Quantum Transport in Solids

• Waves and particles in quantum mech.

• Quantization in atoms
• Insulators : Energy gap
• Emergent particles in a solid
• Landau quantization in a magnetic field
and the quantum Hall effect
 Light is a Wave
Hallmark of a wave : Interference

constructive

destructive
Wave Particle Duality

A photon is a particle too

Electrons are Waves
 Energy and Momentum
Planck : Energy ~ Frequency

E = hf = =ω ω = 2π f

= = h / 2π = 1.05 ×10−34 Js
Max Planck 1858-1947

de Broglie: Momentum ~ (Wavelength)-1

h
p= = =k k = 2π / λ
λ
Louis de Broglie 1892-1987
 Dispersion Relation
Relation between
• Frequency and Wavelength
• Energy and Momentum
E
For a photon:
c
f = ⇒ ω = ck ⇒ E = cp p
λ
For an electron in vacuum: E

1 2 p2 =2k 2
E = mv = ⇒ =ω = p
2 2m 2m
 Quantization
Waves in a confined geometry have discrete modes

v
f1 =
2L
v
f2 = 2
2L
v
f3 = 3
2L
Quantization of circular orbits
Circular orbits have quantized
angular momentum.

nλ = 2π r
2π = n=
p= =
λ r
L = rp = n=
 Bohr Model • Two equations :
L = mvr = n=
e 2 mv 2
F =k 2 =
r r
• Solve for rn and En(rn,vn)
En = − Ry / n 2
Niels Bohr 1885-1962
rn = n 2 a0
• Rydberg energy:
2 4
mk e
Ry = = 13.6 eV
2= 2

• Bohr radius :
=2
a0 = 2
= .5Å
Explains line spectra of atoms
mke
 Flatland ... (1980’s)
Semiconductor Heterostructures : “Top down technology”
→ Two dimensional electron gas (2DEG)

V(z) conduction band

energy
z

AlxGa1-x As

∆E ~ 20 mV ~ 250°K
Ga As
2D subband z
2DEG

Fabricated with atomic precision using MBE.

1980’s - 2000’s : advances in ultra high mobility samples
 Pauli Exclusion Principle
Electrons are “Fermions”:

Each quantum state can

accommodate at most one electron

Wolfgang Pauli 1900-1958

n=4 n=4

n=3 n=3

n=2 n=2

n=1 n=1

Ground state Excited State

Enrico Fermi 1901-1954

 Insulator

Energy
Gap

An insulator is inert because a finite energy

is required to unbind an electron.

A semiconductor is an insulator with a small

energy gap.
Add electrons to a semiconductor

Energy
Gap

Accomplished by either

• Chemical doping
• Electrostatic doping (as in MOSFET)
Added electrons are mobile.
Add electrons to a semiconductor

Energy
Gap

Accomplished by either

• Chemical doping
• Electrostatic doping (as in MOSFET)
Added electrons are mobile.
Add electrons to a semiconductor

Energy
Gap

Accomplished by either

• Chemical doping
• Electrostatic doping (as in MOSFET)
Added electrons are mobile.
 Added electrons form a band
E
2
p
E=
2m *
p m* = “Effective mass”

Electrons in the “conduction band” behave just like

ordinary electrons with charge e, but with a
renormalized mass.

“Emergent quasiparticles at low energy”

“Holes” in the valence band

Energy
Gap

Added holes are mobile

“Holes” in the valence band

Energy
Gap

Added holes are mobile

“Holes” in the valence band

Energy
Gap

Added holes are mobile

 Holes are particles too
E
2
p
E=
2mh *
p mh* = Hole Effective mass

Holes in the “valence band” behave just like

ordinary particles with charge + e, with a mass mh* .

The sign of the charge of the carriers can be

measured with the Hall effect.
Band Structure of a Semiconductor
E
Conduction Band: Empty states

electrons
Gap

holes

Valence Band: Occupied states

p
 The Quantized Hall Effect
Hall effect in 2DEG MOSFET at large magnetic field
Von Klitzing,1981 (Nobel 1985)

• Quantization: ρ xy = RQ / N N = integer accurate to 10-9 !

• Quantum Resistance: RQ = h / e 2 = 25.812 807 kΩ

• Explained by quantum mechanics of electrons in a magnetic field
 Quantization in a magnetic field
G G G
Cyclotron Motion: F = −ev × B B v
1D Quantization argument: F
mv 2 e
F = evB = L = mvr = n=
r
Solve for rn and En(rn,vn)
eB n n=
En = n= = =ωc rn =
2m 2 eB
eB
Cyclotron frequency ωc =
m
Magnetic flux nπ = n φ0 =
h
π rn B =
2
= φ0 Magnetic Flux
enclosed by orbit e 2 quantum e
= 4.1×10−15 Tm 2
 Landau Levels
Landau solved the 2D Schrodinger
Equation for free particles in a
magnetic field

Closely related to the harmonic oscillator

Lev Landau 1908-1968
1
En = =ωc (n + ) E / =ωc
2
Each Landau level has one state
per flux quantum
total flux B × Area
# states = =
flux quantum ( h / e)
 Quantized Hall Effect
E / =ωc N filled Landau levels:
# particles/area:
# flux quanta
Gap n= N×
area
B eB
=N =N
φ0 h

Ey B
From last time: ρ xy = =
J x ne
1 h
ρ xy =
N e2