STRUCTURAL STEELWORK Ce oe Oe bo SCThis book provides a step-by-step approach to the design of structural steel elements. It includes an introduction to theory and analysis of structures and to the strength of materials, and each steel element is then considered in detail, with the derivation of the code formulae clearly explained. The design principles are illustrated at each stage by numerous sketches to clarify ambiguities in the codes of practice, and the book features a number of worked examples and an appendix of tables and charts. The highly structured step-by-step approach provides a comprehensive book which is, at the same time, user friendly. It will assure that: © all design requirements are logically adhered to © a standardised approach is established in a design office © a simplified procedure for checking and for quality assurance can be implemented. Cover illustrations show projects designed and built by the Taylor Woodrow Group of companies.STRUCTURAL STEELWORK Analysis and DesignSTRUCTURAL STEELWORK Analysis and Design S.S. RAY BE (Cal), CEng, FICE, MBGS b Blackwell Science© 1998 by Blackwell Science Ltd Exditorial Offices: ‘Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 OEL 25 John Street, London WCIN 2BL. 23 Ainslie Place, Edinburgh EH3 6AJ 350 Main Street, Malden MA 02148 S018, USA 34 University Street, Carlton ‘Victoria 3053, Australia 10, rue Casimir Delavigne 75006 Paris, France Other Editorial Offices: Blackwell Wissenschafts-Verlag GmbH Kurfirstendamm $7 10707 Berlin, Germany Blackwell Science KK, MG Kodenmacho Building 7-10 Kodenmacho Nihombashi (Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104, Japan ‘The right of the Author to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, ‘All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any ‘means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, ‘except as permitted by the UK. ‘Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. First published 1998 Set in 10Y12 pt Times by Aarontype Limited, Bristol Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall ‘The Blackwell Science logo is a trade mark of Blackwell Science Lid, registered at the United Kingdom Trade Marks Registry DISTRIBUTORS Marston Book Services Ltd PO Box 269 Abingdon Oxon OX14 4YN (Orders: Tel: 01235 465500 Fax: 01235 465555) USA Blackwell Science, Ine. Commerce Place 350 Main Street Malden, MA 02148 S018, (Orders! Tel: 800 759 6102 781 388 8250 Fax: 781 388 8255) Canada Login Brothers Book Company 324 Saulteaux Crescent Winnipeg, Manitoba R3J 312 (Orders: "Tel: 204 837-2987 Fax: 204 837-3116) Australia Blackwell Science Pty Lid 54 University Street Carlton, Victoria 3053, (Orders! Tel: 03 9347 0300 Fax: 03 9347 5001) A catalogue record for this ttle is available from the British Library ISBN 0-632-03857-8 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ray, SS Structural steelwork: analysis and design / SS. Ray, Pp. cm, Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-632-03857-8 1, Building, Iron and Steel. 2. Steel, Structural. L. Title. TAG84.R37 1998, 624,1'821-de2t 97-34497 cP For further information on Blackwell Science, visit our website: www blackwell-science comContents Preface Notation xiii Chapter 1 Strength of Materials 1 1.1 Bending stress in beams 1 1.1.1 Assumptions 1 1.1.2. Position of neutral axis 3 1.1.3 Bending stress in asymmetrical sections 4 1.1.4 Product inertia of a rectangle about orthogonal axes 5 1.2 Shear stress in beams 8 1.2.1. Shear centre for thin-walled asymmetrical section 9 1,3. Torsional shear stress ul 1.3.1. Torsion of thin rectangular members 12 1.3.2. Torsion of thin open sections 13 1.4 Strain energy in axial load, bending, torsion and shear 14 Chapter 2 Theory of Structures 19 2.1 Polygon of forces 19 2.2. Equations of equilibrium 20 2.3 Internal forces 21 2.3.1 Compound trusses: the method of section 2B 2.3.2 Maxwell diagram for simple trusses 24 2.3.3 The method of section by Maxwell diagram 25 2.3.4. Deflection of pin-jointed structures 27 2.4 Bending moment and shear force 28 2.4.1 Simply supported beams 29 2.4.2. Slope-deflection equations 29 2.4.3. Area moment theorems 31 2.4.4 Generalised slope-defiection equations 33 2.4.5 Fixed-end beams 35 2.4.6 Theorem of three moments 35 2.4.7 Method of moment distribution 37 2.48 Arches 39 2.4.9 Symmetrical two-hinged arches 40 2.4.10 Hingeless symmetrical arches B 2.5 Influence lines 46 2.5.1 Influence lines of cantilever beams 46 2.5.2 Influence lines of a simply supported beam 4 2.5.3 Influence lines of three-hinged arches 48 2.5.4 Influence lines of simple trusses SLvi Contents 2.6 Matrix method of structural analysis 2.6.1 Truss analysis by the displacement method 2.6.2 Continuous beam analysis by the displacement method 2.6.3 Continuous frame analysis by the displacement method 2.7 Structural dynamics 2.7.1 Single degree of freedom (SDOF) systems 2.7.2 Effect of viscous damping on free vibration 2.7.3 Forced vibration of undamped SDOF systems due to harmonic excitation 2.7.4 Forced vibration of undamped SDOF system by triangular impulse 2.7.5 Free vibration of a simply supported beam with distributed mass 2.7.6 Response of an SDOF system to a very short impulse 2.1.7 Response of an SDOF system to any arbitrary time-dependent loading 2.7.8 Seismic response of a damped SDOF system 2.7.9. Response spectra 2.8 Analysis of plates 2.8.1 Elastic analysis of plates 2.8.2. Yield-line analysis of plates 2.9 Methods of plastic analysis 2.9.1 Definition of plastic behaviour 2.9.2 Plastic behaviour of a section of a beam in pure bending 2.9.3. Plastic behaviour of a section of a beam with bending and axial load 2.9.4 Plastic behaviour of a section of a beam with bending and shear 2.9.5 Load combinations in plastic analysis 2.9.6 Plastic analysis of structures Chapter 3. Analysis of Structures: Worked Examples 3.1 Example 3.1: Roof truss 3.1.1 Type of truss 3.1.2 Loading on the truss 3.1.3 Analysis by method of section 3.1.4 Method of section using Maxwell diagram 3.2. Example 3.2: Continuous beam 3.2.1 Analysis of continuous beam by the three moment theorem 3.2.2 Analysis of continuous beam by the method of moment distribution 3.2.3. Analysis of continuous beam by the matrix method $2 52 55 57 61 62 65 65 67 68 n nm 2 B 14 14 16 9 9 9 80 81 82 82 85 85 85 86 90 91 95 98 101 103Contents vii 33 34 3.5 3.6 3.7 Example 3.3: Frame structure 3.3.1 Analysis of a rigid frame by the method of moment distribution 3.3.2 Analysis of a rigid frame by the matrix method Example 3.4: Analysis of a hingeless arch Example 3.5: Yield-line analysis of a rectangular plate Example 3.6: Seismic analysis of a tall cantilever structure Example 3.7: Plastic analysis of a pitched portal frame 3.7.1 Haunched pitched portal frame Chapter 4 Design of Structures 41 42 43 44 4.5 46 Principal issues Material grade selection and section type selection Manufacturing process Connection design 44.1 Simple connections 4.4.2. Moment connections 44.3 Trusses and open-web girders Check list of actions and design considerations Ultimate limit state design 46.1 Step-by-step method of semi-rigid design 4.6.2 Load combinations at the ultimate limit state as per BS 5950: Part 1 46.3 Patterned loading 4.64 Structural stability against lateral loads 4.6.5. Stability of multistorey rigid frames Chapter 5 Design of Struts S.A 5.2 5.3 34 55 Axial capacity of a column or a strut Types of failure of a column or strut Design basis of columns and struts 5.3.1 Compressive strength (p.) 5.3.2 Boundary conditions 5.3.3 Combined axial compression and bending moment Step-by-step design procedure of columns/struts Worked examples 5.5.1 Example 5.1a: Design the internal compression member of a roof truss 5.5.2 Example 5.1b: Same member as in Example 5.la but use circular hollow section Grade 50 5.5.3 Example 5.2a: Design the rafter of a roof truss 5.5.4 Example 5.2b: Design the same rafter as in Example 5.2a using a rectangular hollow section 5.5.5 Example 5.3: Design the vertical leg of a portal frame Example 5.4: Design the corner column of a multistorey building 5.5.7 Example 5.5: Design the compound column of an industrial building with a heavy-duty crane 105 105 110 114 118 120 127 133 137 137 138 138 139 140 140 141 142 144 145 146 147 148 148 155 155 155 156 156 156 157 159 183 183 185 185 189 190 195 200vi Contents Chapter 6 Design of Ties 6.1 Principal issues 6.2 Design basis 6.3 Combined axial tension and bending moment 6.3.1 Principal issues 6.3.2. Design basis 6.4 Step-by-step design of members in tension 6.5 Worked examples 6.5.1 Example 6.1: Design the main tie of the roof truss in Example 3.1 6.5.2. Example 6.2: Design the tie of a 75m span latticed girder for the roof of an aircraft hangar Chapter 7 Design of Beams 7.1. Principal issues 7.2 Design basis 7.2.1 Local capacity 7.22 Lateral torsional buckling 7.23 Buckling of web 7.2.4 Tension-field action in thin webs 7.3. Step-by-step design of beams 7.4 Worked examples 7.4.1 Example 7.1: Beam supporting the floor of a workshop 7.42. Example 7.2: Main beam in a multistorey building using simple construction 7.43 Example 7.3: Main beam with full end fixity to concrete wall 71.4.4 Example 7.4: Design of a stiffened plate girder 7.45 Example 7.5: Design of a gantry girder for an electric overhead travelling crane 7.5 Beams subject to torsion 7.5.1 Torsional resistance 7.5.2. Stresses in closed sections 7.5.3 Stresses in open sections 7.5.4 Checks for capacity 7.6 Example 7.6: Design of a beam with concentrated applied torque at the centre of span Chapter 8 Design of Composite Beams and Columns 8.1 Composite beams 8.1.1 Principal issues 1.2. Design basis Effective breadth Modular ratio Transformed section: elastic section properties Second moment of area for elastic analysis Plastic section properties Redistribution of support moments Shear connection SeUADROD 21 21 211 2u1 2uL 212 213 220 220 222 227 227 227 227 229 230 231 232 269 269 273 278 284 300 317 317 318 318 320 322 329 329 329 330 330 331 331 333 335, 340 341Contents ix 8.2 83 8.4 8.1.10 Longitudinal shear transfer 8.1.11 Reduction of plastic moment capacity due to high shear 8.1.12 Deffections 8.1.13 Effect of dead load 8.1.14 Effect of shrinkage and creep 8.1.15 Effect of imposed loads 8.1.16 Step-by-step design procedure for composite beams Example 8.1: Composite beam Composite columns 8.3.1 Step-by-step design of an encased composite column 8.3.2. Step-by-step design of concrete filled hollow circular section Example 8.2: Composite column Chapter 9 Connections in Steelwork ae 9.2 9.3 94 9.5 Bolted connections 9.1.1 Types of bolts 9.1.2 Capacity of bolts 9.1.3 In-plane loading of a group of bolts 9.1.4 Out-of-plane loading of a group of bolts 9.1.5 Out-of-plane bending moment, direct load and shear on a group of bolts 9.1.6 Local capacity check of connected elements in a moment connection 1.7. Design of stiffeners and haunched ends of beams 1.8 Bolted splices Welds and welding 9.2.1 Types of weld 9.2.2 Defects in welds 9.2.3. Weld inspection methods: non-destructive testing (NDT) 9.2.4 Design of fillet welds 9.2.5 Design of butt welds 9.2.6 Analysis of weld group 9.2.7 Welded beam-to-column connection Notched beams 9.3.1 Plain shear check at notched end of beam 9.3.2. Block shear check at notched end of beam Beam-to-beam connection: shear capacity Column bases 9.5.1 General rules 9.5.2 Empirical design of base plates for concentric forces 9.5.3 Analysis of column-to-foundation connection 9.5.4 Analysis of base plate 9.5.5 Base plate with stiffeners 9.5.6 Holding-down bolts 342 342 343 343 344 344 345 365 383 384 389 390 397 397 397 398 401 407 4il 414 421 a7 428 431 431 434 434 435 436 441 441 442 443 443 443 447 449 451x Contents 9.6 9.5.7 Shear transfer from column to concrete 9.5.8 Rules to determine trial size of base plate Worked examples 9.6.1 Example 9.1: Rigid bolted connection of column- to-roof truss 9.6.2 Example 9.2: Welded connections of members in a roof truss 9.6.3 Example 9.3: Beam-to-beam connection using fin plates 9.6.4 Example 9.4: Beam-to-beam connection using double angle web cleats 9.6.5 Example 9.5: Beam-to-beam connection using end plates 9.6.6 Example 9.6: Portal frame eaves haunch connection 9.6.7 Example 9.7: Bolted splice of a beam 9.6.8 Example 9.8: Bolted splice of a column 9.6.9 Example 9.9: Design of a column base Chapter 10 Corrosion Protection 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Process of corrosion in steel Protective system Types of coating Components of a corrosion protection system Specification of a protective system Sample corrosion protection systems Chapter 11 Material Properties Table 11.1 Influence coefficients for continuous beams Table 11.2 Bolt data and capacities Table 11.3 Capacity of welds Table 11.4 Dimensions and properties of steel sections Table 11.5 Dimensions for detailing and surface areas Table 11.6 Hp/A values Table 11.7 Back marks in channel flanges and angles Table 11.8 Back marks in flanges of joists, UBs and UCs Table 11.9 Bending moments, shear forces and deflections Table 11.10 Fire protection methods for steelwork Index 453 454 454 454 457 458 465 469 473 485 491 496 501 501 501 502 502 502 503 505 506 508 508 510 530 535 544 545 546 554 555Preface There are a number of excellent books available which deal with the design of structural steel elements but, in the author's view, they lack certain important features. The design of structural steel members requires many checks in a systematic, structured manner: this book has been written to provide a step-by-step approach to this task with a view to achieving completeness of the design process in all respects. This highly prescriptive approach provides a comprehensive book which is at the same time user friendly. The task of quality assurance becomes less arduous and the output of a design office becomes fully standardised if the approach in this book is strictly followed. For students, too, the book should prove to be invaluable because the essential elements of the theory of structures and analysis are dis- cussed, followed by a structured approach to the design of all elements in a building, including connections. The numerous worked examples will be very useful to practitioners, students and lecturers alike. The design principles are illustrated at each stage by sketeches. The extensive use of illustrations is a particular feature of the book and is intended to clarify ambiguities in the codes of practice. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS, Extracts from BS 5950: Part 1: 1990 are reproduced with the permis- sion of BSI. Complete editions of the standards can be obtained by post from BSI Customer Services, 389 Chiswick High Road, London W44AL. The author wishes to thank the British Standards Institution for their kind permission to reproduce some of the essential charts from their Codes of Practice, and Mr Malcolm Smith for helping to produce the sketches in this book. SS. Ray Great Bookham SurreyNotation Angle of inclination of line AB to horizontal Coefficient of thermal expansion of materials Modular ratio The modular ratio for long-term loading taking into account creep of concrete The modular ratio for short-term loading Material factor Material factor for concrete Factor to allow for thread stripping effects Corrected final deflection of a composite beam allowing for partial shear connection Deflection at the centre of the column The deflection of the span due to loading as a simply supported beam Deflection of a composite beam with full shear connection The deffection of a continuous composite beam at the middle of one of the spans due to imposed loading Axial extension of member i of a truss Deflection at the point of application of P, in the direction of the force Deflection of steel beam alone subjected to loading Static deflection of a single degree of freedom system due to gravity load Mg Displacement of joint 7 Altitude of site above mean sea level Axial strain Strain at a distance y from the neutral axis on a circular arc AB Effective shrinkage strain in concrete Perry factor Perry coefficient Angle to the horizontal made by the diagonal stiffener Angle of inclination between X and U axes Angle of rotation when the length of the member is Angle subtended at the centre of the circular arc AB Angle between the X-X and U-U axes measured anticlockwise from the AEX axis Beam span-end rotation Torsional rotation of a circular shaft about the longitudinal axis Slope of beam at end A Slope of beam at end B Rigid body rotation of beam AB due to settlement of support B Rotation of joint i Slenderness ratio Minor axis slenderness ratio corresponding to L, in bracing system Limiting equivalent slenderness ratio Equivalent slenderness ratio for a column or beamxiv Notation pas ae 6 DEETeeoosooer AAA RAPPRA ARRAS Web slenderness factor Slenderness ratio of the effective section of bearing stiffener Slenderness ratio corresponding to the effective length about the X-X axis Slenderness ratio corresponding to the effective length about the Y-Y axis, Snow load shape coefficient Average load factor for ultimate limit state The proportion of total loading which is long term Bending stress on the section compression positive Direct axial stress Stress at a distance y from the neutral axis on a circular arc AB Direct stress in tension Bending stress due to warping torsion Stress due to applied moment M, Stress due to applied moment My, Maximum shear stress in the circular shaft at a distance of radius r from the centre Shear stress at a distance yo from neutral axis Shear stress in thin rectangular section along the long edge Torsional shear stress Shear stress in a closed section subjected to torque Warping shear stress in the flanges Poisson's ratio for the material of the plate Angle of the centre-line of the arch rib with respect to the X-axis Angle of inclination of the lacing bars to the axis of the member Diameter of steel tube Haunch angle Inclination of the tangent at point D of the arch to the horizontal Rotation of the member about the longitudinal X-axis Shear strain Total angle of twist Shape function Damped natural frequency Undamped natural frequency (radians per second) Frequency of excitation Diagonal dimension Distance from the centroid of bolts in tension to the ¥-¥ axis Distance from the innermost vertical line of fastener holes to the edge of the web Distance of hinge C from support A of arch Distance from the steel beam centre to the concrete centre Length of greater projection of the plate beyond the column Length of run of weld in the X-X direction Robertson constant Spacing of transverse stiffeners Torsional bending constant Distance of unit load from support A of the arch Minimum hook approach Whee! spacing in end carriage Amplitude of motion Area of bending moment diagramNotation xv Area of cross-section of rib of arch Area of the section cut off by a plane parallel to neutral axis at a distance of from the neutral axis Area of segment bordered by the yicld lines (m?) Area of steel beam or column section ‘Area of stiffener in contact with flange Net area of plate allowing for holes ‘Area of the cross-section of the arch rib at the crown. ‘Area of the rectilinear element of the section which has the largest dimension parallel to the direction of the load Area of free-span bending moment diagram for span | (AB) Area of free-span bending moment diagram for span 2 (BC) Area of concrete in the steel tube Net area of concrete in the encasement after deducting the area of the steel section and any steel reinforcement used ‘Mean area of the concrete shear surface per unit length of beam Effective area of batten after deduction for holes Effective area of flange plates allowing for bolt holes Effective are: i Effective area of stiffener considering 20 times web thickness on either side of the stiffener Area of flange Gross cross-sectional area Gross cross-sectional area (lacing bar) Gross area of flange Gross area of unconnected leg Gross area of stem Area enclosed by the mean perimeter of the closed section Tensile area of web from the innermost vertical line of fastener holes to the edge of the web along a horizontal line Effective tensile area of web from the innermost vertical line of fastener holes to the edge of the web along a horizontal line Area of section of member i of truss Net area Net area of connected leg Net area of flange Net area of web Area of any steel reinforcement in the concrete ‘Area of steel reinforcement in the concrete encasement Area of tensile reinforcement in the concrete slab in the effective section Area of shank where threads do not appear in the shear plane Area of steel in the steel tube cross-section ‘Area of steel section encased Effective area of bolt in shear Equivalent area of web stiffener Equivalent area of stiffeners including 20 times thickness of web Area of the stiffener assembly Gross area of stiffener assuming a pair of plates symmetrically placed about the web Cross-sectional area of the total steel reinforcement crossing the potential shear failure plane ‘Area of the bolt at the bottom of the threads Effective area of bolt in tensionxvi Notation Ay A Ay Ay Effective shear area Shear area of column section Total shear area of the web with web plates Vertical shear arca of web from the notch to the bottom-most fastener hole Effective shear area at the notch Effective vertical shear area of web from the notch to the bottom-most fastener hole Gross shear area at the notch Gross vertical shear area of web from the notch to the bottom-most fastener hole Net shear area at the notch after deduction of holes Net vertical shear area of web from the notch to the bottom-most fastener hole Length of the circular arc along the line AB Actual breadth of fiange on each side of the beam centre-line measured as half the distance to the adjacent beam Distance from the centre of the web to the tip of the flange Distance of hinge C from arch support B Length of run of weld in the ¥~Y direction Width of individual panels Width of rectangular section Width of the section at a distance yp from neutral axis Width of smaller flange Distance of unit load from support B of the arch Stiff bearing length determined by assuming 45° dispersion of load Breadth of concrete encasement Width of end post Stiff bearing length which cannot deform appreciably in bending Breadth of the concrete rib Width of bearing stiffener Width of stiffener plates Width of web plate Width of stiffener in contact with the flange Gross outstand of the stiffener Width of stiffener on each side of the web Net outstand in contact with the flange of the column allowing for corner snipe Building plan width Length of side of square anchor plate Overall breadth of box section Width of the base plate Width of base plate along the Y-Y axis Width of flange (steel beam or column section) Width of flange of the beam Width of flange of the column Effective width of the concrete flange Effective width of the column flange for load transfer Average cover to the two orthogonal layers of reinforcement at the top of a foundation Centroid of the area A (loaded by r,) from the line of rotation of the segment Damping coefficientNotation x1 Cer BADD R RA RAARAARARAAR PPE SSOVSOOOSSESA PPPs es § Critical damping coefficient Compressive internal force in the section Torsional modulus constant Total upward contact reaction of a concrete foundation on the base plate Size effect factor Standard pressure coefficient Dynamic augmentation factor Clear depth of web of the steel beam Depth between fillets of column section Depth of rectangle Depth of girder Depth of web Depth of web between fillets Diameter of the bolt Diameter of holes in a row perpendicular to the direction of tensile force Effective depth of embedment Length of each constituent thin rectangle of the section Length of rectangular section Nominal diameter of the bolt Nominal shank diameter of the studs Total depth of web remaining after notches, without deduction of holes for fasteners Depth of web from the notch to the bottom-most fastener hole Depth of the plate stiffener at the point of maximum moment in the base plate Depth of web Elemental area of a section Elementary length along rib of arch Depth of the base plate Diameter of circular shaft Diameter of the column Diameter of holes for bolts Diameter of holes for fasteners Flexural rigidity of plate Length of base plate along the X-X axis Overall depth of box or column section Total depth of embedment of the holding-down bolt Overall depth of beam By Overall depth of beam B, Overall depth of beam Overall depth of the column Distance between the centre of flanges Length of a side of the square base plate Overall depth of profile sheet Distance between the centre of the tensile and compressive reinforcement Distance from the top of the steel beam to the centroid of the tensile reinforcement Overall depth of the concrete slab Eccentricity of in-plane loading on a group of bolts Eccentricity of reaction Ry, from the centre of gravity of effective section, along the centre-line of webxviii Notation e e e et) E 5 Ep E, EI f f f te te Sou Fea Sr Sr End distance in the direction of load Shear centre of a thin-walled section Spacing of the end posts ‘Time-dependent vertical displacement Modulus of elasticity Elastic modulus of member i of a truss Elastic modulus of the panel material Elastic modulus of steel Flexural rigidity of section Mean longitudinal stress in the smaller flange due to moment and axial load on the beam at the point of interest Number of rotationally and translationally fixed supports (fixed) Rise of arch rib Stress in compression due to axial load Stress in concrete fibre Characteristic 28 day cube strength of concrete Compressive stress in web at the compression edge of the web Longitudinal fibre stress due to bending moment Maximum shear stress in the weld group due to the applied moment M Shear in the weld in the XX direction due to moment on the weld group Shear in the weld in the ¥-Y direction due to moment on the weld group Natural frequency of a single degree of freedom system Undamped natural frequency of vibration = I/T,=w,/2n (cycles per second, Hz) Resultant shear stress in the weld due to combined moment and shear Stress in the steel beam Punching shear stress at the effective perimeter Shear stress due to applied shear force V Shear stress due to direct shear F, in the Y-Y direction Yield strength of steel reinforcement Yield stress Applied direct tension Axial compression in a column Lateral load at the bearing Lateral load on the stiffener applied at the beam compression flange Magnitude of the impulsive force Ultimate axial compression load at a section in 2 member Ultimate maximum axial tensile force in a compound member Flange force in the bottom flange of beam By Flange force in the top flange of beam By Flange force in the bottom flange of beam B, Flange force in the top flange of Beam By Compressive force in the concrete flange Horizontal compressive force for connection equilibrium Total compressive force acting at the centre of compression Ultimate compressive load Flange forces The longitudinal tensile force in the reinforcement at the negative moment region ‘The longitudinal compressive force in the concrete slab due to maximum positive momentNotation xix BERET ET QONS PF PP BRESSEEEE sw gap SAN Stiffener force Tensile force in steel reinforcement Actual tensile load in the bolt at the ith row Actual load in the bolts in row j Applied shear force Applied direct tension Applied load through flange Applied maximum shear force in the panel under consideration Applied shear force Applied shear on the weld group Column web panel shear Shear in the stiffeners Applied maximum shear Applied shear about the XX axis Applied shear about the ¥-Y axis External load on the stiffener Applied joint moment or algebraic sum of fixed-end moments at joint Distance between holes at right angles to the direction of the tensile load Horizontal spacing of bolts at the connection Modulus of rigidity Shear modulus Distance between centroids of flanges Number of translationally fixed supports (hinged) Overall height of stud Thickness of plate Distance from neutral axis to centroid of bottom flange Depth of concrete encasement Distance of the ith bolt hole in the plate from the centre-line parallel to the axis of the beam or column The distance of the bolt in the ith row from the centre of compression Distance from line of action of direct load N to the centre of compression Distance between centres of the flanges of the steel beam Distance from neutral axis to centroid of top flange Building height Horizontal component of the support reaction H’ Horizontal reaction at supports Warping constant Reaction at arch support in the direction AB Height of average roof-top level around the building Horizontal reaction at end 4 Effective height Anchorage force parallel to the longitudinal horizontal axis of a beam Maximum horizontal base shear Reference height of building Summation of all the resolved forces in the horizontal direction Moment of inertia of the cross-section of a beam about its neutral axis Moment of inertia of a section of arch rib Moment of inertia of a section of beam or column Second moment of area about the neutral axisxx Notation Jo qh h der Jer Moment of inertia of a section of arch rib at the crown Moment of inertia of section of beam in span 1 Moment of inertia of section of beam in span 2 Second moment of inertia of the compression flange about the minor axis Effective moment of inertia Second moment of area of an uncracked composite section Second moment of area of a cracked composite section for negative moments Second moment of area of a cracked composite section for positive moments Polar moment of inertia of the group of bolts Polar moment of inertia of the weld group Minimum stiffness of transverse web stiffener Second moment of area of stiffeners only about web centre-line Equivalent moment of inertia including 20 times web thickness Second moment of inertia of the tension flange about the minor axis Moment of inertia of the section about the principal axis U-U Product inertia of the section about the U and V axes Moment of inertia of the section about the principal axis V-V Moment of inertia about the major axis Second moment of area about the major axis through the neutral axis Second moment of area of the steel beam about the major axis Moment of inertia of the section about the X-axis Moment of inertia of the weld group about X-X axis Product inertia of the section about the X and Y axes Second moment of area about the minor axis through the neutral axis Moment of inertia of the section about the Y-axis Moment of inertia of the weld group about Y-Y axis Second moment of area of all the components in a composite column about the minor axis expressed in steel units Number of joints in a truss Total number of joints in the structure Number of lacing bars cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the member Number of shear connectors in a row perpendicular to the axis of the beam Torsion constant Stiffness Torsional stiffness of a circular shaft Generalised stiffness of a system ‘The reduction factor for ribs perpendicular to the beam The reduction factor for ribs parallel to the beam Beam stiffness Column stiffness Joint restraint coefficient of joint 1 Generalised geometric stiffness Stiffness of a single degree of freedom system (N/m) Horizontal distance between supports 4 and B of arch Horizontal span of an arch Length of memberNotation xxi BERRPSS EEERSE Length of a side of segment or projected length of a side of a segment Length of span of beam Storey height Length of span 1 Length of span 2 Length of member i of a truss Actual length of strut Building plan length Length along the beam or column between adjacent points of restraint Length of rafter between points of intersection with web members Length of web plate Effective length about the 4A axis Effective length about the B-B axis ‘Actual overhang of base plate on the compression side Effective length between points of intersection of lacing with main members Length of end plate Span of crane bridge Effective length of beam Effective length of flange or end plate gone beyond yield Effective length of the stiffener Effective length of beam or column between restraints Effective length of strut Effective length about the X-X axis Effective length about the Y-Y axis Distance between the first row of bolts and the last row of bolts in the direction of loading in a long joint Length of the stiffener Length of web plate ‘Actual overhang of base plate Effective length of web resisting tension assuming 60° spread of load Effective length about the V-V axis Length along the beam or column to a point of interest from a point of restraint Effective span Z for simply supported beam Distance from the centre of bolt to 20% of the distance into the root of rolled section or the fillet weld Equivalent uniform moment factor ‘Mass per unit length of beam Number of members in a frame Number of members in a truss Generalised mass of a system Effective overhang of base plate on the compression side Effective overhang of base plate from the centre of tension of the holding-down bolts Applied bending moment Applied bending moment about an axis perpendicular to D Applied in-plane moment on the weld group Applied moment at the connection Beam span-end moments Bending moment at any point along the length of a beam along the X-axisxxii Notation SSSEEEES Bending moment in an arch due to applied loading Constant applied moment on column section Mass of a single degree of freedom system (ke) Mass of system Maximum ultimate bending moment ‘Numerically larger end moment of the beam in the unrestrained length Resultant moment on a circular section Bending moment due to external loading Bending moment in an arch rib when H is zero Revised plastic moment of resistance with shear Bending moment at midspan of unrestrained length of beam Maximum span bending moment in span due to loading as a simply supported beam Bending moment in beam B, clockwise positive Bending moment in beam B, clockwise positive Bending moment at support A of continuous beam Maximum moment in the length of the member Applied moment at end A of beam AB Bending moment at support B of continuous beam Buckling resistance moment Applied moment at end B of beam AB Buckling moment of resistance of a simple column Bending moment in arch rib at the crown of an arch Bending moment in the cantilever base plate overhang on the compression side Elastic moment of resistance of flange plates about the plate centre-line parallel to the axis of the beam or column, allowing for bolt holes Moment capacity of the connection Plastic moment capacity of a composite section Plastic moment of resistance of the section Section moment capacity Plastic moment capacity of a section about the X-X (major) axis Plastic moment capacity of a section in the absence of axial compressive load about the X-¥ (major) axis Plastic moment capacity of the section about the minor axis Plastic moment capacity of a section in the absence of axial compressive load about the Y-Y (minor) axis Bending moment at point D of arch Elastic critical moment Flange plate bending moment due to minor axis bending moment Myy Plastic moment capacity of the section remaining after deduction of shear area Ay Local bending moment in a rafter due to concentrated load of purlin Equivalent bending moment Maximum moment in a column section due to moment and direct load Minor axis bending moment due to strut action Minor axis bending moment due to strut action at any point in the beam, assuming sinusoidal distribution Ultimate plastic moment capacity of a plate section per unit length (Nm/m) Plastic moment capacity Plastic moment of resistance of the beam sectionNotation xxiii nm m, zaRe Plastic moment of resistance of flange or end plate per unit length Plastic moment capacity of the smaller flange about its own equal area axis parallel to the flange Plastic moment capacity of the web about its own equal area axis perpendicular to the web Maximum moment of resistance of base plate Reduced local section moment capacity about the X-X axis in the presence of axial load Reduced local section moment capacity about the YY axis in the presence of axial load Applied moment due to transverse eccentricity of Ry Moment on a stiffener due to eccentrically applied load Moment on a stiffener due to eccentricity of transverse load Plastic moment capacity of the steel beam Bending moment in the base plate overhang on the tension side In-plane moment on a group of bolts Resolved moment on the section about the U-U axis Resolved moment on the section about the V-V axis Applied moment about the major axis at the splice Applied moment about the X-X axis Applied ultimate moment about the major axis Bending moment per unit length acting on the edges parallel to the Y-axis Ultimate nominal bending moment about the X-X axis Torsional moment per unit length on the edges of a plate Applied moment about the ¥-¥ axis Applied ultimate moment about the minor axis Bending moment per unit length acting on the edges parallel to the X-axis Ultimate nominal bending moment about the Y-Y axis Moment capacity of the stiffener based on its elastic modulus Minor axis bending moment due to applied minor axis moment and additional minor axis bending moment due to strut action Summation of all moments of the forces (or the resolved forces) about any point in the system Depth of the plastic neutral axis from the top of the concrete flange Effective edge distance Number of bolts in the group Number of fastener holes in any single vertical line Number of holding bolts in the tension zone Number of plate stiffeners resisting the compression side moment Mz and the tension side moment M, in the base plate Slenderness correction factor Number of fastener holes along the horizontal line from the innermost, line of fastener to the edge of the web The length obtained by dispersion at 45° through half the depth of the section The length obtained by dispersion through the flange to the flange-to- web connection at a slope of 1:2.5 to the plane of the flange Number of bolts in the compression zone Number of web plates Number of bolts in the tension zone Actual number of shear connectors for positive or negative moment as relevantxxiv Notation Applied direct axial load, compression positive Applied direct tension Axial direct load from column Direct axial compression in the column applied at the intersection of the XX and the ¥-Y axis Internal axial load due to applied loading Number of shear connectors in a group Total number of shear connectors in a spacing S Total number of wheels Vertical load Axial thrust due to external loading only ‘Axial compression in the arch rib when H is zero Direct tension or compression in beam By, positive in the direction of positive x Direct tension or compression in beam Bp, positive in the direction of positive x Actual number of shear connectors used for positive moment Axial thrust in arch rib at the crown of an arch Shear in the bolt due to axial load Direct load shear in each bolt along the X-X axis Internal force in member i due to external loading Axial tension or compression in lacing bar Shear in the ith bolt due to moment Shear in the ith bolt in the X-X direction due to moment M; Shear in the ith bolt in the ¥-¥ direction due to moment My Number of shear connectors due to negative moment Number of shear connectors due to positive moment Number of shear connectors required to give full shear connection and for positive moment capacity of the section to develop Shear in bolt due to direct shear Length of the circular arc along the line NA Amplitude of force of excitation Bending strength Design strength of bolt in bearing Design strength of connected ply in bearing Compressive strength Compressive strength of column acting as strut Compressive strength of column web Compressive strength corresponding to slenderness about the X-X axis ‘Compressive strength corresponding to slenderness about the ¥-Y axis Compressive strength due to edge loading Generalised effective load Euler strength Design strength of bolts in shear Design strength of bolts in tension Design strength of fillet weld made using electrodes complying with BS 639 Design strength of material (flange plates, beam and web) Design strength of backing plate Design strength of beam Design strength of column Design strength of the flange Design strength of plate stiffenerNotation xxv Pye Design strength of base plate Design strength of end plate Design strength of profiled stee! sheet Design strength of the stiffener Design strength of web plate Design strength of the web Applied time-dependent force Applied external force Applied point load between stiffeners Generalised form of notation of external loads In-plane load on a group of bolts Minimum shank tension as per BS 4604 Bearing capacity of bolts Bearing capacity of friction-grip bolts Bearing capacity of connected ply Capacity of the batten in compression Capacity of the batten in tension Bearing resistance of the beam flange by compression Compressive strength of strut Force in concrete in compression Elastic critical load Elastic critical load corresponding to effective length Lx Elastic critical load corresponding to effective length L,, Flexural buckling failure axial load Force in stee! flange in compression Force in steel flange in tension Capacity of the lacing bar in compression Capacity of the lacing bar in tension Local capacity of web at bearing or under concentrated load The buckling resistance of the intermediate web stiffener Force in reinforcement in compression Maximum allowable tensile load in the bolt at the ith row Force in reinforcement in tension Reduced bolt shear capacity Resistance of horizontal shear of an inclined diagonal stiffener Shear capacity of bolts Slip resistance Slip resistance of waisted shank friction-grip bolts Tension capacity of the tension stiffener Local tension capacity of column web Resistance of web in tension Tension capacity of flange at the connection Tensile capacity Tension capacity of friction-grip bolts Ultimate maximum tensile load in the encased column Enhanced bolt tensile capacity without allowance for prying Composite column section capacity in axial compression Ultimate maximum compressive load in a ‘stocky’ column Block shear capacity Plain shear capacity of notched beam Resistance of the web in panel shear Shear capacity Section shear capacity about the X-X axisxxvi_ Notation Qe Qn r Section shear capacity about the ¥-Y axis Buckling resistance of unstiffened web Force in web in compression Force in web in tension Buckling resistance of a load carrying stiffener Increment of external applied load Loading per unit area on plate Ratio of the tapered length to the total length between effective torsional restraints Basic shear strength Buckling shear strength Elastic critical shear stress Critical shear strength Flange-dependent shear strength Dynamic pressure Capacity of shear connectors for positive or negative moment as relevant First moment of area about the neutral axis Characteristic strength of headed studs Capacity of shear connector in the negative moment region Capacity of shear connector in the positive moment region First moment of area of bottom flange about neutral axis First moment of area of top flange about neutral axis Number of translationally fixed support in one orthogonal direction (roller) Radius of circular shaft Web stress ratio Radius of gyration of strut section about the A-A axis Radius of gyration of strut section about the B-B axis Root radius of column section Effective radius of gyration Distance of the line from origin O to the bolt { Maximum distance to a point on the weld from the centroid of the weld group Radius of gyration about the minor axis of the effective section Radius of gyration of the equivalent core section of the transverse web stiffener Ultimate resistance (N/m?) Radius of gyration of strut section about the VV axis Radius of gyration about the major axis Radius of gyration of strut section about the X-X axis Radius of gyration of the section about the minor axis Radius of gyration of strut section about the YY axis Radius of curvature Ratio of the greater depth to the lesser depth of effective torsional restraint Vertical reaction at support A of three-hinged arch Vertical reaction at end A Vertical reaction at support B of three-hinged arch Vertical reaction at end B Resistance of conerete flange Resistance of flange of the steel beam End reaction of beam at the bearingNotation xxvii 2 let argo sere e ae oan Sa Maximum ultimate reaction or maximum applied load on the flange Resistance of slender steel beam Resistance of slender web of the steel beam Resistance of shear connection Resistance of steel tensile reinforcement Resistance of steel beam Resistance of clear web depth Resistance of overall web depth Leg length of fillet weld Length along rib of arch Longitudinal spacing of groups of shear connectors ‘Number of degrees of freedom of sidesway Basic snow load Snow load on roof Leg length of fillet weld Minor axis plastic modulus of the smaller section at the splice. Plastic modulus of section Altitude factor Spectral acceleration Direction factor Spectral displacement Plastic modulus of flanges only Internal force in member i of a truss Probability factor Spacing of holes along the direction of load Seasonal factor Throat thickness of fillet weld Plastic modulus of shear area Ay Plastic modulus of shear area only about the X-X axis Plastic modulus of shear area only about the ¥-¥ axis Pseudo-spectral velocity Warping statical moment Plastic modulus about the X-axis (major axis) Plastic modulus about the minor axis Minimum web thickness required for spacing of stiffeners equal to @ using tension field action Rise in temperature of an arch rib (°C) Thickness of base plate Thickness of connected ply Thickness of each constituent thin rectangle of the section Thickness of the element in which shear stress is determined Thickness of flange or end plate Thickness of each panel Thickness of the steel tube Thickness of web of steel beam Thickness of web of steel section Thickness of backing plate Thickness of column web Duration time of impulsive loading Thickness of end post Effective thickness of web Thickness of base plate Thickness of flange platests SSNS a Notation Thickness of plate stiffener Thickness of profiled steel sheet Thickness of web plate Thickness of bearing stiffener Thickness of stiffener plate Thickness of web plate Thickness of web Applied tensile force at the connection Applied torque Flange tension Kinetic energy of a system Tensile internal force in section Tension in a single bolt or in @ group of bolts Thickness of flange (steel beam and steel section) Thickness of flanges of symmetrical steel section Thickness of the smaller flange Tension in holding-down bolt no.1 Thickness of flange of beam By Tension in holding-down bolt no.2 thickness of flange of beam By Thickness of flange of beam Thickness of flange of column The total thickness of all the plies joined together by a bolt Tension in ith holding-down bolt Undamped natural frequency of vibration = 2n/w, (seconds) Resistance by uniform torsion Applied torque Total torsional resistance at any point in a beam ‘Tension on the fusion face Resistance by warping Sum of all tensile forces in the bolts in the tension zone Buckling parameter Co-ordinates along the U-axis Time-dependent transverse deflection of beam Time dependent displacement Effective perimeter for punching shear stress Initial strain energy of a system Strain energy Strain energy stored in the arch Ultimate tensile strength of bolt Specified minimum ultimate tensile strength Ultimate tensile strength of material of the beam Ultimate tensile strength Increment of strain energy Co-ordinates along the V-axis Slenderness factor Basic tension field strength of web Design concrete shear stress Contribution of the profiled steel sheeting Applied shear force on the section or in a beam Maximum shear force adjacent to the stiffener Potential energy of a system Transverse shear force acting parallel to the planes of lacing or battenNotation xxix BVVETE Lees g = » EES Bika Re BeOS a Ultimate shear at the section under consideration Basic wind speed Shear buckling resistance of a stiffened panel of web Shear buckling resistance of web Shear force at point D of an arch Standard effective wind speed Strain energy due to flexure Vertical shear per unit length due to wheel load in gantry girder Potential energy of load Maximum ultimate transverse shear in a direction parallel to the planes of lacing or batten Shear buckling resistance of the web pane! without tension field action Transverse shear in the member at any section Site wind speed Shear on the fusion face Shear force per unit length of plate due to My Horizontal shear per unit length at the connection between the bottom flange and the web Horizontal shear per unit length at the connection between the top flange and the web Shear force per unit length of plate due to My Summation of all of the forces in the vertical direction Deflection of plate in the out-of-plane direction Distributed load per unit length over the whole panel a Intensity of uniformly distributed load on a beam Pressure on the underside of the plate assuming uniform distribution Uniformly distributed vertical load intensity Total distributed load over shorter-than-panel dimension a Ultimate point seal from purlin Weight of mass = Weight of erane bridge Crane live load including hook load Weight of crab The normalised warping constant Moment due to unfactored service load Moment due to factored ultimate load Whee! load in KN Co-ordinates along the X-axis Length along the longitudinal axis of the member Torsional index Location of the neutral axis parallel to the major axis Centre of gravity of area A, from left-hand support 4 Centre of gravity of area Az from right-hand support C Co-ordinate of the centroid of the rectangle along the global X-X axis Distance of the plastic neutral axis from the edge of web Upwind spacing of the building from existing obstructions The larger side of the assumed trapezoidal contact pressure diagram under the base plate The smaller side of the assumed trapezoidal contact pressure diagram under the base plate Distance along the X-X axis of the ith bolt from the centroid of the bolt groupxxx Notation xX Generalised expression for all types of displacement at the joints Distance of the plastic neutral axis from the edge of the compressive face of the concrete Summation of all of the forces in the X-X direction Co-ordinates along the Y-axis Distance from the neutral axis to the arc AB Distance of centroid of area A from the neutral axis Location of the neutral axis parallel to the minor axis Basic tension field strength Co-ordinate of the centroid of the rectangle along the global Y-¥ axis Depth of web in compression from the compression flange of the steel section distance along the Y-Y axis of the ith bolt from the centroid of the bolt group Specified minimum yield strength Summation of all of the forces in the ¥-Y direction Elastic modulus of base plate along the axis of moment Mz Elastic modulus of the plate stiffener Elastic section modulus about relevant axis Elastic section modulus of compression flange Elastic modulus of flanges only Elastic section modulus of flanges only relative to the compression flange Elastic section modulus of flanges only relative to the tension flange Polar modulus of the weld group Elastic section modulus of tension flange Elastic section modulus about the X-X (major) axis Elastic modulus about major axis to bottom fibre Elastic modulus about major axis to top fibre Elastic section modulus about the ¥-Y (minor) axis,Chapter 1 Strength of Materials 1.1 BENDING STRESS IN BEAMS. (= CY DEFLECTED SHAPE = ay DEFLECTED SHAPE Boam in pure bendit over this length SK 1/1 Beam in pure bending. A beam is in pure bending where shear force is zero and hence bending moment is constant over a length of the beam. A plane section is assumed to remain plane before and after bending. When shear force is present, the plane section is warped. But for all practical purposes this warping due to shear force may be ignored and the theory of pure bending may be extended to cover the cases of bending where the bending moment is not constant. 1.1.1 Assumptions (1) Plane section remains plane. (2) Material is homogeneous and isotropic. (3) Lateral strains (anticlastic curvature) are neglected.2. Structural Steelwork COMPRESSION ELEVATION OP BEAM SECTION OF ‘STRESS BEAM DIAGRAM SK 1/2 Bending strains and stresses. (4) Local effects under loads are neglected.” (5) Beam bends in a circular arc of radius R. (© The radius of curvature is large compared to the cross-sectional dimension of the beam. (7) Modulus of elasticity, £, has the same value in compression and tension. The neutral axis, where stress is zero, is denoted on the circular arc by NA. The stress oan at a distance y from the neutral axis is on the circular arc AB. (AB-NA)_(R+y)0-RO_y Strain = ean = NA RO R oan ena = ee iiagh where modulus of elasticity radius of curvature ap =stress at a distance y from the neutral axis on a circular arc AB €ap =Strain at a distance y from the neutral axis on a circular arc AB angle subtended at the centre of the circular arc AB jength of the circular arc along the line ABStrength of Materials 3 NA=length of the circular arc along the line NA y=distance from the neutral axis to the arc AB 1.1.2 Position of neutral axis dA is an element of area at a distance y from NA. Net normal force on the cross-section must be zero for pure bending. J odA=0 A ot Z[ yaa=o E Rr? The location of the neutral axis should satisfy: J ydA=0 A The external applied moment, M, is balanced by internal forces. Taking moment of the internal forces about NA: E EI M=| cyda=Fl yraa=3 where I= f, dd = moment of inertia of the section of the beam about the neutral axis oe y IR If the moment about an axis perpendicular to the axis about which M is applied is zero, then that axis is called the principal axis of the section. fj oxaa= A, or | sydtne : E because = Gy The axes about which the product of inertia f xy dA is zero are called the principal axes. An axis of symmetry in a section is a principal axis.4 Structural Steelwork 1.1.3 Bending stress in asymmetrical sections ~ \ | | a jer | SK 1/3. Principal axes through centroid of a section. dA is the elemental area of a section; x and y are co-ordinates about axes X-X and Y—Y; u and y are co-ordinates about axes U-U and V-V; and U-U and V-V are principal axes about which the product of inertia is zero. u= xcos@+ ysin@ v= yeosd — xsind Product of inertia Ivy = | uvdA A where dA =elemental area of a section x =co-ordinate along X-axis y =co-ordinate along Y-axis u=co-ordinate along U-axis vy =co-ordinate along V-axis 6 =angle of inclination between X and U axes Juy = product inertia of the section about U and V axes 7x =moment of inertia of section about the X-axis Ty =moment of inertia of section about the Y-axis Ixy = product inertia of section about X and Y axes Tov -| (xcos @ + ysin #\(ycos@ — xsin@)dA lA sin 20 =(k- Wz + Ixy cos 20Strength of Materials 5 when [yy = 0, tan 20 = 2Ixy/(Fy — Ix) x-| ydA A | edd A ay=[ xydA In l= | v dA = Ix cos? 6 — Ixy sin 26 + Fysin? 6 A Similarly, Ty = Fycos? 8 + Ixy sin 20 + Ix sin’ 6 or k+h=ht+h 1.1.4 Product inertia of a rectangle about orthogonal axes SK 1/4 Rectangular element product inertia. To find product inertia of any section about a set of orthogonal axes X-X and Y-Y, divide the section into rectangles and find the sum- mation of product inertia for each rectangle about the orthogonal6 Structural Steelwork axes. Jxy, is the product inertia of each rectangle about the X-X and ¥-Y axes. 27 x+b/2 y+d/2 moe [foee ELE x-b/2 y-d/2 = bdxY where X=co-ordinate of the centroid of the rectangle along the global X-¥ axis Y=co-ordinate of the centroid of the rectangle along the global Y-Y axis 6 =width of rectangle d= depth of rectangle Ixy = product inertia of the section about the global X-X and Y-Y axes=) Ixy, Ceo rere BLA EERE LLL Hy SK 1/5 Product inertia of an angle section. Product inertia of an angle section about the centroidal axes X-X and Y-Y=product inertia of rectangle 1 about X-X¥ and ¥Y-Y¥+ product inertia of rectangle 2 about X-X and Y-Y. For sections which are asymmetrical, the orthogonal applied moments M, and My about any set of X-X and ¥-Y axes should be resolved about the principal axes U-U and V-V of the section to obtain bending stresses in the section due to the applied moments. Bending stresses in an angular section Find principal axes U-U and V-V of the section and resolve bending moments Mx and My about the principal axes.Strength of Materials 7 LUN who \, Y ‘SK 1/6 Principal axes of an angle section. My = Mx cos + My sin@ My = Mx sin@ + My cos@ _ Muy, Myu “hh where o is the bending stress at any point on the angle section and wand y are co-ordinates of the point along the principal axes U-U and V-V. Always observe a sign convention which is consistent throughout. ‘Sign convention Bending moments producing compression in the positive zone are taken as positive. Positive M, produces compressive stresses in the zone where y is positive, and similarly, positive M, produces compressive stresses in the zone where x is positive. x and u are co-ordinates which are positive to the right of the origin along the X and U axes respectively. y and v are co-ordinates along the Y and V axes respectively, with positive values in the same direction as x and u but at an angle of 90 degrees in the anticlockwise direction from the X and U axes respectively.8 Structural Steelwork =angle between X-X and U-U axes measured anticlock- wise from the X-X axis M,=applied moment on the section about X-¥ axis ‘My=applied moment on the section about ¥-Y axis M,= resolved moment on the section about U-U axis ‘M,=tesolved moment on the section about V-V axis Ty=moment of inertia of the section about the principal axis U-U Jy=moment of inertia of the section about the principal axis V-V bending stress on the section compression positive o 1.2 SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS NEUTRAL PLANE LONGITUDINAL AXIS: OF BEAM COMPLEMENTARY HORIZONTAL ‘SHEAR STRESS eT CENTROID OF HATCHED AREA A SK 1/7 Shear stresses in beam section, The concept of transverse vertical shear stress in a section of a beam with complementary horizontal shear stress in layers of the beam parallel to the neutral plane is illustrated in SK 1/7 by the use of a rectangular cross-section. Consider an elemental length dx of a beam. The shear stress in the transverse plane will give rise to a complementary shear stress in the longitudinal plane. The bending moments at two transverse sections spaced dx apart are M and M-+dM. The corresponding shear forces are V and V+dV. The shear stress on a plane bounded