screen is attached to the top of the vent pipe to

seal the aperture. Stainless steel or fiber glass gauze
lasts longer but whichever type is used, the fly screen
should be checked regularly and replaced when torn.
Design:
The pit volume is given by:
Sludge accumulation rate x Number of people
x Filling time
 Sludge accumulation rate = 40
liters/person/year or rate decreased to 20
liters/person/year if pit is seasonally flooded or
water from washings is added to the pit.
Increase rate by 50% to allow bulky materials
for anal cleansing.
 Design use of single pit (filling time) =
period of 2 years
 Pit bottom not lined to enable liquid to
soak away
Minimum pit volume = 1 m3 for household of 6
persons for use in about 2 years. Increase in
capacity can be achieved by making the pit at least 0.5 m deeper than the minimum since the
latrine cannot be used after the sludge surface gets close to the slab cover.
3. Pour flush latrine: The pour-flush toilet has a bowl with a water-seal trap. It is as hygienic as
the conventional tank-flush toilet and requires only a small volume of water for flushing. Human
waste or excreta is flushed with water poured into the bowl with a pail or scoop. The toilet can be
within the house or a separate structure can be built outside. A pour-flush bowl can be used with
compost privy, VIP, aqua privy or public toilet. Ventilation pipe is not necessary in pour flush
latrine. Appropriate where sufficient water is available. Controls smells and flies, allows the

latrine to be inside the dwelling with an offset pit outside. Usually flushed with a small amount of
water poured by hand.
Construction:
A water seal pan is kept inside the house or structure. A pipe of sufficient gradient of 1 in 5 to 1
in 15 is connected with pan to junction chamber then to pit.
A brick masonry junction chamber of size 300 mm X 300 mm is constructed outside and is closed
from top with RCC slab. It consists of two holes each of which is connected with pipeline and
then to pits. One pipeline is open and other is closed at a time i.e. it is alternatively used. The pit is
covered with RCC slab.
Septic tank:
Septic tank is a rectangular watertight combined sedimentation and digestion tank, constructed of
brickwork or RCC or stone masonary. It is built underground to collect the human excreta as well
as other sewage. Septic Tank receives the discharge of sewage and is designed and constructed so
as to retain solids, digested organic matter through a period of detention, and allow the treated
liquids to discharge into a subsurface leaching system. Leaching System means a subsurface
system of open-jointed or perforated piping bedded where septic tank effluent may seep or leach
into the surrounding porous soil.
The main purpose of septic tank is to collect the sewage, settle the solid matters, effectively
creates the digestion process and disposes effluent in efficient way.
Construction Details:
It is rectangular in plan with minimum width of 0.75; length width ratio 2 to 4; Minimum
effective depth of 1 to 1.8 m.free board of 0.3 to 0.45 m is recommended.
Walls are made of masonry (≥ 20 cm thick for brick and ≥ 38 cm for stone)or RCC and inside of
walls are plastered with not less than 12 mm thick 1:3 rich cement plaster.
The floor should be 1:2:4 cement concrete and if sludge outlet is provided, slope is given towards
outlet. On the top RCC slab with airtight RCC or cast iron manhole covers are provided.
Footsteps are arranged on walls inside to enter into the tank. For smaller tanks hanging baffle wall
is placed at 20 to 30 cm far from the inlet pipe in such a way that it remains 15 cm above and 30
cm below liquid level. For larger tanks continuous type baffle or partition wall is provided at 1/5 th
of length of septic tank from inlet pipe and a hole of 15 cm X 15 cm is made at a height of 45 cm
above the bed of tank to connect two chambers.

The inlet and outlet are fitted with T joints for not to disturb both scum and sludge. An inlet T is
submerged at a depth of 15 – 25 cm below the liquid level whereas it is submerged at a depth of
15 cm below liquid level at outlet. A vent pipe of 7.5 to 10 cm diameter of AC or CI or plastic is
provided with cowl at the top. It is provided 2m high if septic tank is 15 m far from building and
if it closer than 15 m, the vent pipe is extended 2m above the roof height of tallest building.
Working principle:
The function of septic tank is to produce certain biological and chemical changes i.e.
decomposition by partial liquefaction and gasification for human excreta through the action of
anaerobic bacteria which decomposes wastes in the absence of free oxygen and humidity and
even in the darkness and warmth, which are the conditions created in the septic tank. Hence
digestion by bacteria and sedimentation takes place in septic tank.
During the course of action the lighter materials are rises to the surface and makes thick floating
material called scum whereas heavier material will sink to the bottom of the septic tank called
sludge. The gases produced are escaped from the high vertical vent shaft. The effluent from the
septic contains organic solids and pathogens so it should be properly disposed off. Effluent from
septic tank is disposed off by absorption in soil through soak pit.
Design
consideration for septic tank:

Let L, B, d, FB, D are the length, width, effective depth, free board and overall depth of tank in
which t is the time allowed for sewage to retain for sedimentation or detention time. Assuming Q
is the quantity of sewage flow and N is the number of users, then followings are the consideration
for tank dimension:
(a) Detention time (t) = 1-3 days.
(b) Minimum width (B min) = 0.75 m.
(c) Free board (FB) =0.3 – 0.45 m
(d) Minimum effective depth (d min) =1m
(e) Length to width ratio (L:B) =2-4
(f) Volume (V) =It is the summation of the followings-
i. Volume for settling of sewage (V1) = Q.t
ii. Volume for sludge digestion (V2) = 0.0425 N in m3 (i.e. 0.0425 m3 /Person)
iii. Volume for storage of digested sludge (V3) =Cds . N in m3

Where, Q= quantity of sludge; t = detention time; N = no of users ; 0.425 is the digested volume
of digested sludge per person ;Cds =Digested sludge rate which depends upon the cleaning period
‘T’ and given in table
So, Effective volume (V) = V1 + V2+ V3
Digested sludge rate (Cds) for different cleaning period ‘T’
Desludging period (T) 6 month 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year
Digested sludge rate (Cds) in m3/person 0.0283 0.0490 0.0708 0.0850
Disposal of septic tank effluent:

Effluent from septic tank is septic and malodorous containing organic matter and pathogens hence
should be properly disposed off to prevent nuisance and hazard to public health.
Septic tank effluents are generally be disposed by various land treatment or soil absorption
methods as follows:
 Drain field
 Evapotranspiration moulds
 Leaching cesspool
 Soak pit
But in our syllabus there are only leaching cesspool and soak pit only-
Leaching cesspool:
It is a circular or rectangular underground chamber or tank whose top portion acts as an
absorption field and bottom as a septic tank, i.e. at the same tank both collection and disposal of
sewage is done. So, it is called combination of septic tank and soak pit.
The main purpose of cesspool is to collect and dispose sewage effluent by settlement of heavier
particles whereas the liquid is absorbed by the surrounding soil.
Construction Details: The tank is of at least 1 m diameter with watertight bottom to retain the
heavier sludge for digestion. If cesspool bottom is below the water table, walls are made
watertight made of cement mortar joints. At certain depth below, a shell filled with 15 cm coarse
aggregate and 30 cm sand is filled for dispersion of effluent in the surrounding soil for soaking as
shown in figure.
Soak pit or seepage pit:

A soak pit is more commonly a circular pit preferred to disposed effluent by soaking in the
surrounding soil. It is preferred when water table is
sufficiently below the ground level and land
available is low as well as porous layer underlies as
impervious layer. It is economical, stable and high
efficient. The main purpose of soak pit is to dispose
the septic tank effluent by absorption in the
surrounding soil.
Construction details:
It consists of pit which may be lined or unlined.
Unlined pit is filled with bricks, coarse aggregates
and sand and cover is not cover is not necessary
where as the lined soak pit is empty inside and filled
with sand , gravel and stone in outside shell and a
cover is required .The lined pit wall may be honey combed but should be laid dry.
Design criteria:
The minimum and maximum diameter should be 0.9 m and 3.5 m respectively. The depth
depends upon the level of GWT but effective depth should not less than 1m.There should not be
ground water sources within the radius of 60 m. The design depends upon the absorption capacity
or infiltration capacity of surrounding soil.
πϕd = Q/I
Where, ϕ =diameter of soak pit and d= effective
depth in m, Q = effluent discharge in m3/day and
I = Infiltration capacity of soil in m3/m2/day.
I = 130/√ Tr (in l/m2/day), where Tr depend upon
soil type, for porous soil its value is 25 minute/cm.
Eco-sanitation
Over the next 25 years the world’s population is
expected to reach 8 billion, with 5 billion living in
urban areas. More than half of the 8 billion will
face water shortages and 40% of the urban population might be living in slums. Already today
billions of people, in urban as well as in rural areas, have no proper sanitation. With this in mind,
an international group of planners, architects, engineers, ecologists, biologists, agronomists and
social scientists have developed an approach to sanitation that saves water, does not pollute and
returns the nutrients in human excreta to the soil. We call this approach ‘ecological sanitation’, or
‘eco-san’ for short.
Ecological sanitation is based on three fundamental principles: preventing pollution rather than
attempting to control it after we pollute; sanitizing the urine and the faeces; and using the safe
products for agricultural purposes. This approach can be characterized as ‘sanitize-and-recycle’.
This approach is a cycle – a sustainable, closed-loop system. It treats human excreta as a resource.
Urine and faeces are stored and processed on site and then, if necessary, further processed off site
until they are free of disease organisms. The nutrients contained in the excreta are then recycled
by using them in agriculture.
An essential part of eco-san is to contain and sanitize human excreta before they are recovered
and reused. Human faeces, rather than urine, are responsible for most diseases spread by human
excreta. Thus, a method is needed to sanitize faeces. Two methods are discussed here:
dehydration and decomposition. Dehydration, or drying, of faeces is easier if they are not first
mixed with urine and water. When faeces decompose, the pathogens in them die and are broken
down. Thus, with either method, viruses, bacteria and worm eggs are destroyed. It is only then
that faeces can be recycled. Urine is usually safe enough to be used in agriculture without further
treatment, either directly or after a short period of storage.
In summary, key features of eco-san are prevention of pollution and disease caused by human
excreta, management of human urine and faeces as resources rather than as waste, and recovery
and recycling of the nutrients. In the natural world, excreta from humans and other animals play

an essential role in building healthy soils and providing valuable nutrients for plants.
Conventional approaches to sanitation misplace these nutrients, dispose of them and turn the cycle
into a linear flow.
Constructed Wetland:
What is it?
A constructed wetland is a shallow basin filled with some sort of substrate, usually soil or gravel,
and planted with vegetation tolerant of saturated conditions. Water is introduced at one end and
flows over the surface or through the substrate, and is discharged at the other end through a weir
or other structure which controls the depth of the water in the wetland.
Constructed wetlands are designed to remove contaminants from storm water and
wastewater.This practice applies where runoff is contaminated by oils, pesticides, nutrients,
fertilizers, or animal wastes to levels unacceptable for downstream receiving waters. The reuse or
reclamation of wastewater using constructed wetland technology also provides an opportunity to
create or restore valuable wetland habitat for wildlife and environmental enhancement.
Constructed wetlands for water treatment are complex, integrated systems of water, plants,
animals, microorganisms, and the environment.
A constructed wetland consists of a properly designed basin that contains water, a substrate, and,
most commonly, vascular plants. These components can be manipulated in constructing a
wetland. Other important components of wetlands, such as the communities of microbes and
aquatic invertebrates, develop naturally. Wetland plants, or native vegetation and soils are the
materials for constructed wetland.
Purpose
Constructed wetlands are used to improve the quality of point and nonpoint sources of water
pollution, including storm water runoff, domestic wastewater, agricultural wastewater, and coal
mine drainage. Constructed wetlands are also being used to treat petroleum refinery wastes,
compost and landfill leachates, fishpond discharges, and pretreated industrial wastewaters, such as
those from pulp and paper mills, textile mills, and seafood processing by the biological, chemical
and physical activities of a constructed wetland. For some wastewaters, constructed wetlands are
the sole treatment; for others, they are one component in a sequence of treatment processes.
One of the most common applications of constructed wetlands has been the treatment of primary
or secondary domestic sewage effluent. Constructed wetland systems modeled after those for
domestic wastewater are being used to treat the high organic loads associated with agriculture.
The use of constructed wetlands to control storm water flows and quality is a recent application of
the technology and the number of such systems is increasing rapidly. The treatment of wastewater
or storm water by constructed wetlands can be a low-cost, low-energy process requiring minimal
operational attention. Hence a wetland that has been constructed for the primary purpose of water
quality improvement i.e. Pollutant removal from surface flow and additional uses is Habitat
enhancement.
Conditions where practice applies
This practice applies where runoff is contaminated by metals, pesticides, nutrients, fertilizers, or
animal wastes to levels unacceptable for downstream receiving waters. This practice applies to the
treatment of a wastewater discharge and/or nonpoint source discharge (agricultural, urban storm
water).
Limitations
 Space limitations.
 Must be careful to avoid over-loading.
 Wetland subsoil should be relatively impermeable; otherwise a lining may be needed.
 Not particularly good for phosphorus removal.
 Must have a safe disposal area for vegetation that has been removed.
 Maintenance is required.

Installation
Assume minimum 5 day retention time required for biological treatment. Wetland plants planted
on 2-3 ft (0.6-0.9 m) centers. Maximum depth approximately 1 ft (0.3 m) for emergent plants.
Aspect (length/width) ratio should be at least 4:1.
Additional Considerations
Pretreatment for flows with high solid/sediment content is advisable. Use of high and low marsh
areas can make flow more uniform, but increase expense and complexity of construction. Deeper
areas in the wetland (e.g., marsh-pond-marsh) help to promote nitrogen removal.
Types of Constructed Wetlands

1. Surface flow constructed wetland:
This system most resembles with natural wetlands both in the way they look and the way they
provide treatment. The surface flow (SF) wetland typically consists of a shallow basin, soil or
other medium to support the roots of plants and a water control structure that maintains a shallow
depth of water (Figure 1).
As soon as wastewater enters to surface flow wetland cell, natural processes immediately begin to
break down and remove the waste materials in the water. Before the wastewater has moved very
far in the wetland small suspended waste materials are physically strained out by submerged
plants in the wetland .The roots, stems, leaves, and litter of wetland plants also provide a
multitude of small surfaces where wastes can become trapped and waste-consuming bacterial can
attach themselves to the plant .These bacteria provide the majority of wastewater treatment. Wind,
rain, wastewater and anything else that agitates the water surface can add oxygen to the system.
When bacteria consume waste particles in the water they convert them into other substances such
as methane, ammonium, sulfate, orthophosphate, carbon dioxide and new cellular material. Some
of these substances are used as food by plants and other by bacteria.
The general characteristic of SF wetland are-Water level is above the ground surface; vegetation
is rooted and emerges above the water surface water flow is primarily above ground

Figure 1: Surface Flow Wetland Type
2. Subsurface Flow Wetland

The Subsurface flow (SSF) wetland, consists of a sealed basin or channel with a porous substrate
of rock or gravel media and a barrier to prevent seepage. The media also support the root structure
of the emergent plants. The design of this system assumes that the water level in the bed will
remain below the top of the rock or gravel media (Figure 2). The general characteristics of SSF
wetlands are-Water level are below ground; water flow is through a sand or gravel beds; roots
penetrate to the bottom of bed.
The treatment processes in SSF wetland system is more efficient than in the SF wetland system.
The biological treatment in SSF wetlands is mostly anaerobic, because the layers of media and
soil remain saturated and unexposed to the atmosphere. However, wetland plants are able to grow
extensive roots even in these anaerobic conditions. Wetland plant roots contribute oxygen to the
cells which allow some aerobic treatment to take place in the root zone, which stimulates organic
matter oxidation and the growth of nitrifying bacteria.
Figure 2: Subsurface Flow Wetland Type
Rainwater disposal from roof and court yard
Roof drainage
Figure: Roof drainage from pitched roof

Rainwater runoff from roof (both pitched and flat) and courtyard is usually collected by gutters
and outlets and finally discharged through downpipes to drains, sewers or soakways. Rainwater
gutters and downpipes if blocked, raked or have sunk may cause dampness to walls and possible
dry rot in timbers. In pitched roof rainwater comes to the lower end (Eaves and verge) and finally
drains to an eaves gutter.
The size of gutters and down pipes is determined by the estimated volume of rainwater that will
fall directly on a roof during periods of intense periods.Certain allowance for wind driven rain is
made for rain falling on steeply sloping roofs than on roofs with a shallow slopes. The effective
area of roof to be drained is deriverd from plan (horizontal) area of a roof multiplied by a factor
allowing for the pitch or slope of the roof is given in table below-
Calculation of area drained
After determining the effective area of roof it is necessary to select the size of gutter capable of
collecting and discharging the volume of water assumed to fall during storms. For choosing size
of gutter it is assumed that the roof drains to a half round gutter up to 8 m long with a sharp edged
outlet at one end only and laid level. This is the extreme condition. In the calculation of size of
rainwater downpipe some reduction of pipe size may be effected by the use of round edged gutter
outlets. The table gives an indication of the required diameter of half round gutter sizes related to
the maximum effective area of roof that drains to that gutter.
Table: Gutter sizes and outlet sizes
Figure: Rainwater Outlets

Eaves gutters to most roofs are fixed to shallow fall of 1:360 towards outlets. The section of gutter
most commonly used for traditional pitched roof covered with slates or tiles is half round. This is
the standard section of generally used plastic and traditional cast iron gutter. Other sections are
segmental and ogee gutter.
Figure: Rainwater gutter

cross sections
Figure: Gutters and downpipes Figure : Rainwater gutter fittings
Roof drainage from flat roof (parapet rainwater outlet)

The run off of rainwater is encouraged by a fall or slope of roof to outlets formed in the parapet
wall.These outlets are lined with lead sheet shaped to fit in the bed and side of the outlet and are
dressed down over a rainwater head.The lead chute is dressed under the flat roof covering.
Drainage System

Figure : Combined and separate drain system
Surfacewater drainage
Paved surfaces shoud be laid with slight slopes or falls to gullies or channels to discharge
rainwater reasonably quickly for convenience of people and to prevent ponding of water that
would accelerate deterioration of paving materials by saturation.The slope or fall of paved areas
should be sufficient to drain water to outleys,but not so steep as to make the surface slippery in
wet.The minimum fall of 1:60 is generally recommonded for paved areas on flat ground.
A fall or gradient of 1:30 to 1:20 is recommonded along the length of access roads,with a cross
fall of 1:40 across the width,usually formed as a camber or shallow curve to each side.As a
general guide a paved area of 200 to 250 m2 of paved area should srain to each gully at a slope of
1:50.
Figure : Trapped gully Figure : Rainwater outlet

Figure Paved area drainage Figure: Clay yard gully

UNIT 8.0
PIPES, APPLIANCES FITTINGS AND APPEARANCES
SEWERPIPE MATERIALS:
Sewage contains various domestic and industrial wastes which consist of excreta, ash, sand, gases,
acids, alkalis, etc, so sewer material should have the following properties:
1. It should be resistant to corrosion and abrasion due to impurities
2. It should be durable and should have sufficient strength to resist external loads.
3. It should be structurally safe and durable.
4. It should have minimum weight so that it can be easily handled, transported and laid in
position.
5. It should be cheap and easily casted in mould in desirable shape.
6. It should create watertight joints.
7. It should be impervious so that the water do not seepage in to it.
The various materials used for sewer are: (a) Asbestos cement (b) plain or RCC (c) Vitrified clay
or stoneware (d) Brick (e) Cast iron (f) steel (g) Plastic. But, here we are concerned with the
following only.
A. Vitrified clay or stoneware
It is manufacture from clay and shale of special qualities and grades, using hot process and has
smooth surface. It is generally used in house drainage and laterals.
Merits:
It is highly resistant to erosion due to grit and high velocity and also to sulphide and most acids.
Its inner surface is smooth hence hydraulically efficient.
It is highly impervious.
It is cheap and easily available.
Demerits:
It is very weak in tension.
It is heavy and brittle hence difficult to transport, handling and laying.
B. Cast iron:
It is made of CI. It is suitable at places where ground is wet, vibrations as well as high external
and pressure arises, at inverted siphons, under expensive rod surfaces.
Merits:
It is structurally strong and can withstand vibration as well as high internal and external pressure.
It can bear tensile, bending and compressive strength.
It is easy to join and water tight joints are obtained
It is resistant in most natural soils.
Demerits:
It is brittle and very heavy so difficult to transport and handling.
It is very expensive
It is easily attacked by acids.
C. Plain or reinforced cement concrete:
It is widely used in sewers. It is made of cement concrete (precast or cast insitu) and can be joined
with bell and spigot joints.PCC are upto 60 cm diameters and used where pressure is less than 15
cm of water and for diameter greater than 60 cm and RCC should be used. Precast concrete pipes
are manufactured in factory in controlled conditions whereas cast insitu type can be casted in site
using local material.
Merit:
 It is strong enough to withstand external and internal pressure and can be designed for any
strength.
 Can be constructed on site as required shape and size.
 It is resistant to erosion and abrasion
 It is economical for medium and large size hence heavily use for sewer.

 It has least thermal expansion.
 Its maintenance cost is low and can be laid under water.
Demerits:
 Precast type is heavy to handle and transport.
 It is very difficult to join so liable to leak due to porosity and difficult to repair.
 It may be affected by acid and alkali and salt water but major disadvantage is it is most
liable to crown corrosion.
Manhole
Manholes are an opening made up of masonry or RCC chamber constructed at suitable location
on suitable intervals along the sewer line to provide access to man for the purpose of inspection,
testing, cleaning and removal of obstructions from the sewer line.
Function
1. Men can entry inside the sewer for inspection, cleaning repair and maintenance.
2. Helps in joining of sewer in direction, alignment change and change in length.
3. If the manhole covers are perforated they may also access in ventilating the sewer.
4. Helps for splitting and union of sewer line.
Location
The manholes are generally provided at every bend, junction, change in direction, change in
gradient or change in diameter of sewer. As far as possible the sewer line between two manholes
is laid straight. The spacing of the manhole is depends upon the size of sewer line. Larger the
diameter greater will be spacing and vice versa. At straight line manholes are provided at interval
of 50-300 m.
Diameter Spacing
Up to 0.3 m diameter 50m
Up to 1.3m diameter 250m
Greater than 1.5m diameter 300m
Section at X-X Section at Y-Y

Components: A typical manhole consists of the followings
Access shaft: - It is the upper portion of man hole. Its minimum size for rectangular is about
0.75m *0.6m. For circular minimum size = 0.6-0.75 m diameter.
Working plate form: - It is the lower portion of manhole. It provides working space for
inspection and cleaning operation. Minimum size for rectangular is about 1.2m *0.9m. For
circular minimum diameter is 1.2m. Height of this chamber is not less than 1.8 m.
Benching: - The bottom portion of manhole is constructed by cement concrete and sides are made
slope; this cementing portion is known as benching and it facilitates the entry of sewage into main
sewer.
Base and Side walls: - A bed, generally plain cement concrete is provided at base to support the
side walls of manhole and to prevent the entry of groundwater. The thickness of concrete bed is
varies from 15 to 30 cm. The following thumb rule may be use for determining the thickness of
brick walls.
t=10+4d where t= thickness of wall in cm and d is the depth of manhole in m.
Steps: - Generally provided for ascending and descending into manhole made up of cast iron or
RCC for manhole depth more than 0.8 m. These steps are placed staggered at a horizontal c/c
distance of 38 cm and vertical C/C distance 30 cm above the benching.
Cover and frame: - Manhole is provided with cast iron or RCC cover at its top. Mostly the
opening is of circular shape and is most commonly used.
Drop manholes
A drop manhole is a special type of manhole on a sewer line which is constructed on a sewer line
where a sewer at a high level is to be connected to another sewer at lower level. Such a situation
many rises as indicated below:
i. When a branch sewer located at a higher level is to be connected to a main sewer located at a
lower level then if ordinary manhole is provided the sewage from the branch sewer will fall
from above into the manhole which is not desirable and is to be avoided. A drop manhole is to
be provided at the junction of branch sewer and the main sewer when the difference between
the invert level of branch sewer and peak flow level of main sewer is more than 0.6 m. The
construction of a drop manhole permits the sewage flow from the branch sewer to be
discharged at the bottom of the manhole without necessating step gradient for the branch
sewer and thus reduces the quantity of earth work.
ii. In case ground having steep slope it is not possible to lay the sewer line at a uniform gradient
that will not produce scouring velocity. In such cases when drop of more than 0.6 m is
required to be given in the same sewer line a drop manhole is provided at a suitable place so
as to keep the sewer line below the ground level and to lay it at a limiting gradient.
Figure: Drop Manhole

Street inlets
- are generally opening on the street curb or gutter to collect storm water and surface wash
flowing along the street and admitting them into sewer or manhole. Maximum spacing of inlets
would depend upon various conditions of road surface, size and type of inlet and rainfall. A
maximum spacing of 30 m is recommended on straight road. At intersection points they are
located as shown
Location of inlet at street intersection Curb and gutter inlet
A street inlet is a simple concrete box having gratings or openings in vertical or horizontal
direction. The inlet having vertical opening known as vertical or curb inlet and inlet having
horizontal opening known as horizontal or gutter inlet.
Catch basin or catch pits
Is a special type of inlet, in which a basin is provided which allows grit, sand and debris etc
flowing in with storm water, settle out. Catch basins are nothing but street inlets provided with
addition small setting basin. Generally 75 to 90 cm diameter and 75to 90 cm height are provided
to prevent the flow of grit, sand, debris in the sewer line. In addition to this a hood is also
provided to prevent the escape of foul gases.
Catch basins
Flushing devices
They are provided to flush sewer. It is a device or arrangement which holds water and then
troughs it into the sewer for the purpose of flushing it. It is provided in such a places where self
cleaning velocity could not achieve or in such places where ground is flat or low. These devices
store water temporarily and throw it into the sewer for the
purpose of cleaning if clogged. These devices are provided
at the beginning of sewer line and should have a capacity to
store enough water for cleaning. Its capacity is generally
kept equal to about 1/10thcubical content of sewer line
served by it. It can be operated either manually or
automatically.
Automatic Flushing
Flushing action may be achieved with flushing tanks,
automatically at regular intervals. The entry of water is so
regulated that the tank is just filled upto the discharge point,
in a period equal to the flushing interval. An overflow pipe
is also provided to drain away excess water in case the tank
overflows before the flushing action starts.
The tank consists of a masonry or concrete chamber filled with a

water tap for filling the tank with water. A U-tube in bell cap at its one end connects the chamber with the
enlarged end of sewer pipe. The bell cap has sniff hole. when the water level in the tank is below the sniff
hole, the water level in the U tube is at level Y1-Y2.as the water level in the tank rises above the sniff
hole, further entry of air into the bell is sealed ,and the air caught up in the bell is compressed. This
compressed air exerts pressure on the water surface at Y1 due to which the water level in the long
arm of the U tube is depressed. As the water level in the tank increases, the water level in the
longer arm goes on depressing more and more till a stage is reached when the water level in the
tank just reaches the discharge level. At this stage, symphonic action will start and will go on
continue till the water level in the tank just fails to the level of the sniff hole. At this stage, air
enters the bell portion through the sniff hole, thus breaking the siphonic action. At this stage,
water level in the U tube stands at level Y1-Y2.
Grease and oil traps
Grease and oil traps are specially built chambers on the sewer to exclude grease and oil from
sewage before they enter the sewer line. Such traps are located near those sources, such as
automobile repair workshops, garages, kitchens of hotels, oil and grease industries, which
contribute grease and oil in wastewaters. It is essential to exclude grease and oil from the sewage
due to the following reasons:
1. Grease and oil entering into sewer lines will stick to the interior surface of the sewer
conduit and will become hard, thus causing obstruction to flow.
2. Presence of oil and grease in the sewer increases the possibilities of explosion in the sewer
lines.
3. Due to the presence of oil and grease in the sewer, the floating matter will have the
tendency to stick the sides of sewer.
4. Presence of oil and grease in the wastewater causes difficulties in the treatment of
wastewater.
5. Presence of oil and grease on the surface of wastewater prevents oxygen to penetrate, due
to which aerobic bacteria will not survive and hence the organic matter will not be
decompose. This will give rise to bad odours.
Figure below shows a typical oil and grease trap. It consists of two chambers interconnected
through pipe. The inlet with grating is provided near the top, while the outlet is provided
submerged, at about 0.6 m above the bottom of trap. Since oil and grease is lighter than water,
they will float on the top surface of wastewater. Since the outlet is much lower, oil and grease
will be easily excluded. However, the wastewater from the garages, particularly from floor
drains and wash racks, contains oil, mud and sand. To trap all these, combined sand, grease
and oil trap as shown in the figure may be provided.
Oil and grease trap combined sand, grease and oil trap

Urinals
A urinal is a specialized toilet for urinating . It has the form of a container or simply a wall, with
drainage and automatic or manual flushing.
Whilst generally intended for use by males, it is also possible for females to use urinals. The
different types of male urinal, for single or multiple users in trough style designs are intended to
be utilized from a standing position. Public urinals often contain a deodorizing urinal contained
within a plastic mesh guard container or a plastic mesh guard without a urinal cake. The plastic
mesh guard is designed to prevent solid objects (such as cigarette butts, feces, chewing gum, or
paper) from being flushed and possibly causing a plumbing stoppage.
Purposes
In busy men's washrooms, urinals are installed for efficiency: compared with urination in a
general toilet, usage is faster; a urinal takes less space, is simpler, and consumes less water per
flush than a toilet. There are barriers dividing the urinals, which add to privacy.
Most public urinals incorporate a flushing system to rinse urine from the bowl of the device to
prevent foul odors. The flush can be triggered by one of several methods:
Plastic mesh guard Manual flush Automatic flush Water Less urinals
Waterless urinals can be installed in high-traffic facilities and in situations where providing a
Water supply may be difficult or where water conservation is desired
Arrangement of Urinals Kisses urinals

Basically there are three types of urinals in use-stall urinal,slab urinal and bowl urinal
The stall urinal comsiste of heavy,individual stoneware stalls with either a salt glazed or white
glazed finish,each stall having its own integral channel.The channel at the foot of the stall drains
to a brass outlet to a branch drain pipe.An automatic flushing cistern mounted on the wall flushes
through a horizontal pipe tospreaders to each stall.

Slab urinals are largely used for in public lavatories.These urinals are consist of flat,white glazed
ceramic slabs and white glazed ceramic channels fitted against a solid wall,with projecting end
slabs to each range of urinals.An automatic flushing cistern discharge water to sparge pipe fixed
over the slabs.
Slab urinals with divisions

Individual white glazed ceramic bowl urinals fixed to wall are used for ease of cleaning and the
sense of space they give.For privacy these urinals are seperated by division pieces fixed to the
wall between them.The automatic flushing cistern,flush pipe and waste may be fixed into the wall
or fixed behind a partition or pannel framing.
Bowl urinals
The automatic flushing cistern is of 4.5 liter capacity per slab,stall or bowl and the cisterns are
adjusted to flush every 30 minute.The cisterns is filled directly from distributing pipe,the rate of
filling and therefore the frequency of flush being controlled by a valve.
Vent Pipe
The sanitary drainage system of building should be provided with an attendant system of vent
piping designed so as to permit gases and odours in all parts of the drainage piping to circulate up
through the system and escape into atmosphere above the building. The sizing, arrangement and
installation of attendant vent piping should be designed so as to limit air pressure variation in all
fixture drains to a differential not exceeding 25 mm of water column above or below the
atmospheric pressure. Gases CO2, CO, CH4, H2s, NH3, N2 etc are very foul in nature, cause harm
to human health and corrode the sanitary appliance and reducing their life. These gases are
disposed off into atmosphere by exposing outside atmosphere by suitable method of ventilation.

Method of ventilation:-
1. Use of ventilation
2. Use of mechanical devices: - exhaust fans to expel out foul gases from sewer sometimes
provide Forced draught.
3. House vent and soil pipes
4. Artificial ventilation: Air blowers.
Soil appliances and Wastewater appliances
Sanitary appliances or fittings, includes all those appliances in which water is used for flushing
foul matter away, termed as soil appliances. It includes WCs and urinals, the discharge from
which is described as soil or soiled or foul water. Waste appliances which includes washbasins,
baths, showers, sinks and bidets, the discharge from which is described as waste water. Normally
soiled water appliances drained separately to cesspools and wastewater to soakaways.
 Sanitary assembly: An assembly comprising a soil or waste appliance and appropriate supply
and waste fittings.
• Soil appliance: An appliance for the reception and discharge of excretory matter.WC and urinals
are soil appliances.
• Supply fitting: A fitting to control or regulate the supply of water, commonly used with an
appliance.
• Waste appliance: An appliance for the reception of water for ablutionary, cleansing, or culinary
purposes and its discharge after use.
• Waste fitting: A fitting to conduct the discharge from an appliance and to connect to pipe work.
Water Closet (WC)
Simple meaning of Closet referring to small room, enclosure .A WC pan is a ceramic or metal
bowl to take solid and liquid excrement, with an inlet for flushing and a trapped outlet. The usual
flushing appliance is cistern designed to discharge water rapidly into the pan through a flush pipe,
for cleaning and disposal of contents. The flushing cistern may be fixed high above, near to or
closely coupled to the pan as shown in figure.
Pedestal WC
pan
Figure: WC
suits
Use white vitreous china, elongated bowl wall-mounted, siphon jet or blowout, white open-front
heavy-duty plastic seat with stainless steel self-sustaining check hinge, water conserving
diaphragm type lever-operated flush valve with solid ring support, 24” above fixture rim.

Double seal siphonic WC pan
Sink
The sinks are finished in the natural colour of stainless steel from which they are pressed. Most
sinks have weir overflows connected to the waste outlet and are holed for fitting hot and cold taps
or mixes. A 75 mm seal trap is connected to the sink waste which is connected to 40 mm copper
or plastic waste pipe.

The typical assembly requirements are:
1. Sink or sink top.
2. Separate manual control of hot and cold water.
3. Open nozzle and flow straightener with minimal restriction.
4. Lever-action taps.
5. Recessed grated waste with plug.
Sink bowl are Stainless steel or Metal sinks for domestic services which is rectangular stainless
steel sink bowl (min. 0.9 mm) with tap-holes, no overflow, no upstand, no chain-hole, edges
rimmed and turned down.
Single bowl single drainer Double bowl double drainer
Wash basins
Wash basins, designed for washing the upper part of the body. The standard wash basin consists
of a bowl, soap tray, outlet, water overflow connected to the outlet and holes for fixing taps.
The purpose of pedestal is to hide the trap, waste and hot and cold service pipes. A wide range of
sizes and designs are available, ranging from small corner basins and hand basins to basins large
enough for bathing a small child.
Hot and cold pillar taps connected to 12 to 15 mm hot and cold distributing or supply pipes are
fixed to or over washbasins. To prevent the possibility of foul water in the basin being back
siphoned into pipes, there is an air gap between outlet of taps and the spillover or top edge of the
basin.
Basin assemblies for use in connection with personal washing (face, forearms and hands etc)

Wash basin waste and trap
Bidet (Commode)
-are appliances for washing the excretory organs. It consists of a blazed ceramic pedestal bowl
which is secured to the floor, usually backing on to wall or Partition. A bidet may be white glazed
or finished in a limited range of pastel colours to match other bathroom appliances.

The shallow bowl has a flushing rim. An optional hand-held spray may be fitted to the hot and
cold supply. The bidet operates through the discharge of water around the flushing rim, and a
spray of water that rises from the bowl or a hand-held spray. The bowl may be fitted with water
and drained by the operation of a pop-up waste control. The temperature of spray water is
controlled by hot and cold water valves.
The typical assembly requirements are:

1. Back-to-wall pedestal bidet and (sensor-
operated) spout.
2. (Sensor-operated) over-rim supply.
3. Water temperature thermostatically controlled
4. Connecting to concealed services.
Cleanouts
Drain cleanouts provide access to the sewer for cleaning without disassembling appliances like
toilets or pipes.
Wall cleanouts in corridors are preferred to floor cleanouts where possible. Cleanouts shall be
adjustable and equipped with an internal brass plug with countersunk brass screws holding the rim
to the body and cover. Use tops with tile recess for floor coverings or terrazzo. Provide a
permanent carpet indicator where cleanout is located under carpet. Yard cleanouts shall be brass
recessed type in 24" x 24" x 6" concrete pad. Wall cleanouts to have stainless steel round access
covers, frame with anchor lugs and cover plate with screws.
 cleanouts are required at base of stacks and at each horizontal change of 45o or more
 if more than 1 change in direction in a run of a pipe, only 1 cleanout every 40 ft (12 m) is
required
 cleanouts should be installed every 75 - 100 ft (25 - 30 m)

Cleanouts size and clearance distance in front of the cleanout can be taken from the table below:
Pipe size (in) Cleanout size(in) Clearance (in)

1.5 1.5 12
2 1.5 12
2.5 2.5 12
3 2.5 18
4 or larger 3.5 18
Flushing Cistern
Use of flushing valves that operate to discharge a predetermined volume of water by the operation
of a lever or push. With wear this valve may discharge more water than they were originally
designed to discharge and may waste water so, use of flushing cisterns is preferred. It is also
called WWPs i.e. waste water preventers.
Flushing cisterns are made of enameled or galvanized pressed steel, of plastics or vitreous
china.Galvanised steel cisterns are used for fixing inside ducts
behind the WC pan.
WC cistern Slimline Cistern
Perforations for water supply, overflow pipe, operating lever or push are provided. The cistern is
secured to a wall by two screws or bolts through the back of the body, above the water line, into
plugs in the wall.
Flushing cisterns discharge water in one operation through a flush pipe or directly to the pan by
siphonic action. Figure above is typical one, in which the cistern is filled through a valve operated
by a ball float and arm similar to that described for water storage cisterns. There is an air gap
between the highest level of water in the cistern and outlet of the float valve.
Traps
In plumbing, a trap is a U, S, or J-shaped pipe located below or within a plumbing fixture. The
bend is used to prevent sewer gases from entering buildings. The most common of these traps in
houses is referred to as a P-trap. It is the addition of a 90 degree fitting on the outlet side of a U-
bend, thereby creating a P-like shape. It can also be referred to as a sink trap due to the fact it is
installed under most house sinks.
Because of its shape, the trap retains a small amount of water after the fixture's use. This water in
the trap creates a seal that prevents sewer gas from passing from the drain pipes back into the
occupied space of the building. Essentially all plumbing fixtures including sinks, bathtubs,
and toilets must be equipped with either an internal or external trap.
Because it is a localized low-point in the plumbing, sink traps also tend to capture heavy objects
(such as jewelry) that are inadvertently dropped into the sink. Traps also tend to collect hair, sand,
and other debris and limit the ultimate size of objects that will pass on into the rest of the
plumbing, thereby catching over-sized objects. For all of these reasons, most traps can either be
disassembled for cleaning or they provide some sort of cleanout feature.

A trap or waste trap is a copper or plastic fitting formed as a bend in pipe work to contain a seal of
water as a barrier to odours rising from sanitary pipe work and drains into rooms. The traps are
formed as P or S traps to accommodate the position of waste pipe relative to the sanitary fitting
outlet. At the bottom of trap is a cleaning eye, which can be unscrewed to clear blockage.
Where sanitary appliances discharge foul water to the sanitary pipe work system there should be
a water seal, provided by means of a trap, to prevent foul air from entering the building under
working conditions. There is a water seal traps to each of the appliances. The minimum size and
depth of water seal for these traps are set out in table-
Table: Minimum trap sizes and seal depths
WC pans have a water seal trap that is integral with the pan in the form of a single or double water
seal. Baths, bidets, sinks and wash basins have trap which is fitted to the appliances and connected
to the branch discharge pipe. To facilitate clearing blockages there should be a clearing eye or trap
should be removable.
To prevent the water seal in traps being broken by pressures that can develop in a sanitary pipe
system, the length and gradient of branch discharge pipes should be limited or a system of
ventilating pipes should be used.
Single Seal siphon WC pan Double seal siphonic WC pan

The depth of water seal is measured from the top of the first bend and the bottom of the second.
Deep Seal S and P traps Two piece copper S-trap
Bath Tub
Baths are made of porcelain-enameled cast iron or enameled pressed sheet steel or plastic. Baths
are finished in white and a limited range of pastel colours. It consists of rim, overflow, an outlet,
holes for taps and adjustable feet. The 18 mm cold and hot distributing or supply pipes are
connected to either individual pillar taps, a mixer with taps or a shower fittings or both, with an
air gap between the outlet and spillover level of bath. Where shower fittings are provided, the wall
or walls over baths should be finished in some impermeable material such as tile, waterproof
curtain be provided. Sitz or sitting baths have a steeped bottom to form a seat
Tub Bath Sitz bath
.
Unit 9.0
INTRODUCTION TO RURAL SANITATION
Provision for safe and portable water sources

Of all the environmental concerns that developing countries face, the lack of adequate water of
good quality is probably the most serious. Safe potable water is very vital for life. Water is
essential to sustain life, and availability of safe drinking water is very important. To ensure
this, reliance has to be placed on regular bacteriological analyses to assess potability and to
determine the best course of action for protecting the population against waterborne
diseases. Drinking water should be clear, cool, free from objectionable tastes and odors and from
harmful chemicals and microorganisms.
The problem is made more acute because water sources are subjected to contamination by human
and animal wastes which most probably contains a variety of bacteria, viruses and other microbial
pathogens. Water containing even only very few pathogens may sufficient to cause the spread of
infectious diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis... etc. Purification of water to be
used for drinking is therefore necessary and must be controlled by constant testing. Proper
selection and protection of water sources to be used for supplying water treatment systems are of
prime importance in the provision of safe drinking water.
Water may be contaminated due to the following causes:
 Aging of pipes that results in cracking and explosion in pipes
 The low water pressure in some regions due to informal pipes connections
 The increase in abstraction of water on the design rates due population increase.
 The loss in produced water due to the aging of networks and the non maintenance
of the public valves.
 No existence of cleaning valves in the end of pipes that results in the increase of
precipitation and reduction in the amount of water to consumers and the increase
in the probability of pollution
 No residual in chlorine in the end of pipes due to the increase in pollution due to
precipitation in pipes and the big length of pipes
 The intakes exist on end of canals and the low water level is affected by the winter closure
period.
 The high pollution of the river intakes due to the misuse of inhabitants such as the
cleaning of dishes, of animals and clothes
 The deterioration of operation efficiency of water treatment plants.
 The ageing of water supply networks which affects the water quality and results in
increasing the loss in produced water
 The weakness of technical experience required for operation and maintenance of water
treatment plants.
 The increase of organic and chemical pollution of surface water and groundwater.
Collection and disposal of dry refuse night soil and sullage
Municipal waste collection is handled in three ways: door-to-door collection for households along
accessible streets; block collection for clients (large hotels, enterprises, and institutions)
requesting the municipality to provide them with refuse containers; and containers system, which
expects residents to carry and dump their waste in refuse containers placed supposedly accessible
sites. Other waste disposal method such as composting of agricultural wastes, incineration and
recycling of wastes are also in practice.
For any household or commercial business have a wide range of dry and solid waste streams,
including;

 food  white goods  furniture
 paper & cardboard  batteries  electric equipment
 plastics  timber & construction waste  garden waste
 furniture  confidential documents  electronic waste
Customers in commercial or industrial establishments or Owners or tenants, shall ensure the
proper disposal of Refuse accumulating at the establishment or dwelling.
Refuse containers are used for the collection of Refuse. Containers should adequate to contain
without leakage or escape of odors the amount of Refuse accumulating at such place during the
intervals between collections. Such containers shall be constructed of metal or plastic material, be
water tight, be equipped with handles, have tight fitting covers with handles, and shall, at all
times, be proof against access of flies to the contents thereof. Collector shall provide containers
for the placement of discarded Materials other than Refuse.
Bins, paladins (very large cylindrical bin on wheels), paper sacks, refuge chutes are used for the
collection and storage of dry refuses.
Open dumping, composting and recycling are the disposal system adopted for the disposal of dry
refuse.Garchey system, grinders and incineration and compacters are also be used for disposal of
solid refuse.
Excreta or night soils are human faces and urine. Many infectious diseases are transmitted from
excreta of an infected person to the mouth of another. The disease-causing agents of these
infections travel from different ways (sometimes directly and sometime indirectly).
Human excreta are the principal vehicle for the transmission and spread of wide range of
communicable disease. So care should be taken while collection, transport, treatment and disposal
of such night soil and sullage. They became even more important in those societies which
recognise the value of human excreta in agriculture, aquaculture or gas production and therefore
reuse, rather than dispose off. Though such reuse system have positive role in supporting
economic activity and food production, it present a challenge to the public health. So specific
attention should take while doing so.
Sullage, also known as gray water, is domestic wastewater not containing excreta (wastewater
from baths, sinks, basins etc).dry or onsite techniques such as improved pit latrines are used for
safe disposal of night soil and Sullage. Using privy, pit latrine and eco-sanitation toilet and
constructed wetland can also easily be managed.
There are five kinds of sullage disposal:
 Casual disposal by tipping wastewater receptacles in the yard
 Garden watering
 Onsite disposal by soak way
 Drainage into open drains and

 Drainage into covered drains or sewers
Tipping in the yard may create breading sites for insects as well as muddy and unsanitary
conditions close to the dwellings. In well-draining soils, where sullage production or
housing density is low, tipping of sullage outside the home unlikely to be major health
hazard. Where soils are less permeable and where water use or housing density is high an
adequate method of sullage disposal is essential.
Sullage disposal by sock way provides a low risk of ground water contamination. The risk
of microbiological groundwater pollution is much lower with sullage than it is with
sewage.
Drainage of wastewater into open drains provides the most readily identifiable heath risk,
promoting the breading of insects. But if they are kept free of garbage and year round
rainfall is prevailing sullage will not affect community health.
Finally sullage may be disposed of into a sewerage system. Disposal by this method raises
no special health problems
Figure: A set of barriers is required to prevent the spread of pathogens.

Unit 10
INTRODUCTION TO SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid waste is a byproduct of human activities which tends to increase with rapid urbanization,
improved living standards and changing consumption patterns. Hence, Solid wastes are the dry
waste matters produced in the community and may be organic and inorganic as well as
combustible or non combustible in nature.
The collection and disposal of solid waste is one of the major problems of sanitation. Solid waste
handling must be analyzed in terms of sound engineering management. Because volumes of
material, types of material, salvage requirements, and methods of disposal vary, all locations
cannot operate identical collection systems.
Management of increasing amounts of solid waste has become a major challenge in many cities in
developing countries. If solid waste is properly used, it can be a valuable resource, but if it is not
effectively managed, it can result in serious adverse impacts on environment and public health.
Solid waste management is therefore a critical component within urban sanitation and it is also
one of the most important and resource intensive services provided by municipalities.
According to a survey done by Nepal’s Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), most urban residents
consider solid waste management as the most important environmental problem in urban areas of
Nepal. In Nepal, urbanization is increasing at an alarming rate putting immense pressure on
municipal services, particularly to manage the ever increasing amounts of waste. At present most
of the wastes generated in municipalities are not being adequately managed thereby creating a
serious health and environmental hazard, particularly in the slum and squatter areas, where the
residents have less capacity to pay for better services and are often ignored by the official
agencies. Therefore, poor urban settlements are most affected because of indiscriminate dumping
and lack of open spaces.
Waste collection system:
Waste collection is generally considered to be the most important component of any waste
management system because it is the most expensive and visible part of the system. Therefore,
properly designed and executed waste collection systems can result in significant savings and
reduction in environmental and public health risks. The following issues generally need to be
considered in designing a waste collection system:
 Containerization and on-site storage of waste
 Source separation
 Collection mechanism (roadside collection, door-to-door collection, communal
containers, on-time collection etc.)
 Cleansing of streets and other public places
 Time of collection
 Type of vehicles used for collection
 Frequency of collection
 Route planning
 No. of staff used for collection
 Special collection for bulk waste generators
 Separate collection for special waste such as medical waste and household hazardous
waste
 Transfer of waste from primary collection vehicles to larger vehicle for secondary
transport.

Solid wastes are classified as follows
Garbage:
It consists of all putrescible organic wastes obtained from kitchen, hotels etc in the form of waste
food, vegetable and fruit peelings. It also consists of grass, leaves and animal and birds excreta.
The characteristics of this waste are that it decomposes by producing foul gases and creates health
hazards. It leads to breading of flies, mosquitoes and insects.
Ashes:
It is the incombustible waste obtained from house, industries and furnace.
Rubbish:
It includes all putrescible waste excluding ashes. So it includes all combustible and non
combustible wastes such as papers, broken furniture’s, glass, plastic bottles, card boards,
dismantled building materials etc.
 The major sources of solid waste are house, street and tread centers and as per the source
they are termed as house refuse, street reuse and tread refuse.
 House refuse consists of vegetable and animal waste, ashes, debris, garbage etc.
 Street refuse consists of empty bottles, cigratee box, fruit peels, tree leaves, street
sweepings etc.
 Tread refuge consist of refuse products from commercial areas factories etc.
 The quantity of production of solid waste varies from place to place and season to season,
living standard of people, type of area, availability of food etc.
 In an average, 0.5 to 0.8 kg/c/day solid wastes of which 45% inorganic and 55% organic
waste are produced. The production is less in developing countries and high in developed
countries.
Collection removal and transport
 Solid wastes are collected in individual house in small covered container or bins from
where it is removed by scavengers. Ed in his dustbin/.Ed in his dustbin/.Sometime the
public dustbin is provided by the municipality at suitable location where the individual
householders throws the solid waste collected in his dustbin. Solid waste on the road is
collected once or twice a day by scavengers. Handcarts may also be used for collection
and removal of solid waste.
 The collected solid waste in public bins may be transported manually or by trucks,
tractors, auto rickshaw, trailers, etc. they should be closed otherwise solid waste will be
spilled. In developed countries, the truck consists of compressor and due to
compression; cost of transportation is reduced.

Methods of solid waste disposal
After transportation, solid wastes are disposed off similarly as sludge disposal. It may be disposed
off by various method and some of them are as follows:
1. Dumping
2. Sanitary land filling
3. Incineration
4. Composting
Dumping:
 It is simply the throwing away method to fill in the low lying areas. In this method as far
as possible the waste without garbage is thrown so that no nuisance is produced.
 It is common in developing countries.
Sanitary landfill:
 It is simply improvement on dumping on land as shown in the fig 10.1 and a hygienic
method.
 In this method the solid wastes are dumped into the low lying areas of the locality.
 The dumping in layer of 1 to 2 m is covered by good earth at least 20 cm thickness to
prevent the dumped wastes for exposure to avoid nuisance of flies and vermin.
 Next layer is added only after 1 week.
 All the layers are compacted by the movement of dumping vehicles or rollers.
Incineration:
 It is the most hygienic method in which solid wastes are separated into combustible and
noncombustible.
 Combustible wastes are burnt into properly constructed furnace or incinerator.
 There are various types of incineration but a simple type of incineration is shown in fig
10.2 which consists of a feeding door from which solid wastes are fed and burnt on
gratings.
 The produced smoke is released to atmosphere through chimney.
 The ash produced may be disposed off by sanitary land filling.
Advantages:
i. This method is hygienic and completely destroys pathogens and insects
ii. No odour and dust nuisance
iii. The heat produced in the incineration may be trapped and used for other purposes such as
steam power
iv. The produced clinker may be used in cement construction
v. Lesser space requirement and not affected by adverse weather condition
Disadvantages:
i. Improper incinerator may cause air pollution so high chimney are required
ii. Large initial cost and residue obtained further needs to disposed off
Composting:
 It is useful for putrescible organic matters present in the solid waste which is decomposed
aerobically and anaerobically through a biochemical process and converts into humus rich
in nitrogen and stable mineral compounds having high fertile value. This humus called
compost is used as fertilizer.
 Hence separation of organic matter is necessary.
 There are three method of composting:

a) Composting by trenching
b) Open window composting
c) Mechanical composting
a) Composting by trenching:
 In this method trenches of 3 to 12 m length, 2 to 3 m wide and 1 to 2m deep are excavated
with a clear spacing of 2 m and filled with organic solid waste in layers in 15cm.
 Each layer is filled with 5 cm thick layer of night soil or animal excreta on semi liquid
from tor adding bacteria. At the top 10 cm layer (30 cm above the ground surface) of good
earth is spread.
 Now after 2 or 3 days biological action starts and temperature rises to 75°c.
 After 4 to 6 months refuse gets stabilized and changed into brown coloured odourless
powder called humus, which is termed as ‘compost mal’ is obtained and can be sold.
b) Open window composting:

 In this method, the organic and putrescible matters are separated from refuse and this
is dumped on the ground in the form of 0.6 to 1m high, 6m long and 1 to 2 m wide
piles at about 60% moisture content.
 It is then covered with animal dung, cattle urine, night soil etc for addition of germs.
 When aerobic reaction takes place, the temperature rises to 75°c. Arrangement to
pass air (inserting bamboos) should be done for aerobic reaction and temperature is
measured by inserting thermometer. The temperature should not raise above 70°c
otherwise bacteria dies.
 The pH should be adjusted to 7.2 to 7.4. When temperature rises to 70°c, pile is
overturned and the moisture content and pH is adjusted.
 After certain time, when temperature do not increases which is the indication of
completion of bacterial activity so it further means composting is completed.
 It takes about 7 to0 weeks and the compost produced can be sold as a good fertilizer.
c) Mechanical composting:
 The open window and other method of composting require large area of land so
to overcome this, mechanical composting is useful. The principle is same as the
open window composting but in this process composting is carried out in a
closed room.
 In this method solid waste stabilizes within 3- 7 days. Sprayers are used to adjust
moisture content and the coil are used to make the temperature constant at 70°c
so that the bacteria work faster to decompose the organic matter.
 This is costly and done in large scale.
Integrated solid waste management 5R principle
The most important principle of Integrated Solid Waste and Resource Management Plan is the
avoidance of waste through an aggressive waste reduction campaign and through the recovery of
materials and energy from the waste that remains. In line with this principle, the Integrated Solid
Waste and Resource Management Plan (IS-WRMP) has four goals:
Goal 1: Minimize waste generation
Goal 2: Maximize reuse, recycling and material recovery
Goal 3: Recover energy from the waste stream after material recycling
Goal 4: Dispose of all remaining waste in landfill, after material recycling and energy recovery

Integrated Resource Recovery is an approach to designing and managing urban systems,
particularly utilities, to generate synergies which enable the ‘waste’ from one system to become
‘resources’ for another.
These traditional wastes are untapped resources. If accessed and used appropriately, they can help
preserve non-renewable resources, stretch the capacity of existing infrastructure, save energy,
generate revenue, protect the environment and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The
principles of the 5R hierarchy emphasize the value of waste as a resource. The hierarchy sets out
the relative value of different methods of waste management:
 Reduce waste at source
 Reuse where possible
 Recycle products at the end of their useful life
 Recover energy or materials from the waste stream
 Manage Residuals in an environmentally sound manner
Biogas Generation
One of the most attractive systems for producing thermal and electrical energy is represented by
sanitary landfills. In fact, the wastes collected in these places, due to aerobic and anaerobic
degradation processes, produce an amount of biogas. This gas is mainly composed of CH4 and
CO2. Depending on the wastes features and age, landfill and environmental conditions, the
fraction of methane in the biogas can reach more than 50% by volume. For these reasons, the
biogas energy potential can be very interesting for electrical power supply for internal
consumptions. Anaerobic digestion has been one of the most effective processes not only for
treating organic wastes, but providing at the same time a significant amount of electric power.
Hence, utilization of the high proportion of various categories of biomass leads to biogas
production as alternative energy source.
Landfills are one of the most commonly adopted technologies for rural, urban and industrial
disposal as an alternative to waste burning and composting. The empirical method for calculation
of biogas production (considering time) is expressed mathematically
Where LFG =Total landfill gas generation rate

L0 =Potential methane generation capacity (m3/ton)
R= Annual quantity of waste disposal (ton)
K= Methane generation rate (year-1)
c, t= Number of years since the landfill closed and opened

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Unit-1.

Impacts of Water supply

Long term impacts

*Reduces downstream water and

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i. Quantity of water must be sufficient according to demand.

Water supply and Public Health:

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The different sources of ground water are-

1. Spring Gravity spring

2. Wells Shallow wells

Formation and types of springs: - Formed under three

Artesian spring: In this type the underground water comes

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Deep Well: - These wells get their water

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A) Strainer type Tube well:

B) Cavity type Tube well:

C) Slotted type Tube well:

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Rain water Harvesting

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Fig: Catchment areas of three different roofs

Fig: Typical rainwater harvesting installation

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The Nepali government now states that it provides safe

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. The following materials are commonly used for service pipes.

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1. To control the rate of flow of water

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Gate valve: - Also called sluice valve and most

CHECK VALVE or REFLUX VALVE

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1. AIR INLET VALVES

AIR RELIEF VALVES

DRAIN VALVES OR BLOW OFF VALVES

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WATER TAPS OR BIB COCKS:

Table: Loss of water due to leaky Bib cock.

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AIR RELEASE VALVE

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Fig: Post fire Hydrants

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ESTIMATING STORAGE CAPACITY

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OVERHEAD STORAGE, UNDER GROUND STORAGE TANKS