Exploring Differences In Employee Turnover Intentions And Its Determinants

Among Telecommuters And Non-Telecommuters

Magid Igbaria
Program in Information Science
Claremont Graduate School
130 East Ninth Street
Claremont, CA 91711
(909) 621-8209
IGBARIAM@CGS.EDU
&
Faculty of Management
Tel Aviv University
Tel Aviv, Ramat Aviv 69978
Israel

Tor Guimaraes
Jesse E. Owen Chair
College of Business Administration
Tennessee Technological University
Cookeville, TN 38505
(615) 372-3385
TG5596@TNTECH.EDU

January 8, 1998

​Exploring Differences In Employee Turnover Intentions And Its

Determinants Among Telecommuters And Non-Telecommuters

INTRODUCTION

The growing power, sophistication, and portability of technology has made remote work
a viable option in meeting the demands for flexible work options. Information technology has
contributed to making work less geographically dependent (Ditlea, 1995; Dziak, 1993).
Telework originated with the idea that work could be moved to where the workers are rather
than moving the workers to the work. People can work in a variety of locations (e.g., home,
neighborhood office, at a client location) and participate in the work of the organization.
​Teleworking has grown due to the demands of three constituencies: employees,
organizations and society. First, employee demands for more flexible work arrangements
resulted from substantial changes to the family structure. Traditional families with a working
husband and a stay-at-home wife are down to 10% of American families (Schepp, 1990).
Second, organizations, due to demographic changes, need to make accommodations to attract
and retain employees. The next generation of workers will be much smaller than the current
workforce. As older workers, who are experienced and trained, retire, the smaller pool of
younger workers causes a shortage of needed employees. Flexible work options are expected to
be required to recruit and retain quality employees. Cost reduction and productivity
improvement can also push organizations to adopt teleworking programs. Finally, societal
demands for environmental awareness are the third factor contributing to the demand for
flexible work. Teleworking helps organizations deal with the regulatory requirements of the
Clean Air Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act. Allowing physically challenged
individuals to telework allows organizations to comply with this legislation as well. Flexible
work also provides an organization with a contingency plan to cope with disasters.
Due to the numerous demands for alternatives to traditional work environments and
advances in technology that made remote work a reality, it is not surprising that flexible work
options are growing rapidly. Link Resource Corp. estimates that there has been an 85% percent
increase in teleworking since 1990 and that this trend will continue to grow (Fryxell, 1994). By
the year 2000 it is estimated that 25 million employees will telework (Barnes, 1994), and by
2030 there will be over 90 million teleworkers in the U.S. alone (Wilkes, Frolick and Urwiler,
1994). While there is a large body of literature available discussing the pros and cons of
teleworking (Bailey & Foley, 1990, Davis, 1994; Di Martino & Wirth, 1990; Goodrich, 1990;
Kruat, 1988), there is no consensus within the literature regarding the impact of telework on
career outcome success (i.e., satisfaction, commitment, turnover). Most of the current literature
is found in the popular press and articles are either (1) purely anecdotal and speculative in
nature, or (2) quote from telework consultants who have a vested interest in favorable results
(Duxbury, Higgins & Neufeld, 1997; Hill, Hawkins & Miller, 1996). Clearly, more empirical
research based on a theoretical framework on the relationship between telework and career
success outcomes is required to provide human resources management, teleworkers, and
information systems management to examine the future of telework arrangements. There is a
need to understand the outcomes of telework arrangements. This paper addresses this need by
exploring whether career success outcomes differ for teleworkers and non-teleworkers. It
attempts to gain a better understanding of the phenomena of career success outcomes of
teleworkers and non-teleworkers, and to examine the determinants of career success outcomes
among both groups.
The primary purpose for this study is to examine the differences between teleworkers
and non-teleworkers in terms of career success outcomes and their determinants. Further, the
study uses a comprehensive multivariate analysis model to examine the complex network of
relationships among the study variables and to identify any significant differences between
teleworkers and non-teleworkers. Specifically, the study sought to determine: (1) whether there
are differences in career success outcomes among teleworkers and non-teleworkers; and (2) the
pattern of relationships among the antecedents of career success outcomes. The next section
presents the theoretical framework and hypotheses. The first part of the section will present a
discussion on the differences between teleworkers and non-teleworkers, and the second part will
present the antecedents of career success outcomes as tested separately for teleworkers and non-
teleworkers.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES
Prior research emphasizes the personal, organizational, and social benefits gained from
telework. Telework is mostly associated with improvement in working conditions that can lead
to career success. Smart Valley Telecommuting Guide (URL: (http://smartone.svi.org/
PROJECTS/ TCOMMUTE/TCGUIDE/) indicates that teleworking as a flexible workplace
option reduces absenteeism and turnover. Other popular press and web sites mention that
telework makes it possible to retain workers and increase workers’ satisfaction and loyalty.
Further, a recent survey of Fortune 500 executives reported that 63% of the executives
indicated that teleworking improved employees retention, 63% reported reduced employee
stress, and 79% reported improved employee morale (BNA, 1995). Gordon and Kelly (1986)
proposed that companies can reduce turnover with teleworking. Employee retention has been
characterized as the most important reason for adopting a teleworking program (Mahfood, 1992;
Risman & Tomaskov-Devey, 1989).
Turnover intentions have been extensively studied by IS researchers (Baroudi, 1985;
Guimaraes & Igbaria, 1992; Igbaria & Greenhaus, 1992). The well-established relationships
between job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions clearly provide
the basis for understanding the antecedents of turnover intentions. For this study, the model
proposed and tested by Baroudi (1985) and Igbaria & Greenhaus (1992) to study the turnover
intention was adapted.
Figure 1 presents the conceptual model used in this study. The model was separately
tested for teleworkers and non-teleworkers. This model is built on the theoretical perspectives
provided by turnover theorists (Mobley, Griffeth, Hand & Meglino, 1979), and on recently
proposed frameworks and empirical findings regarding human resources management in IS
(Baroudi, 1985; Igbaria & Greenhaus, 1992). The model includes two sets of variables: (1) role
stressors, and career success outcomes; and (2) job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
turnover intention.
Role stressors include role ambiguity and role conflict. Role ambiguity has been defined
as the degree to which an employee lacks clear information regarding (a) the expectations
associated with the role, (b) methods of fulfilling known role expectations, and/or (c) the
consequences of role performance (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek & Rosenthal, 1964). Role
conflict is defined as incompatibility and incongruity in the expectations associated with a
particular job role. Role conflict perspective suggests that demands in one domain are likely to
restrict or prevent the fulfillment of expectations in the other. Career success outcomes include
the employee’s level of job satisfaction, the employee’s commitment to his or her organization,
and the employee’s intention to quit his or her organization. Job satisfaction refers to the
primary affective reactions of individuals to various facets of the job and job experience (Locke,
1976). Organizational commitment reflects one’s evaluation of the organization as a whole, and
encompasses three dimensions: (a) a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization’s goals
and values, (b) willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and (c) a
strong desire to maintain membership in the organization (Porter, Crampon & Smith, 1976).
Intention to leave refers to individual’s perceived likelihood that s(he) will be staying or leaving
the employer organization. The differences between teleworkers and non-teleworkers will be
examined in terms of the above variables.
The model in Figure 1 posits that (1) role stressors will be directly affected by job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions; (2) job satisfaction will
directly affect organizational commitment; (3) job satisfaction will inversely affect (both direct
and indirect effects) employee’s intentions to leave the organization; and (4) organizational
commitment will inversely affect turnover intentions. This study investigates the determinants
of turnover intentions among teleworkers and non-teleworkers. It acknowledges the possibility
that there may be no differences in some of the outcome variables, and that their determinants
may be related in different ways among teleworkers and non-teleworkers. The effects among
the variables will be examined separately for teleworkers and non-teleworkers. An
understanding of possible differences in the underlying factors that contribute to turnover
intentions within the two groups may lead to more appropriate strategies and organization
policies for more effective personnel management.
Based on turnover literature examining the factors related to turnover intentions, we
examined role stressors likely to influence job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and
turnover intention. Both stressors, role ambiguity and role conflict, were reported to be
negatively associated with job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and positively
related to turnover intentions (Bedeian & Armenakis, 1981; Brooke, Russell & Price, 1988;
Igbaria & Greenhaus, 1992; Van Sell, Brief & Schuler, 1981). These studies suggested that the
effect of role stressors on turnover intentions is mediated through intervening job satisfaction
and organizational commitment. As a result of insufficient information to perform the job
adequately, unclear expectations of peers, ambiguity of performance evaluation methods,
extensive job pressure, and lack of consensus on job functions or duties among peers,
supervisors, and customers, employees may feel less satisfied with the job, less committed to
the organization, and display a greater propensity to leave the organization.
Researchers have speculated that, due to the physical separation, telework requires more
communication than the conventional work arrangement (Kinsman, 1989; Mahfood, 1992).
Olson (1982) suggested that remote supervision is more formal and relies on rules and
procedures. Since teleworkers may receive more directions than non-teleworkers, it is
suggested that teleworkers may in fact experience less role ambiguity than non-teleworkers.
Further, as part of the teleworking program, management has been urged to carefully consider
measuring employee performance, and providing proper supervision. The tasks are clearly
defined and agreed upon by the employee and the employer (Challenger, 1992; Kirvan, 1995).
Teleworkers may also have more control over their work and personal demands than non-
teleworkers. In addition, teleworkers are expected to communicate less with colleagues and
their jobs may require more interdependence. Further, since teleworkers need to communicate
more with their supervisors than non-teleworkers, it is expected that teleworkers may face less
role conflict. Further, it is suggested that since teleworkers communicate formally with their
supervisors, this will reduce the chances of incompatible expectations (Shamir & Salomon,
1985). This suggests that teleworkers may have less role conflict and role ambiguity.
On the other hand, telework may increase role conflict because the employees spend
more time in work and have less time and energy for their personal lives. Further, teleworkers
may experience a blurred boundary distinction between work and personal roles, and find it
difficult to say no to more work and are frequently interrupted at home by family members,
friends, neighbors, and telephone calls. Blurring the boundaries and the interruptions can
contribute to negative stress. Generally, employees try to have a buffer of time and space
between home and the workplace. This buffer provides them with the opportunity for “cooling
off” and prevents the transfer of stress from one life sphere to the other (Shamir & Salomon,
1985). Thus, teleworkers may also face difficulties in accommodating both work and personal
needs (Duxbury, et al., 1997). Based on both arguments, we propose (H1) that teleworkers will
have a different role stressors level than non-teleworkers.
Company policies on telework are frequently based on the premise that telework
arrangements will increase job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and eventually
reduce turnover. The view that telework will increase the level of job satisfaction among
teleworkers is widely held (Chaudron, 1995; Kirkley, 1994; Weiss, 1994). They reported that
managers and practitioners believe, for a variety of reasons, teleworking contributes to increased
levels of job satisfaction. Generally, researchers have found teleworkers to be more satisfied
with their job than non-teleworkers ( Hartman, Stoner & Arora, 1992; Olson, 1989). Prior
research claims that telework improves the level of satisfaction among teleworkers by helping
them cope with heavy demands at work and family, reducing the commuting time, controlling
their work and personal schedule and duties, and providing them with more work flexibility.
Consequently, teleworkers will tend to be more satisfied (Shamir & Solomon, 1985). Further,
Hackman and Oldham job characteristics model (1976) can also explain why telework may lead
to increased job satisfaction. They identified five core dimensions of jobs: skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Greater autonomy and discretion lead to
favorable outcomes such as high job satisfaction, high productivity, and high internal motivation
(Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Telework is generally believed to increase autonomy by
providing flexible, discretion and control over the completion of work (DiMartino and Wirth,
1990; DuBrin, 1991; Jacobs & VanSell, 1996; Shamir and Salomon, 1985; Wright, 1993).
Further, a meta-analysis of the effects of job characteristics on job satisfaction provided
empirical evidence that autonomy is associated with satisfaction (Loher, Noe, Moeller &
Fitzgerald, 1985). Moreover, given that teleworkers have latitude in scheduling when they
choose to work (DuBrin, 1991), earlier research on job enrichment conducted by Herzberg
(1974) showed that scheduling of one’s own work is one of the eight characteristics of an
enriched- and therefore satisfying-job. Thus, it is suggested that telework may lead to positive
outcomes, including job satisfaction.
Others have suggested that telework may have a negative effect on job satisfaction, due
to isolation and alienation from the company and social interactions with colleagues (Hamilton,
1987; Snizek, 1995), the increased interference and blurring the boundaries between work and
personal lives, limited feedback, reduced contact and greater distance from colleagues, and
fewer career advancement opportunities (DuBrin, 1991; Duxbury, et al., 1997; Shamir &
Salomon, 1985). Other research found there was no significant differences in the overall job
satisfaction (DuBrin, 1991; DuBrin & Barnard, 1993). Based on both arguments, we propose
(H2a) teleworkers will have a different job satisfaction level than non-teleworkers. It is also
proposed (H2b) the strength of the effect of role stressors on job satisfaction depends on
whether they are teleworkers or not.
Teleworking is also associated with organizational commitment and turnover intention.
Organizations are using teleworking to reduce turnover and increase retention. An implicit
assumption about telework arrangements is an option organizations offer to attract and retain the
most qualified employees. Employees are grateful for the flexible work arrangement and thus
may be more committed to the organization and less likely to leave (Olmsted & Smith, 1989;
Pratt, 1984). It is reported that telework may increase employee’s loyalty to the organization
(Humble, Jacobs & Van Sell, 1995; Sullivan, 1994), and decrease turnover (Chae, 1995; Duffy,
1995; Sullivan, 1994; Weiss, 1994; Wilkes, et al., 1994). However, since telework may require
employees to spend a greater percentage of their time on paid work activities, hence increase
role overload (Duxbury, et al., 1997; Duxbury, Higgins & Mills, 1992; Olson, 1987), and
telework can also lead to increased interference (Duxbury, et al., 1997; Hill, et al., 1996, ) and
may increase work-family conflict, thus, telework may have a negative effect on organizational
commitment and retention. Given the variable linkages proposed in the model (Figure 1), and
the expectations that teleworkers will report a different level of role stressors and job
satisfaction, we predict (H3a) teleworkers will also report a different level of organizational
commitment and turnover intentions. We also predict (H3b) the pattern of relationships of
the antecedents of organizational commitment and turnover intentions differ between
teleworkers and non-teleworkers.
In summary, through the testing of these hypotheses the study sought to determine: (1)
whether there are differences in role stressors and career success outcomes among teleworkers
and non-teleworkers; and (2) the pattern of relationships among the determinants of career
success outcomes.

METHOD
Sampling Procedure
​Four hundred sales people from one large company in the Southeast United States were
asked to participate in the study. The organization entry point was the Marketing Director. The
company produces a wide variety of products for several industrial markets. Out of several
hundred employees, approximately one third participated in the company's telecommuting
program. Two hundred employees were randomly selected from the group of telecommuters and
non-telecommuters, each. In this case, telecommuting employees were defined as those who did
"most of their work at home or on the road, coming to the company's office for occasional
meetings." Participation was voluntary, and given the sensitive nature of the questions,
participants were assured that their individual responses would be treated with the strictest
confidence and were instructed to send the filled out questionnaires directly to the researchers
who provided a self addressed stamped envelope. A questionnaire was directly mailed to the
home of each selected employee with an introduction letter from the Marketing Director and a
letter from the researchers describing the purpose of the study, defining telecommuting,
promising anonymity and confidentiality. Eight questionnaires were thrown out due to too much
missing data. One hundred and four telecommuting employees and one hundred twenty one
regular employees responded, with a total of 225 usable questionnaires and a response rate of 56
percent.
Sample Description
​Of the 225 respondents, 80 (35.6 percent) were women and 145 (64.4 percent) were men.
The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 57, with an average of 39.2 years. The
educational level of the participants included completed high school (20.9 percent), college
degree (53.3 percent), and master degree or higher (25.8 percent).
Measures
​Demographic Variables. The analysis included four demographic variables: employee
type, gender, age, and education. Employee type was coded (1 = non-telecommuters; 2 =
telecommuters) on the questionnaire cover sheet. Gender was assessed with a fixedresponse
item (1=female; 2=male). Age was measured in years. Education consisted of four levels from
(1) some high school to (4) Master's or higher degree. In addition to demographic variables,
several multipleitem measures were used to operationalize the antecedents of turnover intentions.

​Role Stressors. Role ambiguity and role conflict were operationalized by the scales
developed by Rizzo, House and Lirtzman (1970). Each scale was scored using a 7point response
mode ranging from (1) "very false" to (7) "very true." The responses were averaged across
relevant items. The greater the score, the greater the perceived stress. The internal consistency
reliability (Alpha coefficient) of the measures of role ambiguity and role conflict were both .80.
​Job Satisfaction. Satisfaction was assessed through the Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
developed by Smith, Kendall and Hulin (1969). The JDI was selected because it is viewed by many
investigators as one of the most thoroughly researched and developed measures of its kind
(Campbell, 1970; Muchinsky, 1990). In terms of both predictive power and construct validity, the
five components of job satisfaction have shown strong relationships with other important variables
such as organizational commitment and the employee's intentions to leave. The JDI measures
satisfaction with five facets of the job: the work itself, supervision, people/coworkers, pay, and
promotion. The 3point JDI responses were defined so that a negative response ("yes" to a negative
item or "no" to a positive item) was scored 0. A positive response was scored 3, and "I don't know"
response ("?") was scored 2. The coefficients of reliability (Cronbach's Alpha) for each of the five
subscales are: work (alpha = .81), supervision (alpha = .85), people (alpha = .90), pay (alpha = .81),
and promotion (alpha = .91).
​Organizational Commitment. It is defined as the employee identification with a
particular organization and the desire to maintain membership. It is measured by an abbreviated
version of the Organizational Commitment Question (OCQ) developed by Porter, Crampon &
Smith (1976). The nine items used to construct the scale tap two of the three dimensions of
commitment included in the longer version of the OCQ: (1) a strong belief in and acceptance of
the organization's goals and values; and (2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of
the organization. In order to avoid concept redundancy (Morrow, 1983), the six items reflecting
a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization were excluded from the measure of
commitment because they overlapped with the measure of turnover intentions. Thus the shorter
version of the scale used in this study represents a more "pure" measure of the affective
dimensions of commitment to the employing organization. The response options to the items
ranged from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree. The reliability and validity of the
nineitem version have been found to be acceptable (Brooke, Russell and Price, 1988). The items
were recorded such that high scores reflected more commitment to the organization. The
reliability coefficient (alpha) for this scale was .89.
​Intention to Leave. Intention was measured via three items developed by Mobley, Horner
and Hollingsworth (1978), and assessed the employee's intent to leave the organization.
Responses to each item were recorded on a 5point scale ranging from (1) 'very unlikely' to (5)
'very likely'. The three items were summed and averaged to form the intention to leave index
(Cronbach's alpha coefficient = .84).
Data Analysis
The hypothesized moderator effects of work environment on the relationships between role
stressors and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions would
ordinarily be tested by means of moderated regression analysis (Cohen & Cohen, 1983).
However, this technique was considered to be inappropriate in this study because it assumes
symmetrical or monoonic and uniform changes in the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. In situations where the effect of the proposed moderator variable is
expected to be non-linear, two techniques have been suggested to assess the interaction effect:
(1) the use of dummy coded variables to represent different levels of the moderator variable; and
(2) regression analysis within subgroups that are identified by scores on the proposed moderator
variable.
Since subgroup analysis facilitates interpretation of interaction and non-linear effects, the
proposed model was tested separately for teleworkers and non-teleworkers. Thus, separate
regression equations were used to assess the adequacy of the hypotheses for both groups, i.e.,
teleworkers and non-teleworkers.
It should be noted that moderated regressions also revealed that work environment
moderates the relationship between some of the job satisfaction components (people, pay and
promotion) and overall satisfaction. The interaction between work environment and role
stressors was significant for the above dependent variables. We also found that work
environment moderates the relationship between satisfaction and organizational commitment.
The interaction was significant (B = .81, p < .001).
Hypotheses were tested using multiple regression analysis for teleworkers and non-
teleworkers, separately. Previous research has shown relationships between role stressors and
satisfaction, a relationship between job satisfaction and commitment, and relationships between
satisfaction and commitment and turnover intentions (Baroudi, 1985; Igbaria & Greenhaus,
1992). It is aimed to assess the main effects of each of the role stressors on the five components
of job satisfaction and overall satisfaction. We also examine the effects of job satisfaction on
organizational commitment and the effects of satisfaction and commitment on turnover
intentions. In each analysis, the significance of the beta weights for the hypothesized
independent variable was examined to determine support for the hypotheses.
To determine whether the relationships of role stressors, satisfaction and commitment with
turnover intentions varied as a function of work environment, we examined the significance of
the differences among the respective standardized beta coefficients obtained for teleworkers and
non-teleworkers, applying the formula proposed by Cohen & Cohen (1983).
RESULTS
The mean responses of teleworkers and traditional workers to the study variables are shown
in Table 1. A t-test was performed to examine significant differences in the means for the main
variables. Overall, teleworkers were significantly lower along the two role stressors, more
satisfied with work and supervision, and less satisfied with co-workers and promotion than non-
teleworkers. Table 1 also shows that teleworkers reported a significantly higher level of overall
satisfaction and less likelihood of leaving the company than non-teleworkers.
In view of the differences among teleworkers and non-teleworkers found along most of the
study variables, the test of the hypotheses was conducted separately for each group. This
enabled assessment of possible differences in the pattern of relationships among the variables
across the groups. The results showing the effects of role stressors on the components of job
satisfaction and overall satisfaction are presented in Table 2. The determinants of organizational
commitment and turnover intentions are presented in Table 3.
The results in Table 2 show that role stressors explain significant variation in the five
components of job satisfaction and overall satisfaction for non-teleworkers and three of job
satisfaction components - work, supervisor, and pay - and overall satisfaction for teleworkers.
The amount of variance explained in overall satisfaction and its components differ for
teleworkers and non-teleworkers. For traditional workers, role stressors explained 34, 13, 13, 5,
20, and 35 percent of the variance in the five components of job satisfaction (work, supervisor,
co-workers, pay, and promotion) and overall job satisfaction, respectively. For teleworkers the
role stressors explained 35, 9, 6 and 11 percent of the variance of satisfaction with work,
supervisor, and pay, and overall satisfaction, respectively.
Hypothesis 1 proposed that role stressors would be related to job satisfaction. The
standardized regression coefficients reported in Table 2 show that for traditional workers role
ambiguity had significant effects on all job satisfaction components and overall. For teleworkers
it shows significant effects only on satisfaction with work, co-workers, promotions, and overall
satisfaction. On the other hand, role conflict had more significant effects on satisfaction among
teleworkers than non-teleworkers. Role conflict had significant effects on satisfaction with
work, supervisor, pay, and overall among teleworkers. It shows only significant effects on
satisfaction with work and promotion for traditional workers.. The data also show significant
differences in the effects of role ambiguity on satisfaction with co-workers, pay, and promotion
and overall satisfaction among non-teleworkers versus teleworkers. They show that role
ambiguity had stronger negative effects on those variables among non-teleworkers than
teleworkers. On the other hand, role conflict has stronger negative effects on satisfaction with
pay among teleworkers than non-teleworkers.
Hypothesis 2 proposed a positive relationship of job satisfaction with organizational
commitment. Table 3 corroborates that for both groups. Table 3 also presents the results
pertaining to the relationships of the predictors of organizational commitment. The data shows
that while role ambiguity had a strong negative effect on organizational commitment among the
non-teleworkers, it had no significant effect on commitment for the teleworkers. Further, it also
shows that overall satisfaction had a stronger effect on commitment for teleworkers than non-
teleworkers. The study variables explained 34 and 40 percent of the variance in organizational
commitment for non-teleworkers and teleworkers, respectively.
Last, Table 3 also reports the results pertaining to the determinants of turnover intentions.
The data show that 15 and 25 percent of the variance in turnover intentions is explained by the
independent variables for non-teleworkers and teleworkers, respectively. As predicted in
Hypothesis 3, organizational commitment had a strong effect on turnover intentions for both
groups. The data also shows that role ambiguity and overall satisfaction had significant effects
on turnover intentions; however, no significant differences in the beta coefficients were observed
for teleworkers and non-teleworkers.
​CONCLUSIONS AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
​The results successfully addressed the proposed hypotheses. Since telecommuting is being
increasingly adopted to address a host of societal, personal, and corporate issues, and is being
viewed as a possible working alternative in many organizations, the results may provide to many
managers some insights for dealing with such work environments.
​Telecommuters seem to lead a less stressful life, and that is an extremely important benefit in
today’s work environment. They also tend to be happier with their supervisors and more committed
to their organizations. This study found that role stressors affect career success outcomes differently.
The results support the notion that teleworkers often have more communication with their
supervisors, receive more direction (Kinsman, 1988, Mahfood, 1992), and are also likely to
experience less role ambiguity and conflict.
​This study yielded some support for the notion that teleworking contributes to career
success. Yet the elevated career success appears to be tied more closely to specific job facets. While
teleworkers experienced higher job satisfaction with their supervisor, they experienced lower job
satisfaction with co-workers and promotion. This finding is consistent with a widespread perception
that telework is being used as a reward given by supervisors to those who contribute to the company
and/or have a good supervisory relationship.
​In the short run, the “privilege” of telecommuting may be reserved for rewarding the more
productive employees. But, in the long run may be more important for managers to understand that
some of the differences between telecommuters and regular employees discovered here are possibly
the result of activities necessary to implement the new working alternative. For example, before
embarking on their telecommuting programs, many organizations carefully analyze business tasks
amenable to telecommuting, and select workers and supervisors with sets of skills and personality
traits which appropriately match the business tasks required for success. Perhaps if regular
employees and business tasks were subjected to the same exercise, the differences between the two
groups would be less sharp. The benefits from such exercise are likely to encompass reduction in
job stress levels, work satisfaction, and employee satisfaction with their supervisors, all apparent
advantages from telecommuting.
​The results offer strong support for those who contend that telework arrangements may limit
the teleworker opportunities for advancement and also may limit their social interaction with co-
workers. Lower satisfaction with peers and with promotion are likely to be outcomes from the
telecommuters lower level of presence in the office. Needless to say, these could represent a major
threat to the successful implementation of any telecommuting program and must be properly
addressed. Perhaps telecommuters should be encouraged more strongly or required to be present at
more visible occasions such as department meetings or social occasions. The in-office personal and
political activities leading to promotion may be more difficult to replace for telecommuters. Further,
the telecommuters lower satisfaction with promotion may be particularly disappointing to them since
they also report higher satisfaction with their supervisors. At minimum, a clear understanding of
company promotion rules and requirements, and how telecommuting may affect the promotion
process, should be discussed thoroughly as part of the employee selection process.
​Indirectly, from this study’s results one may speculate about the usefulness of other personnel
motivation programs. Some of the reasons why employees are interested in telecommuting are
based on family requirements such as baby sitting and home presence at critical times such as when
school children arrive. Some of these important factors to some employees might be easily satisfied
by alternate programs such as corporate facilities for employee child care and flexible working
hours, thus decreasing employee stress levels, increasing job satisfaction and commitment to the
organization. Thus, some of the benefits derived from telecommuting might be achievable with
regular employees by better understanding the factors which motivate them and increase their
organization commitment and reduce turnover intentions.

​ STUDY LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

​While the present study has successfully addressed the proposed hypotheses, it also raises
several issues which represent substantial opportunities for research. (1)We need future research
encompassing a wider sample of companies to explore the impact of inter-company differences
which may affect the telecommuting success, in order to ensure the applicability of the findings
to the general population. (2) Future models should include a wide variety of variables such as
job characteristics (performance level and organizational rewards), organizational characteristics
(number of employees, proximity of services, budget percentages allocated to telecommuting,
and the level of support provided to the telecommuting program. (3)The career paths of both
telecommuters and their counterparts need study. (4)There is need for research to examine
differences in career orientations of employees in the two groups, the relationships between their
career orientations and type of positions both these employees hold in their career paths, and how
these differences in career orientations affect employee turnover. (5) Li & Shani (1991) confirm
that managerial action can reduce role ambiguity and role conflict. It is important that this
confirmation process be continued and broadened to include other variables. The ultimate test
for any model is its ability to produce desired changes in an applied setting. Therefore, future
research should examine whether all the specific managerial actions recommended here do
indeed produce the expected effects. Research programs that combine theoretically oriented
studies on the turnover process, and using second generation multivariate analysis with
fieldbased, quasiexperimental interventions, should provide major insights of both a theoretical
and practical nature.
​Despite the above limitations, this article addresses an exceedingly important issue: the
human element behind the use of information technology and communication, specifically, the
differences between telecommuting and non-telecommuting employees. The results provide
important insights into the role of demographic variables, role stressors, overall job satisfaction
and organizational commitment in influencing, both directly and indirectly, turnover intentions
between these two groups.
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1993, pp. 4-9.​Table 1. ​Analysis of Average Responses of Traditional Workers and
Teleworkers Along the Main Study Variables

Variables ​Traditional Workers ​Teleworkers ​T-Test

Role Ambiguity 3​ .02 ​2.45 ​23.15•••

Role Conflict 3​ .92 ​3.54 ​7.25•••

Work Satisfaction ​1.89 ​2.17 ​14.49•••

Supervisor Satisfaction ​2.26 ​2.47 ​8.20•••

Co-Workers Satisfaction ​2.25 ​1.59 ​59.65•••

Pay Satisfaction ​1.59 ​1.48 ​1.14

Promotion Satisfaction ​1.64 ​1.14 ​16.86•••

Overall Satisfaction 1​ .88 ​2.00 ​4.56•

Organizational Commitment ​3.56 ​3.54 ​.02

Turnover Intention ​2.74 ​1.99 ​47.10•••

• ​p < .05
•• ​p < .01
••• ​p < .001

​Table 2. ​Predictors of Job Satisfaction Components For Teleworkers and Traditional

Workers

Independent ​Satisfaction with Work ​Satisfaction with Supervisor

Variables ​Traditional T​ eleworkers ​Traditional T​ eleworkers ​

Role Conflict -​ .19• ​-.19• ​-.13 ​-.21•

Role Ambiguity -​ .48••• ​-.50••• ​-.28•• ​-.16

R
2
​.34••• ​.35••• ​.13••• ​.09••

Independent ​Satisfaction with Co-Workers ​Satisfaction with Pay

Variables ​Traditional T​ eleworkers ​Traditional ​Teleworkers ​

Role Conflict -​ .06 ​-.18 ​.06 ​-.29•• a

Role Ambiguity -​ .32••• ​.18 ​-.24• ​.16

a a

R
2
​.13••• ​.04 ​.05• ​.06•

Independent ​Satisfaction with Promotion ​Overall Satisfaction

Variables ​Traditional T​ eleworkers ​Traditional ​Teleworkers ​

Role Conflict -​ .14 ​-.13 ​-.16 ​-.32••

Role Ambiguity -​ .37••• ​.15 ​-.52••• ​-.05

a a

R
2
​.20••• ​.03 ​.35••• ​.11••

• ​p < .05
•• ​p < .01
•• ​p < .001
a
​Beta coefficients for traditional workers and teleworkers are significantly different (p <
.05).
​Table 3. ​Predictors of Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intentions For
Teleworkers and Traditional Workers

Independent ​Organizational Commitment ​Turnover Intention

Variables ​Traditional T​ eleworkers ​Traditional ​Teleworkers ​

Role Conflict -​ .07 ​-.16 ​.03 ​.05

Role Ambiguity -​ .57••• ​.01 ​.23• ​.23•

a

Overall Satisfaction .​ 26•• ​.65••• ​-.25• ​-.23•

a

Organizational Commitment ​-.26• ​-.47••

R
2
​.34••• ​.40••• ​.15•• ​.25••

• ​p < .05
•• ​p < .01
••• ​p < .001
a
​Beta coefficients for traditional workers and teleworkers are significantly different (p <
.05).