alate Real Numbers and the Real Line ‘This section reviews eal aumbers, inequalities, interval, and absolute values, Real Numbers Much of calculus is bused oa properties ofthe real number system. Real mumbery ace ‘mumers that em be expressed as decimal, such a5 0.75000. 35883... v2 = Lane. ‘The dots... in each ease indicate thatthe sequence of decimal digits goes on forever Every conceivable decimal expansion represents 3 rea! number, although some numbers ‘have two repeeseatations, For instance the infinite decimals 999... and 1.000... negre= sent the same real umber fA similar statement holds fo any our with a infil, ots The real numbers ean be rcpeescated goometicaly as points. on.a pumiber Hine csled the real Hine. “The symbol Ft denotes ether the real number system of equivalently the rea ine ‘The properties of the real umber system Fill into three cuegories: algebraic peper= ‘bes, onder properties, and completeness, Ihe algebraie properties sy thatthe real m= ‘bers can he ned sbiractedraultptied snd vided (except by'0) ts produce mote real ‘manbers under ube usual rules of anime, Yow cam never divide Oy 0.The order properties of real numbers are given in Appendix 4. The following useful rules can be derived from them, where the symbol => means “implies.” Rules for Inequalities Ifa, 5, and ¢ are real numbers, then: yp a 0 = ae < be a04>0 Ifaand bare both positive or both negative, then a + < }A subset of the real line is called an interval if it contains at least two numbers and con- tains all the real numbers lying between any two of its elements. For example, the set of all real numbers x such that x > 6 is an interval, as is the set of ally such that -2 = x = 5, The set of all nonzero real numbers is not an interval; since 0 is absent, the set fails to con- tain every real number between —| and | (for example). Geometrically, intervals correspond to rays and line segments on the real line, along with the real line itself. Intervals of numbers corresponding to line segments are finite in- tervals; intervals corresponding to rays and the real line are infinite intervals. A finite interval is said to be closed if it contains both of its endpoints, half-open if it contains one endpoint but not the other, and open if it contains neither endpoint. The end- points are also called boundary points; they make up the interval’s boundary. The re= maining points of the interval are interior points and together comprise the interval's in- terior, Infinite intervals are closed if they contain a finite endpoint, and open otherwise. ‘The entire real line & is an infinite interval that is bath open and closed.TABLE 1.1. Types of intervals ‘Notation Finite: (a,b) fo, 6] [o, 5) (a,b) Infinite: (a, ©) fa, 20) (-00, 8) (-c0, b] (00, 80) ‘Set description {tla a} (alr = a} fle <9} {al = 4} R (set of all real numbers) ‘Type Closed Half-epen Halfeopen Closed Open Closed Both open and closed I | : | HIAbsolue Wlue ‘The ate ae asaer ceed lip ered eh A number and ils skliive inverse or negative Ive ‘the eame abeolute vabve “The absolute value of a product is the practuct of al ‘the absolute values. a] -\2! “The absolute value of a quotient is the quotient alia “Sftbe abotune values. “The riamgle inequality “The stantute val sum of two mumibers is less thas or equal othe som of their absolute values.© DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION Many scientific laws and engineering principles describe how one quantity depends on another. This idea was formalized in 1673 by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (see p. xx) who coined the term fusction to indicate the dependence of one quantity on another, as described in the following definition. Type equation here, 0.1.1 DEFINITION Ifa variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each value of x determines exactly one value of y, then we say that y is a function of x. Four common methods for representing functions are: + Numerically by ubles * Geometrically by graphs + Algebraically by formulas + VerballyFunctions DEFINITION Function A function f is a rule that assigns to each value x in a set D a unique value denoted F(x). The set D is the domain of the function. The range is the set of all values of J (x) produced as x varies over the domain (Figure 1.1).Functions Input x Domain FIGURE 1.1Functions Vertical Line Test A graph represents a function if and only if it passes the vertical line test: Every vertical line intersects the graph at most once. A graph that fails this test does not represent a function.FunctionsFunctionsFunctions Two y values for one value of x fails test—not a function Two times for one temperature —a function FIGURE12 9{fails the horizontal ise test fd LeL an (==, 2) Functions fo FIGURE 1.47 Domain: (=, 0 Damain: {0, ©)Functions The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function. The set of all values of f(x) as x varies throughout D is called the range of the function. The range may not include every element in the set Y. The domain and range of a function can be any sets of objects, but often in calculus ‘they are sets of real numbers. (In Chapters 13—16 many variables may be involved.) — Ay ww input ‘Gutput domain) (rangedFunctions FIGURE 1.5Functions 0 Domain FIGURE 1.6Functions EXAMPLE 1 = Identifying Domain and Range Verify the domains and ranges of these functions, Function Domain (x) Range ()’) y (-e0, 00) [0, 00) y (—29, 0) U (0, 2) (-2, 0) U(0, 2) J [0, c) [0, ©) y (—s0, 4] [0, 00) _ x [-1.1] [0, 1]Functions DEFINITION Composite Functions Given two functions f and g, the composite function f° g is defined by (f ¢ g)(x) = f(g(x)). It is evaluated in two steps: y = f(u), where w = g(x). The domain of f ° g consists of all x in the domain of g such that uv = g(x) is in the domain of f (Figure 1.8).Functions Range af g ah) i outside domain lc, is in domain off. 30.8, iS not in off so. isia domain of f=. domain of f*8. FIGURE 1.8 )FunctionsFunctions DEFINITION Symmetry in Graphs A graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis if whenever the point (x, y) is on the graph, the point (—.x, y) is also on the graph. This property means that the graph is unchanged when reflected about the y-axis (Figure |.10a). A graph is symmetric with respect to the x-axis if whenever the point (x, y) is on the graph, the point (x, —y) is also on the graph. This property means that the graph is unchanged when reflected about the x-axis (Figure 1.10b). A graph is symmetric with respect to the origin if whenever the point (x,y) is on the graph, the point (—x, —y) is also on the graph (Figure 1.10c). Symmetry about both the x- and y-axes implies symmetry about the origin, but not vice versa.Functions (=x, y) { Symmetry | about y-axisFunctions “Symmetry about x-axis |Functions { Symmetry about origin