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Hydraulic Theory
In considering hydraulic theory in hydropower engineering, it is
important to relate the concept of power to the fundamental
variables of head and discharge.
Two approaches are used for developing basic hydraulic theory.
Chapter Two 1. Energy-Work approach
Hydraulics and Hydrology 2. Bernoulli Energy Equation approach
Analysis of Hydropower
Energy-Work approach
 If an elemental volume of water, designated dV, moves from
position 1 slightly below the head water level to position 2 at the
surface of the tail water at the exit to the draft tube, the work
done is represented by dW in the following equation:
dW=gdVh

 It is conventional in hydropower computations to treat h as
the effective head that is utilized in producing power.
• Effective head (h) is the
difference between energy head
at the entrance to the turbine
and the energy head at the exit
of the draft tube.
Draft tube
Fig. 2.1 Diagram for Developing turbine theory
 The power extracted by the hydropower unit is the rate of
doing work and can be represented mathematically as
follows:
 dP=gdqh
 Summing the elemental power components of the total
discharge passing through the turbine gives the theoretical
power of the plant as:
P= gQH
 Actual power output from the plant
P= gQH
To compare kilowatts and horsepower, remember that:
Pkw  0.746 Php

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Bernoulli Energy Equation Approach

 A second approach to basic hydraulic theory of hydropower
engineering is the mathematical development in terms of
energy grade lines and hydraulic grade lines, using the
Bernoulli equation.
 the Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the component
energies (position energy, pressure energy, and kinetic
energy) is constant in a confined moving fluid as the fluid
moves along its path.
 Thus a change in any one of the component energies at any
point along the path of the moving fluid must be
compensated for by an equal change of the water energy
components at that point.

Fig. 2.2 Bernoulli Diagram for a Hydropower Installation

Referring to Fig.2.2, the Bernoulli equation for a  Solving for h from equation (2) gives:
hydropower installation is first written between point 1 at the (4)
surface of the forebay and point 2 at the entrance to the
turbine as:
 Now if the right side of Eq. (3) is substituted into Eq. (4)
for p2/, the result is:
(1) (5)
 and between points 2 and 3
Simplifying, we have
(2) (6)

Recognizing that for practical purposes, V1, p1 , and p3 are which is the effective head and is indicated dimensionally in
equal to zero Fig. 2.2.
(3)

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Kinetic Theory The relative velocity v is determined from the relation

 Further theory related to the speed of the runner and the
dynamic action of the water on the buckets and vanes is
important for understanding the energy-converting action.
Impulse Runner Force
 The dynamic force imparted on a moving vane or bucket by
a jet of water is given by the equation
where V = absolute velocity of water jet,
u = absolute linear velocity of the bucket
The theoretical power imparted is given by the formula
P= Fu = u

Where F = dynamic force on the vane

Best Linear Velocity
W = weight of water striking vane, The best linear speed of the turbine is given by:
g = acceleration of gravity,
v = relative velocity of the jet of water with respect to
the moving vane,
m = coefficient accounting for loss of velocity moving Where (Cv) or Cd = velocity coefficient.
across vane
= angle of deflection of jet from the original jet
direction.

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Hydrologic Analysis of Hydropower
 Hydrology is the study of the occurrence, movement, and
distribution of water on, above, and within the earth's
surface.
 Parameters necessary in making hydropower studies are
water discharge (Q) and hydraulic head (h). The
measurement and analyses of these parameters are
primarily hydrologic problems.
 Determination of the head for a proposed hydropower plant
is a surveying problem that identifies elevations of water
surfaces as they are expected to exist during operation of
the hydropower plant.
 This implies that conceptualization has been made of where
water will be directed from a water source and where the
water will be discharged from a power plant.
 Because the headwater elevation and tail water elevations
of the impoundment can vary with stream flow, it is
frequently necessary to develop headwater and tail water
curves that show variation with time, river discharge, or
operational features of the hydropower project.
 The water discharge is a much more difficult problem to
cope with because the flow in streams is normally changing
throughout the length of the stream as tributary streams
increase the flow and some diversional water uses decrease
the flow.
 Similarly, the flow changes from one time to another due to
hydrologic variation caused by the variation in
precipitation, evaporation, snowmelt rate, and groundwater
recharge that affects the magnitude of stream flow.

Flow Duration Analysis

 A useful way of treating the time variability of water
discharge data in hydropower studies is by utilizing flow
duration curves.
Flow Duration Curves
 is a plot of flow versus the percent of time a particular flow
can be expected to be exceeded.

 A flow duration curve shows the relation between flows and

lengths of time during which they are available.

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 A typical flow duration curve is shown below
 For environmental reasons, certain amount of flow is left in
the river – Residual flow Qr.
 Residual flow Qr must be subtracted from the flow
duration curve for the calculation of plant capacity, firm
capacity and the available energy.
 Firm flow is flow available p% of the time, usually equal to
95%. It is calculated from the available flow duration
curve. In Fig. 2.3, firm flow is 1.5 m3/s with p set to 90%
 Two methods of are used for computing ordinates for flow
duration curve
– The rank ordered technique and
– The class-interval technique

Fig. 2.3 Example of flow duration curve

 The rank-ordered technique: considers a total time series of flows Example 2. Draw the flow duration curve for the
that represent equal increments of time for each measurement value,
such as mean daily, weekly, or monthly flows, and ranks the flows following stream river flow using rank ordered
according to magnitude. technique. Month Flow (m3/s)
 The flow data are ranked according to magnitude (in descending January 65
order) and the frequency of occurrence, FX, is given by, February 5 0
FXm = (m/n) 100 (California formula), or March 42
FXm = (m/n + 1) 100 (Weibull formula) April 40
May 40
where, n = number of records, m = the order number in the rank (m = 1
June 115
for the highest ranked value), and FXm = frequency of occurrence (%
July 400
dependable flow or the probability of flow being equaled or exceeded).
August 340

The flow value is then plotted versus the respective computed September 270

exceedance percentage. October 155

 Naturally, the longer the record, the more statistically valuable the November 115

information that results. December 85

January 65

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Solution
M month Flow (m3/s) Rank Exceedance % FDC
January 65 8 66..67% 450

February 50 9 75.00% 400

March 42 10 83.33% 350

April 40 12 100.00% 300

Discharge m3/s
May 40 12 100.00% 250

June 115 6 50.00% 200

July 400 1 8.33% 150

August 340 2 16.67% 100
September 270 3 25.00% 50
October 155 4 33.33% 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
November 115 6 50.00%
Exceedance %
December 85 7 58.33%

The class-interval technique: is slightly different in that the Example 3

time series of flow values are categorized into class intervals. Monthly Flow Data
The classes range from the highest flow value to the lowest
value in the time series. A tally is made of the number of flows
in each, and by summation the number of values greater than
a given upper limit of the class can be determined.
The number of flows greater than the upper limit of a class
interval can be divided by the total number of flow values in
the data series to obtain the exceedance percentage.
The value of the flow for the particular upper limit of the
class interval is then plotted versus the computed exceedance
percent.
Using the data in table above plot the flow duration
curve using class interval method

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Solution Energy and power analysis using a flow duration approach

the relative and the cumulative relative frequencies for a class •When a run-of river type of power study is done and a flow
interval of 5 cumecs are as given in Table below. duration analysis is used, the capacity or size of hydropower
units determines the maximum amount of water that will go
through the unit or units. This is dictated by the nominal
runner diameter and the accompanying outlet area and draft
tube.
7.5 • A flow duration curve is
used to explain discharge
capacity, Qc, as labeled in
the Figure.
• This Qc, is the discharge at
full gate opening of the
runner under design head.

Even though to the left of that point on the duration curve
the stream discharge is greater, it is not possible to pass the
higher discharges through the plant. If the reservoir or
poundage is full, water must be bypassed by a spillway.
If hydraulic head and the expected losses in the penstock are
known, it is possible to generate a power duration curve from
the flow duration curve.
The Pc value of power is the full-
gate discharge value of power.
Energy production for a year or
a time period is the product of
the power ordinate and time and
is thus the area under the power
duration curve multiplied by an
appropriate conversion factor.
It should be noted that to the left of the power capacity point
the power tends to decrease. This is due to the fact that net
head available is decreasing due to a rising tail water caused
by the higher flows that are occurring during that time
interval or exceedance period.
 While plotting the Power duration curve the actual output
is diminished by the fact that the turbine has losses in
transforming the potential and kinetic energy into mechanical
energy. Thus an efficiency term  must be introduced to give
the standard power equation:
P   w Qgh

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Example 4 Required
• The following data are obtained from the records of
(a) Plot
the mean monthly flows of a river for 10 years. The
head available at the site of the power plant is 60 m (i)The flow duration curve
and the plant efficiency is 80%. (ii)The power duration curve
(b) Determine the mean monthly flow that can be
expected and the average power that can be
developed.

Flow duration analysis of mean monthly flow data of a (i) The flow duration curve is obtained by plotting Q vs.
river in a 10 yr. period percent of time, Fig., (Q= lower value of the CI).
(ii) The power duration curve is obtained by plotting P vs.
percent of time,

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(b) The mean monthly flow that can be expected
is the flow that is available for 50% of the time
i.e.,335 cumec from the flow duration curve
drawn.
Load Duration Curve
 The load duration curve expresses the variation in, and the
integration of, the total energy requirements for a period of
time in concise form. It is used for system planning and
operating estimates.

The average power that can be developed i.e.,

from the flow available for 50% of the time, is 157
MW, from the power duration curve drawn.

The area under the curve of a daily chronological load curve Load Factor
measures the total energy consumed by the load during the  The degree of variation of the load over a period of time is
day. This energy is evaluated by: measured by the load factor. which may be defined as the
t  24
average load divided by the peak load within the given time
E  kwdt
t 1 range. Average load
Load Factor ( L.F ) 
Average load is the area under the load curve divided by total duration. Peak load
Peak load is the maximum load observed in the observation period.  The load factor measures variation only and does not give
any indication of the precise shape of the load-duration
curve.
Peak load  As the load factor approaches zero, the duration curve will
Load

approach a narrow L shape, indicating a peak load of very

Average load short duration with very low or no load during the major
portion of the time.
Time
6 12 18 24

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Capacity factor
The extent of use of the generating plant is measured by the

Load
capacity factor, frequently also termed plant factor or use
factor. If during a given period a plant is kept fully loaded, it
is evident that it is used to the maximum extent, or operated at
Time 100% capacity factor.
As the load factor approaches unity, the duration curve will be The factor is equal to the average load divided by the rated
somewhat rectangular in appearance, indicating high capacity of the plant.
sustained loads.
Capacity factor and load factor become identical when the
peak load is equal to the capacity of the plant. The
Load

relationship between the two factors is evidently

Peak Load  Load factor
Capacity Factor 
Rated capacity of the plant
=Annual Average generation(MWh)/Installed capacity(MW)*24*365
Time

Utilization Factor Example 5

 The utilization factor measures the use made of the total  Consider the yearly load duration curve for a certain load
installed capacity of the plant. It is defined as the ratio of center to be a straight line from 20 to 5 MW. To meet this
the peak load and the rated capacity of the plant. load, three hydropower units, two rated at 10 MW each and
one at 8 MW are installed. Determine:
– Load factor (LF)
 A low utilization factor may mean that the plant is used – Capacity factor (CF)
only for stand-by purposes on a system comprised of several – Utilization factor (UF)
stations or that capacity has been installed well in advance
of need.
 In the case of a plant in a large system, high utilization
factor indicates that the plant is probably the most efficient
in the system. In the case of isolated plants a high value
means the likelihood of good design with some reserve-
capacity allowance.

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Diversity factor
Solution  Diversity factor (DF) is the summation of the different types
of load divided by the peak load.
MW  If there be four different types of load L1, L2, L3 and L4 and
the peak load from the combination of these loads is LP,
20 then the diversity factor is expressed as:
(L1 + L2 + L3 + L4)/LP
5  Note that the diversity factor has a value which is greater
than unity. For n load combination:
100
Time (%) in

 Li
DF  i 1
Lp

Utility of the diversity factor

An area served by a power plant having different types
of load, peaking at different times, the installed
capacity is determined by dividing the total of
maximum peak load by diversity factor.
Example 6
• Suppose we have four individual feeder circuits
with connected loads of 250kVA, 200KVA and
400kVA and demand factors of 90%, 80%, 75%
and 85% respectively. Use a diversity factor of
1.5. Calculate transformer rating for the feeder-
circuits.

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Example 7
• A run-of-river hydroelectric plant with an
effective head of 22 m and plant efficiency of
80% supplies power to a variable load as given
below:

Draw the load curve and determine:

Solution
• (i) The load curve is shown in Fig.

(i)the minimum average daily flow to supply the

indicated load.

(ii)Pondage required to produce the necessary

power at the peak.

(iii)the plant load factor. Daily load curve

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To determine the pondage capacity the

following table is prepared:

Flow Mass Curve

Total flow volume from a certain initial time t = 0 up to time t
can be computed as, t
V   Qdt
0

In practice, the total volume is computed as,

V   Qi ti
where Qi = the average discharge in time interval (month, year) ti.

Flow mass curve is a plot of the cumulative runoff from the

hydrograph against time. The time scale is the same as for the
hydrograph and may be in days, months or years.
The volume ordinate may be in m3-days, m3-months, m3-
years, etc. The slope of the mass curve is the rate of discharge.

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The ordinates of the flow mass curve increase continuously in Example 8

time. The sum of the differences between the inflow and the Monthly flow volumes feeding a reservoir are given in the
yield (average flow) are drawn; table. Determine the storage capacity required to supply the
V0   Qi  Qave ti mean annual flow volume yield.
Reservoir capacity is then, the vertical distance between the
highest and lowest points of the curve.

V0

Fig. Flow mass curve derived using the differences of

the discharges from the yield.

V0   Qi  Qave ti

Vo

V0   Qi  Qave ti

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Other Hydrologic Considerations

Cumulative Discharge curve : Reservoir capacity
Hydrologic information is also needed for developing the
following.
8000
7000
tailwater curves,
Cummulative Flow Rate

6000
Feeding Flow area-capacity curves for reservoirs,
5000
Storage Capacity  rule curves for operating reservoirs,
4000  determination of seasonal losses from
3000 reservoirs due to evaporation, and
Annual Mean Discharge
2000  flood analysis for spillways.
1000
0
0 3 6 9 12
Month

Tailwater Relationships: Area capacity curves

As releases of water over spillways and any other releases into
the stream immediately below a hydropower plant are made,
the tailwater elevation below the outlet to the turbines will
fluctuate. Therefore, it is important to develop a tailwater
elevation versus river discharge curve over the complete range
of flow that is to be expected.
Most hydropower developments involve an impoundment
behind a dam. As the water in storage in the impoundment is
released the headwater elevation changes and this will
influence the design of the plant and the pattern of operation.
 Therefore, it is necessary to have a storage volume versus
impoundment surface elevation curve.
 At the same time there is need to know water surface area
versus impoundment elevation.

Fig. Typical tail water rating curve

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Reservoir Rule Curves

When releases from reservoirs are made, the schedule of
releases is often dictated by considerations other than just
meeting the flow demands for power production. The needs
for municipal water supply, for flood control, and for
downstream irrigation use dictate certain restraints.
The restraints are conventionally taken care of by
developing reservoir operation rule curves that can guide
operating personnel in making necessary changes in reservoir
water releases.
Evaporation Loss Evaluation: Where there is an
impoundment involved in a hydropower development there is
need to assess the effect of evaporation loss from the reservoir
surface.
Fig. Typical area-capacity curves

Spillway Design Flood Analysis:

 Many hydropower developments require a dam or a
diversion that blocks the normal river flow. This then requires
that provisions be made for passing flood flows.
Spillway design flood analysis treats a unique type of
hydrology that concerns the occurrence of rare events of
•End of Ch-2
extreme flooding. It is customary on larger dams and dams
where failure might cause a major disaster to design the
spillway to pass the probable maximum flood.

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Example: Solution
1. A turbine installation developing 7.5 MW under 27.5 m Q (10^6 Demand Surplus Inflow to Deficit Wastage Total
head with an overall efficiency of 0.83 is to be supplied m3/mon) (10^6 (10^6 resevoir (10^6 (10^6 Wastage
from a reservoir. The estimated runoff for 12 consecutive m3/mon) m3/mon) m3/mon) m3/mon)
96.2 86.8 9.4 0 0 9.4 9.4
months each 30 days (in Miillion Cusecs) were: 96.2, 101.8 86.8 15 0 0 15 24.4
101.8, 86.3, 74.9, 67.9, 80.6, 113.2, 90.5, 86.3, 93.4, 86.3 86.8 -0.5 -0.5 0.5 0 24.4
99.0, and 89.1. 74.9 86.8 -11.9 -11.9 12.4 0 24.4
• Assume the reservoir is full at the beginning of the first 67.9 86.8 -18.9 -18.9 31.3 0 24.4
80.6 86.8 -6.2 -6.2 37.5 0 24.4
month.
113.2 86.8 26.4 26.4 11.1 0 24.4
• Determine the minimum capacity of the reservoir to ensure 90.5 86.8 3.7 3.7 7.4 0 24.4
the required demand and 86.3 86.8 -0.5 -0.5 7.9 0 24.4
93.4 86.8 6.6 6.6 1.3 0 24.4
• Find the discharge wasted
99 86.8 12.2 1.3 0 10.9 35.3
89.1 86.8 2.3 0 0 2.3 37.6

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