According to the Latest Syllabus Preseribed by HEC Linguistics —® Language & Linguistics —® Phonetics and Phonology —® Morphology & Syntax —® Semantics & Pragmatics —® Pedagogical Grammar —® Sociolinguistics —® Psycholinguistics —® Language Teaching Methodologies ACT reneAccording to latest Syllabus prescribed by HEC for BS & M.A. English FOR “tig e BS-ENGLISH (4 Year Programme (Semester-1) e M.A. ENGLISH (Annual & Term System) Written by: PROF. M. SALEEM SAJID M.Phil (English)M. Phil. (History) Department of English GOVT. COLLEGE CHISHTIAN Published By: ‘NIMBUS PUBLICATIONS Urdu Bazar LahoreDEDICATION: I dedicate this book to: My Wife (May her soul rest in eternal peace!) To whom I owe the leaping delight That quickens my senses in our waking time And the rhythm that governs the repose of our sleeping time, the breathing in unison. Of lovers whose bodies smell of each other Who think the same thoughts without need of speech, And babble the same speech without need of meaning. No peevish winter wind shall chill No sullen tropic sun shall wither The roses in the rose-garden which is ours and ours only But this dedication is for others to read: These are private words addressed to you in public. (T.S. Eliot)PREFACE | feel encouraged by the widespread response from teachers and students alike to “The Study of Stylistics” which is an effort to provide the readers an easy approach to the discipline. Now, | am Presenting “The Study of Linguistics” to the teachers and students of BS-English in particular and readers in general in all humbleness. All possible efforts have been made to pro-“de fairly detailed coverage of syllabus in this book, and to make the readers understand the nature the discipline, and in general to enhance the usefulness of the book. It is hoped that humble effort made in’the form of this ‘book will assist in the accomplishment of result-oriented studies in linguistics. The book is, in fact, an outgrowth of my experience of teaching the subject to M.A. (English) students forthe last some years, ACKNOWLEDGEMENT | am highly indebted to the learned Colleagues for providing the necessary stimulus for writing this book. | am grateful to all those persons whose writings and works have helped me in the preparation of this book. Many thanks go to my teacher of Linguistics, Prof. Dr. Raza Qayum, (Now in New Zéaland), a great source of encouragement and Dr. Bushra Shoukat, the Head of the English Department, the Islamia University of Bahawalpur (Bahawalnagar Campus) whose encouragement made the task easier. | am also thankful to Prof. Ejaz Hussain Korai (Govt. Postgraduate College Rajanpur), Prof. Mahar Fareed (Govt. Postgraduate College Arif Wala) Prof. Imran Ghuman (Govt. S.E. College Bahawalpur) for their cooperation and encouragement. | am thankful to all those authors and writers whose books were consulted in writing this book. | am equally grateful to all my colleagues who made extremely valuable suggestions and have thus contributed in enhancing the standard of the book. | am indebted to all the members of my family who equally deserve the credit of what I did.CONTENTS (ETA aie MOO Les Syllable Part- one: Language FM = Unit-03: MORPHOLOGY What is Language? 7_ [i What is Morphology? 79 [Key Features of Language ‘9 [iy Some Major Concepts of Morphology | 80 Yule's Characteristics of Language 10 [MM Branches of Morphology 80 Design Features of Language 10 [iM Affixes 81 ‘Components of Language 12 [MM The study of Morpheme 82 Kinds of Language 12 [ll Morphemic Analysis 83 Significance of Language in Life 13 [Mil Morphological Productivity 85 Functions of Language 14 [Ml Morphosyntactic Structure 86 Origin of Language 14 fi Government and Binding Theory — 89 ‘Animal Communication System 16 [i Minimalism 92 Part- Two: Linguistics EE _Unit-04: SYNTAX & GRAMMAR Organs of Speech (articulators) Phonetic Symbols & Sounds Cre aWNeeee on What is Linguistics? 18 [Mm Part-One: Syntax 95 Linguistics as Science 19 fam What is Syntax? 95 Branches of Linguistics (i) 20 Syntax as Study of Sentence 97 Branches of Linguistics (i) Difference between Morphology& Syntax | 98 ‘Scope of Linguistics Phrases and its Types 98 Levels of Linguistic Analysis 25. fa Clauses & its Types = 100 Basic Concepts in Linguistics 25 [MM Sentence & its Types 102 Schools of Linguistics 32 Transformation 104 Part- Three: Branches of Linguistics 33 Agreement in Grammar 106 Applied Linguistics 33 IMM Case & Case Agreement 107 Sociolinguistics 35. Part-Two: Grammar 108 [ Psycholinguistios [37 fa What is Grammar? 108 ‘Computational Linguistics 39 Prescriptive Grammar 110 Cer ae Tenens Descriptive Grammar 110 Part- one: Phonetics 43 Universal Grammar 114 What is Phonetics? 43_ [am Language Universals 113. Branches of Phonetics Transformational-Generative Grammar__|_116 Articulatory Phonetics Phrase Structure Rules 117 Clause Elements 119 Description of Consonant Sounds 50 ‘Sub-Ordination and Coordination 121 Description of Vowel Sounds 52 Basic Concepts of English Grammar 122 Phonetic Transcription 57 Modality [aaa Part- Two: Phonology 66 Voice 123 ‘What is Phonology? 66. Hypothetical Meaning 123 Branches of Phonology 67 Grammar in Context 125 Major Concepts of Phonology [M Unit-06: LEXICAL STUDIES Connected Speech 68 What is lexicology? Difference between Phonetics & Phonology | 69 [aml Morphological field Superasegmental Features of Phonology | 70 fam Words & lexemes Tntonation 70_ [MM Lexis or lexicons 129 Stress 73_ [a Word formation 129 Word Classes 131 fl English as Second Language in Pakistan [ 185CONTENTS - Issues in Borrowing Cree sels Sees Semantic Field 133 Discourse | Sense Relations 2 aE 133. ‘Text and Discourse 192 Collocation & Coligation | 133, BM Discourse Analysis 194 Lexical Priming 134 BM Seven Standard of text as Discourse | 196 Lexi Tum-Taking in Discourse 197 Cohesion and Coherence What is Semantics? 136 Early Theories of Meaning 137 MM Approach, Method & Technique 202 Types of Meaning 139M Grammar Translation Method (GTM) | 204 Other Theories in Semantics 142 Direct Method (DM) 208 Componential Analysis 143M Aucio Lingual Method 24 | Sense Relations/ Lexical Relations 144 MM Communicative Method 214 ‘Semantic Roles Syntactic Semantics ‘Suggestopedia ers LANGUAGE SKILLS ek HO Ad SL d The Listening Skill we Sociolinguistics ‘The Speaking Skill 220 Language & Context 150 {8 The Reading Skill 221 Language Variation 150 ‘The Writing Skill 222 language Varieties 151 Cer Sea Psycholinguistics Aims and Objectives of Stylistics Language, Society and Culture 152 MM Error Analysis 224 Funetions of Language in Society 152. Kinds of Errors 225 Domains of Language Use 153 (MM Testing and Evaluation 2 Regional & Social Dialects 154 GM Language Tests 2 Bilingualism 156 [Mi Subjective and Objective Tests 228 Code Mixing and Code Switching 159 UREA Sse Language and Gender 163 i What is Stylistics? 230 ited eho eS Branches of Stylistics 231 CSE Ea aed Psycholinguistics & Neurolinguistics Stylistics as a Branch of Linguistics 236 ‘Theories of Psycholinguistics 169 fi Linguistic Stylistics 236 Behavioursm [170 iM Literary Styistics 237 Mentalism = 172 i Major Concepts of Stylistics 237 Interactionism a 74 iam Levels of Stylistic Analysis 244 First Language Acquisition 177 i What is Pragmatics? 250 Second-Language Acquisition 178 [ill Various Aspects of Pragmatics 251 Factors Affecting SLA 179 Context and Presuppositions 251 Factors/ Causes of Errors | 180 Context and Co-Text 252 Theories of SLA 163 [MMI Language Functions & Speech Ais __| 253 Significance of English in Pakistan 186 [| Speech Act Theory 23 Problems in Teaching English 188 lm Conversational Impicatures 25 Difficutties in Learning English 189 Ml Grice's Maxims 255NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 7 Introduction to Linguistics Unit -o1 INTRODUCTION TO LINGUISTICS LANGUAGE (Nature, Features & Functions) Language is a medium of communication. It is a set of signals b man, as member of society, communicates his ideas and thoughts, feelings and expressions, needs and requirements to others. Language is a most powerful, convenient and permanent means of communication in the world. It is ubiquitous present everywhere in all human activities, thoughts, dreams, prayers, meditations and relations.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 8 Introduction to Linguistics Language is a gift of God to humanity. It is man’s finest asset. It is not only a medium of communication but also a storehouse of knowledge. It is also a custodian of knowledge. It preserves knowledge and transmits it from generation to generation. Simply, language is a tool to transmit information, learn knowledge, express feelings, emotions, and ideas, and to construct social identity. Definitions: Linguists have proposed many definitions of language: Some important of them are given below. Oxford English Dictionary: “Language is a system of sounds, words, patterns etc. used by human beings to communicate thoughts and feelings". Edward Sapir: "Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols." J. Whatmough: “A language is a device that establishes sound- meaning correlation, pairing meaning with signals to enable people to exchange ideas through observable sequences of sounds” Noam Chomsky:" Language is the innate capacity of native speaker to understand and form grammatical sentences". Henry Sweet: Language may be defined as “the expression of thoughts by means of speech and sound." Encyclopedia Britannica: "A system of conventional, spoken or written symbols by means of which human beings as members of social groups and participants in their culture, communicate" Gardiner; "Language in its widest sense means total of such signs of thoughts or feelings us capable of external perceptions as could be produced and repeated at will." Bollinger: “Language is species specific,” H. A. Gleason, “Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behaviour.” * Bernard Bloch (1942): “A language is a system of. arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates.” Different scholars have viewed language in different ways. They look at this Phenomenon fiom their own point of view. Anthropologists regard language form of cultural behaviour. Students of literature say that language is an artistic medium, Sociologists say that language is an interaction between members of social groups. Philosophers say that language is a means of. interpreting human experiences. Language teacher says that it is a set of skills.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics. 9 Morphology KEY FEATURES OF LANGUAGE The following are the key features/ characteristics of language i, An Organization of Words and Sounds: Language is an organization of words and sounds. They are organized in such a way that some meaningful message may be conveyed easily. There is no language without words and sounds. ii, Means of Communication: Language is the only and permanent means of communication. Language is the best way of self-expression. Human beings express themselves by using language. Through it, they transfer their knowledge and experience from one person to another and from one generation to another iii. A Social Phenomenon: Language is a social phenomenon. It is a possession of society. It permits its members to interact with one another. It is a social institution in itself. A man, as a member of society, interacts through language. iv. Conventional & Non-Instinctive: Language is conventional & non-instinctive. Language does not come into being in a day. It is a gift of evolution and convention. It is non-instinctive because human beings acquire it. Nobody gets a language in heritage: He acquires it. v. A System of Symbols: Language is a system of symbols. Every language has its own symbols. Language is a system of arbitrary symbols. Language uses words essentially as symbols for the concepts represented by them. vi. A System of Systems: Language is a system of systems. All languages have phonological and grammatical system and within a system, there are several sub- systems. For example, within grammatical system, we have morphology and syntax. vii. Arbitrariness of Language: Arbitrariness of language is another characteristic of language. It means that there is no inherent or logic relation or similarity between any given feature of language and its meaning. So we say language is arbitrary e.g. a stone in English is a Piene in French, a Pietra in Italian and a Pathar in Urdu. viii, Productivity: Language provides opportunities to send the message that has never been sent before and to understand novel messages. It also suggests that number of sentences in language is limitless. Any speaker can construct a sentence that has never been constructed before. It is this feature of language that is referred to as productivity or creativity of language. ix, Flexibility: Language is flexible to an extent that it can be changed. according to requirements. It is not still and static. It keeps changing with the passage of time and according to needs of society. x. Structurally Complex: Human language has a great structural complexity. A human language consists of sentences, which display complexity of structure at least of two levels- sounds and words. There is a complex grammatical structure to EnglishNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 10 Morphology or to any other language. Such structural complexity is not found in any animal communication system, YULE’S CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE George Yule, a famous linguist, has described the following five characteristics of human language in his baok, “The Study of Language 1. Displacement: This is the ability to use language to talk about times, places and people other than the ‘here and now’. It also enables us to say things, which we know to be false i.e. to lie. Bees are said to be able to convey some of this information in their ‘dance’, which they employ to pass on information about food sources. 2. Arbitrariness: This means that there is generally no natural, inherent relationship between the signs (i.e. sounds or letters) and their meanings. For this reason different languages can use different signs to refer to one and the same thing e.g. a flower in English is a Blume in German or a fleur in French. 3. Productivity: Language has creativity and productivity. This is an important characteristic of human language allowing us to continuously create new utterances, combining the ‘building bricks’ of language in ever new ways, whether these are sounds, words or sentences. Human languages are therefore continually evolving. 4. Cultural Transmission: This refers to how languages are acquired by our children. The assumption is that there is no genetic component (although Noam Chomsky challenges this with his theory of Universal Grammar) which would enable a child to simply start speaking e.g. English at a certain age, but rather that children need to be exposed to a language (and culture) in order to acquire it. 5. Duality: Duality (or ‘double articulation’) refers to two separate layers of language working together to provide us with a pool of sounds, which we can combine to communicate with one another. On the one hand, we have a limited number of discrete sounds (e.g. the 44 phonemes in English) which in isolation have no inherent meaning e.g. b, n, or I. On the other hand, we have a virtually unlimited number of distinet meanings, which we can create by combining these sounds in certain ways e.g. bin. or nib. Various other combinations such English, but could possibly be in other la DESIGN FEATURES OF LANGUAGE Charles Hockett presented the following features of language. generally known as the design features of human language Vocal-auditory channel: Vocal-auditory channel refers to the idea that speaking/hearing is the mode humans use for language. Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: When humans speak, sounds are transmitted in all directions; however, listeners perceive the direction from which s“Ani” are not meaningful inNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 11 Introduction to Linguistics the sounds are coming. Similarly, signers broadcast to potentially anyone within the line of sight, while those watching see who is signing. This is characteristic of most jorins of human and animal communication. Transitoriness: Transitoriness refers to the idea of temporary quality of language. Language sounds exist for only a brief period of time, after which they are no longer perceived. Sound waves quickly disappear once a speaker stops speaking. This is also true of signs. In contrast, other forms of communication such as writing and Inka khipus (knot-tying) are more permanent. Interchangeability: Interchangeability refers to the idea that humans can give and receive identical linguistic signals: humans are not limited in the types of messages they can say/hear, One can say "Iam a boy" even if one is a girl. The importance is that a speaker can physically create any and all messages regardiess of their truth or relation to the speaker. In other words, anything that one can hear, one can also say. Total feedback: Speakers of a language can hear their own speech and can control and modify what they are saying as they say it. Similarly, signers see, feel, and control their signing Speci n: The purpose of linguistic signals is communication and not some other biological function, When humans speak or sign, it is generally intentional. Semanticity: Specific sound signals are directly tied to certain meanings. Arbitrariness: Languages are generally made up of both arbitrary and iconic symbols. In spoken languages, this takes the form of onomatopoeias. In English "murmur", in Mandarin "mao" (cat). The word “car” is nothing like an actual car. poken words are really nothing like the objects they represent. Discreteness: Linguistic representations can be broken down into small discrete units which combine with each other in rule-governed ways. They are perceived categorically, not continuously. For example, English marks number with the plural morpheme /s/, which can be added to the end of any noun. The plural morpheme is perceived categorically, not continuously. We cannot express smaller or larger quantities by varying how loudly we pronounce the /s Displacement: Displacement refers to the idea that humans can talk about things that are not physically present or that do not even exist. Speakers can talk about the past and the future, and can express hopes and drecms. A human's speech is not’limited to here and now. Displacement is the feature of language that separates human language from animal communication. Productivity: li refers to the idea that language-users can create and understant utterances. Humans are able to produce an unlimited amount of utterances. Language is not stagnant, but is constantly changing. New idioms are created all the time and the meaning of signals can vary depending on the context and situation,NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 12 Morphology Traditional transmission: While humans are born with innate language capabilities, language is learned after birth in a social setting. Language and culture are woven together. This quality of language is also called cultural transmission. Duality of patterning: Meaningful messages are made up of distinct smaller meaningful units (words and morphemes) which themselves are made up of distinct smaller, meaningless units (phonemes). Prevarication: Prevarication is the ability to lie or deceive. When using language, humans can make false or meaningless statements. Reflexiveness: Humans can use language to talk about language. Learnibility: Language is teachable and leamable, In the same way as a speaker learns their first language, the speaker is able to lear other languages. It is worth noting that young children lear language with competence and ease; however, language acquisition is constrained by a critical period such that it becomes more difficult once children pass a certain age COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE Language Phonology - — sourids Morphology - meaningful combination of morphemes Lexis - words Syittax - meaningful combination of words Semantics - meaning Source: Loreto Todd KINDS OF LANGUAGE The following are the major kinds of language I, Standard and Non- Standard Language a, Standard Language: Standard language is that variety of a language which has the highest status in a community and has socially accepted grammar, vocabulary and Pronunciation. It is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language. b. Non- Standard Language: Non Standard Language is that variety of a language which differs in pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary from the standard variety of the language. IL. First and Second Language (L1 & L2): a. First Language: First Language is generally a person’s mother tongue or the Tanguage acquired first. For example, the people of Punjab acquire Punjabi as theirNIMBUS The Study of Linguistics 13 * Introduction to Linguistics first language. In multilingual communities, where a child may gradually shift from the main use of one language to another, first language may refer to the language the child feels most comfortable. b. Second Language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of. communication. English is described as a second language in Pakistan. III. Native and Foreign Language: a. Native Language: Native Language can be defined as the language, which a person acquired in the early childhood because it is spoken in the family or it is the language of the country, ‘where he or she-is living. Sometimes first language is thought to be synonymous to native language. b. Foreign Language: Foreign Langauge is a language which is not native language in a country. Foreign language is spoken as native language in any other part of the world. English is spoken as a foreign language in Pakistan. SIGNIFICANCE OF LANGUAGE IN LIFE ES The role of language in the life of an individual can be stated as follow: i, Language is the medium of expression of our feelings and experiences. In other words, we express our feelings and experiences through language. ii, Language is medium of communicatiox:. We communicate with one another through language. With the advent of the concept of globalization, people all over the world communicate with each other and exchange ideas through the use of language. Language is vehicle of our thought. We think through language. The thinking process is disturbed if the individual has deficiency in language. iv. Language develops and grooms one’s personality as a whole. Since learning a language is part of our knowledge, it becomes one of the key factors in competitiveness. In the advanced industrial society of today, the basic knowledge of a language has become indispensable. y. Language and communication skills are important tools of intellectual development. Language development helps us to organize thoughts and make sense of the world around us. Cognitive development is about how we use our minds and organize thinking to understand the world. vi. Language is one of the key factors of human developmental process, which knits a strong feeling of kinship amongst us. vii. Language is basis of education. School education is predominately language oriented. Reading, writing and arithmetic are all based on language proficiency.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 14 Introduction to Linguistics viii, Language is medium of literature. All great literature is produced through the medium of language. Language thus helps us to read literature, understand and appreciate the work of great writers and poets. ix. Language contributes to the growth of civilization. Language and civilization are inseparable. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE Language is the only way of communication, which becomes its major function, However, keeping in mind the nature‘and purpose of communication, the functions of language can be categorized under the following headings. A. Communicative Function: The function of language is communication of meanings. Usually, we think of language as something spoken or written, but there are many other forms or devices which man has been using for communication. For instance. there are various signs of Highway Code, which convey diverse information to the motorists. Similarly, there are red, green and yellow lights at the city road- crossings. “Red” stands for “Stop or Danger”, “Green” stands for “Safety or Go” and “Yellow” stands for B. Informative Function: One of the basic functions of language is to communicate information of some kind or another. This information may be true or false, correct or incorrect, important or unimportant, general or particular. In any case, the language use is said to be informative in its function. C. Emotive or Expressive Function: Another important function of language is its emotive or expressive function. Here the speaker speaks to express his/her feelings, thoughts and ideas, and thus gets rid of his nervous energy when he is under stress. Poetry is one of the best examples of the expressive function of language. D. Directive Function: The third basic function of language is directive function. Commands and requests are examples of the directive function of language. If a mother advises her son to always speak the truth, she neither wants to convey any information, nor wants to express her feelings; rather she is trying to make her son do OW what is indicated. ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE EE SP SP LS All religions and mythologies contain stories of language origin. Philosophers through the ages have argued the question. Scholarly works have been written on the subject. Theories of divine origin, language as a human invention, and evolutionary development have all been put forward. Linguistic history suggests that spoken languages of the kind that exist today have been around for tens of thousands of years at the very least, but the earliest deciphered written records are barely six thousand ¢ development of language years old. These records apes. so late in theNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 15 Introduction to Linguistics that they provide no clue to its origin. A brief look at some of these speculative notions will reveal this point. 1. A GIFT FROM GOD: Many societies, throughout history, believed that language is the gift of the gods to humans. Many languages, most significantly Arabic, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin claim to be the language of God. a, Judeo-Christian: The most familiar is found in Genesis 2:20, which tells us that Adam gave names to all living creatures. This belief predicates that humans were created from the start with an innate capacity to use language. The Judeo-Christian tradition further offers an explanation on why there are so many different languages in the world. Genesis 11 tells the story of the Tower of Babel. According to the Old Testament (Genesis 11:1 - 9), the tower was erected on the plain of Shinar in Babylonia by descendants of Noah. The builders intended the tower to reach heaven. Their arrogance angered Yahweh, who interrupted construction by causing among them a previously unknown confusion of languages. He then scattered those people over the earth. The story possibly was inspired by the fall of the famous tower-temple of Eternenanki, later reposted by King Nabopolassar and his son Nebuchadnessar II of Babylonia. b. Ancient Egypt: The god Thoth of ancient Egypt was a moon god as well as the inventor of writing and scribe to the gods. As both the ibis bird and ape were considered sacred to him, he has also been depicted as a baboon. When the dead were tried in the Hall of Judgment, it was Thoth who wrote down the details. It was also believed that Thoth inscribed the number of years a pharaoh had allotted to him for his reign. Arguably the most learned of the gods, Thoth was believed to have a book containing all the wisdom of the world within it. c. The Magical Properties of Language: The idea that language contains special powers and can be used to control people, objects, and spirits comes out of the theory that language has a divine connection. We see this in incantations, spells; prayers, curses, and magical words such as hocus pocus, abracadabra, and Harry Potter's Wingardium Leviosa. Language is thought to be able to cure sickness, keep evil away, and bring good to oneself and harm to an enemy Il, AN EVOLUTION FROM THE CAVEMAN LANGUAGE This theory says that at some point in their evolutionary development. humans acquired a more sophisticated brain, which made language invention and learning possible. The simple vocalizations and gestures inherited from our primate ancestors then quickly gave way to a creative system of language. According to the natural evolution hypothesis, as soon as humans developed the biological, or neurologicalNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 16 Introduction to Linguistics capacity for creative language, the cultural development of some system of sounds * with meanings-language-would have been an inevitable next step. Ill, A RESULT OF ONOMATOPOEIA ‘There are various theories that language is a result of Onomatopoeia a. The Bow-Wow Theory: According to this theory, language began when our ancestors started imitating the natural sounds around them. The first speech was onomatopoeic--marked by echoir words such as moo, meow, splash, cuckoo, and bang. b. The Ding-Dong Theory: This theory, favoured by Plato and Pythagoras, maintains that speech arose in response to the essential qualities of objects in the environment. The original sounds people made were supposedly in harmony with the world around them. ¢. The La-La Theory: The Danish linguist Otto Jespersen suggested that language might have developed from sounds associated with love, play, and (especially) song. d. The Pooh-Pooh Theory: This theory holds that speech began with interjections- spontaneous cries of pain ("C ich!"), surprise ("Oh!"), and such other emotions. e. The Yo-He-Ho Theory: According to this theory, language evolved from the grunts, groans. and snorts evoked by heavy physical labour. ANIMAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Language is primarily human. Only humans possess x and use language for communication. Language is, in that sense, species-specific—it is specific only to one set of species. All human beings uniformly possess language. Like human beings, animals also have their own system of communication but communication between them is extremely limited. Animals also communicate with one another through their communication systems, which are called animal language. Animals can convey various messages to each other, such as feelings (anger, fear) warnings, willingness to mate location of food sources, Nonetheless, animals lack anything like human language. Features of Animal Communication System The following are some key features of animal communication system. 1. Instinctive & Inherit System: Animal communication systems are instinctive. They inherit them genetically. None can separate animals from their inbuilt qualitics. 2. Not Conditioned by Geography: Animal communication is not conditioned by geography. Animals of all countries have the same system of messages and symbols 3. No Grammaticality: Animal communication system has no grammaticality. It is - free trom yrammatical boundaries and restrictions of any grammar rules. Animal language is not structure dependent.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 17 Introduction to Linguistics 4. Non-Descriptive & Repetitive: Animal language is non- descriptive and narrative. Itis repetitive. 5. Not Creative: Animal communication is devoid of creativity and multiplicity to produce apt utterances according to different situations. Most animals have limited number of messages or symbols they can send or receive. Comparison of Human Language & Animal Communication System Animal communication differs from human communication in the following ways: i, Human language can convey a large number of messages, whereas the number of messages conveyed through the communication system of animals is very limited. ii, Human language makes use of clearly distinguishable discrete, separately identifiable symbols while animal communication systems are often continuous or non-discrete. One can clearly distinguish between /K/, /ze/ and /t/ in the word cat but one cannot identify different discrete symbols in the long humming sound that a bee produces or the caw-caw of a crow. iii, Animal communication systems are closed systems that permit of no change, modification or addition. While, human language is extendable, modifiable and changeable. It keeps changing through ages iv. Human language is far more structurally complex than animal communication. English (RP Variety), for example, has 44 sounds that join in different groups to form thousands of words. These words can be arranged into millions of sets to frame different sentences. Each sentence has its own internal structure. ‘There is no such structural complexity in animal communication systema. y. Human language is non-instinctive. Humans can acquire and learn anything and any language as a result of social interaction. Every human child has to learn language from his elders or peers in society. This process of learning plays an important part in the acquisition of language. On the other hand, animal communication systems are instinctive. They inherit them genetically vi. Because of its having arbitrariness, human language is conditioned by geography- its culture, social and natural environment. On the other hand, animal communication is not conditioned by geography.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 18 Introduction to Linguistics LINGUISTICS (Nature, Scope & Branches) WHAT IS LINGUISTICS? The word 'Linguistics' has been derived from Latin words "Lingua" and “istics”. Lingua means "Tongue" and Istics means "science" or "knowledge." So, Linguistics is the scientific study of language. As a science, it deals with nature and its structure of language, including the study of grammar, syntax, and phonetics. The study of linguistics started with the achievements of ancient Greeks in Europe. The Greeks were the first thinkers to raise issues about the nature of language. They tried to investigate the phenomenon in the scientific way. After that, P. Schlegel. in his book on the learning of language, stressed on the importance of studying the inner structure of language. The best-known scholars in linguistics are Dane R. Rarn and J.C.F Bopp (1791-1867). A Swiss Linguist and founder of modern linguistics. De Saussure wrote a book “Course in General Linguistics” a collection of his lectures delivered at the University of Geneva between 1906 and 1911, published in 1916 after his death. In this book, he differentiated language into two parts: Langue and Parole. At present, linguistics has become a major discipline to investigate all the aspects of human language including its origin, nature ard organization descriptively, historically and scientifically. Definitios . i. According to Professor Mackillam: "Linguistics makes inductive, objective and systematic study of language. Linguistics studies the origin, organization, nature & development of language descriptively, historically, comparatively and explicitly, and it formulates the general rules related to language". ii. According to G. Duffy, “Linguistics observes language in action as a means for determining how language has developed, how it functions today, and how it is currently evolving.” According to S. Pit Corder, “Linguistics is concerned with the nature of human language, how it is learned and what part it plays in the life of the individual and the community.” iv. Oxford Dictionary defines Linguistics “as the scientific study of language and its suucture" v. According to Victoria A. Fromkin, “The scientific study of human language is called linguistics”, Linguistics is concerned with the nature of language and communication. It deals both with the study of particular languages, and with the search for generalNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 19 Introduction to Linguistics Properties common to all languages or large groups of languages, Jean Aitcheson, a famous linguist says that linguistics tries to answer two basic questions: a. What is language? _b. How does language work?” The following points will be helpful in understanding the nature of linguistics: i, An Academic Discipline: Linguistics is a body of knowledge given to or received by a disciple. It is a branch or sphere of knowledge, or field of study, that an individual has chosen to specialize in, ii, A Field of Seience: Linguistics is a widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, embodying its own terminology, nomenclature, and scientific journals A Social Science: Linguistics is a field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human societies related to the languages they speak. In short, linguistics is important in acquisition & learning of language. The first- hand knowledge of linguistics is necessary to acquire mastery over a language whether it is foreign or native. Thus, the study of linguistics gives knowledge «1 properties and mysteries of language and helps in improving and reforming it LINGUISTICS AS SCIENCE Linguistics is a science and scientific study of language. It concerns itself to the study of language on the basis of observation, hypothesis, verification and logical conclusion. Like all other sciences, linguistics employs careful methods to observe, to record and to analyze the various phenomene related to its subject maticr and hopes !o Produce objective and verifiable descriptions. The approach and methodology of linguistics is scientific. It is as inductive as a science could be,.and is based on observations, formation of hypothesis, testing, verification and logical conclusion. To prove the idea that Linguistics is a pure science, we will observe the similarities between linguistics and other pure science subjects like Chemistry, Biology and Physics. i, Objectivity: A major characteristic of any science is objectivity. Like all other sciences, linguistics makes objective examination about problems of language. It rejects all social, cultural and nationalistic prejudices of a layman about language. Subject Matter: Like all other sciences, Linguistics has a well-defined subject matter that is language. Linguistics employs « careful method to observe, record and o analyze various phenomena related to its subject matter and hopes to preduice objective descriptions. . iii, Methodology: The approach and methodology of Linguistics is scientific. It is as inductive as a science could be and is based on observations, formation of hypothesis. testing, verification and logical conclusions.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 20 Introduction to Linguistics iv. Not Still & Static: Like any scientific discipline, linguistics is not static. Viewpoints & theoretical models of linguistics are changed with the passage of time Different aspects and concepts come in different times. This scientific knowledge of language has been progressing since ancient times. This is proof of its being scientific. v. Relationship with other Sciences: Its relation with other sciences is another proof * of its scientific nature. It is closely related to other natural sciences. It is related to Physics through Acoustics and to Psychology through structure of human vocal organs. In the same way, it touches on Zoology through the comparative study of the communicative systems of living beings. vi. Laboratory: Like a scientist, a linguist also requires a furnished laboratory. A linguist uses various instruments, i.e. sounds pictograph, flask, breathing endoscope, auto-phonoscope, pitch-meter, intensity meters etc. How Science of Linguistics Works When a linguist makes a statement about language, he makes it on the basis of observation. First, he observes linguistic events. He finds some similarities and contrasts on the basis of which he makes second generalization. On the basis of these generalizations hypotheses are formulated to account for jhe events. These are tested by lurther observations, and out of them is constructed a theory of how language works. From the theory are derived methods for making statements about linguistic events. Fields of Linguistics as Science 1 1 know the nature of human language; 2 Yo explain the structure of the language under particular study; 3 Yo know the relationship between language and culture of a society in which it is spoken: 4 To make a comparison between a language and other languages & to point out the areas of difficulties in learning these languages; 5 To suggest the means of leaming a language in the best sequence; In brief, linguistics is getting more and more technical and sophisticated every day. Yet it is not a pure science. Its position, says R.A. Hall, is between the natural and social sciences, like that of geology. To Robins, it is an empirical science,’ and withiay the empirical sciences it is one of the social sciences, because its subject matter is human and is very much different from that of natural sciences BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS the tollowing are the main branche: inguistics i. Cheeretical linguistics: [his branch of Linguistics describes different theories yout the origin of language. It supplies the concepts and categories in term of whichNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 21 Introduction to Linguistics language can be described. No final and comprehensive theory has been given so far. Since Linguistics is still in a state of dynamic development, no linguist has yet produced a grammar that may convince all other linguists. ii. Descriptive Linguistics: This branch of Linguistics is concerned with description and analysis of the ways in which a language operates. It investigates how the people speak and use language in a given speech community at a given time. This time may be present. One of the principal tasks of Linguistics is to describe the language in a scientific fashion. This activity & development of technique can be called Descriptive Linguistics. iii. Applied linguistics: Applied Linguistics is concerned with the application of the insights gained from the study of language to practical problems, such as how best to teach languages, what are the issues in language policy formulation, language in communication, especially electronic communication, and so on. Applied Linguistics is a collective term for various applications of Linguistics & phonetics. It has a wide range of activities such as the teaching of foreign language, the teaching of mother language, translation from one language to other, compiling of dictionaries, planning of national language, syllabus designing, testing & evaluation and writing of textbooks iv. Historical linguistics: It is the study of development of languages in the course of time. It is the diachronic study of language. This branch of Linguistics is concerned with investigating the details of historical development of languages & with formulating general hypothesis about language-change. y. Sociolinguistics: This branch of Linguistics studies language in relation to society. Sociolinguistics focuses its attention to the concept how language works in a society; what is the role & scope of language in a society. The subject matter of ciolinguistics is thus associated with the society as a whole Psycholinguisties: This branch of Linguistics deals with the relationship between language and mind, focusing mainly on how language is learnt, stored and occasionally lost. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language. vii, Comparative Linguistics: This branch of Linguistics is concerned with comparing two or more different languages from one or more points of view. Comparative Linguistics treats the evolution of language by comparing one with other: it establishes the relationship between the languages, which are related to those developed from some common source. Anthropological Linguistics: Anthropology is a branch of learning which studies the nature of human beings with special reference to their religious, social and cultural development with the passage of time.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 22... Introduction to Linguistics ix. Stylistics: In stylistics, we study the close relationship between literature and language. We examine how the different literary personalities of different ages contributed to language with their literary talent & command of language. x. Computational Linguistics: Computational Linguistics (CL) is a discipline between linguistics and computer science which is concerned with the computational aspects of the human language faculty. It belongs to the cognitive sciences and overlaps with the field of artificial intelligence (AI), a branch of computer science aiming at computational models of human cognition. INTRA-DISCIPLINARY & INTER-DISCIPLINARY BRANCHES OF LINGUISTICS (A) Intra-Disciplinary Branches of Lingui: The study of language in general is often termed general linguistics. It is based on the view that language as a system is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. The core of general linguistics is the study of these aspects, dealing with the regularities of these across languages. The correspondence between the branches of linguistics and the three aspects of languagé can be diagramed as: [Sound | Phonetics & Phonology Structure Morphology & Syntax Meaning | Semantics & Pragmatics Language as a system i. Phonetics: Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds. It provides method for description, classification & transcription of these sounds. Phonetics teaches people how to recognize different sounds, which occur in the spoken form of any language, and to produce them for themselves. It trains people to describe the many ways in which the tongue, lips and other vocal organs function in order to produce these sounds; it also provides training in methods of finding out about their physical characteristics. ii, Phonology: Phonology studies sound patterning. It is the study of sound in a language. Phonology is the level at which a linguist describes the sounds of a particular language. What is sound? How and where is it produced from? How is it received by the ears? How & Why is one sound different from the others? Questions like these are the subject matter of phonology. iii. Morphology: Morphology is the scientific study of the smallest grammatical units of language called morphemes. It is the science and study of their formation into words, including inflection, derivation and composition. In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguisti iv, Syntax: Syntax is the structure of sentences. Sentences have to follow certain structural rules in order to make sense. We cannot just throw some words together to unitsNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 23 Morphology make a sentence. In linguistics, Syntax is "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages". The term syntax is also used to refer directly to the rules and principles that govern the sentence structure of any individual language. Syntax describes how the words are put together in sentences. Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules. Many professionals in this discipline attempt to find general rules that apply to ail natural languages. Syntax is the grammar of sentences y. Semantics: Semantics deals with relations between names and things. It is the scientific study of meanings and its manifestation in language. It is that aspect of linguistics, which focuses on the relation between signifiers -words, phrases, signs, symbols, and signified-what they stand for. vi. Pragmatics: Pragmatics is concerned with how people use language within a context, in real-life situations. It is concerned with how factors such as time, place and the social relationship between speaker and hearer affect the ways in which language is used to perform different functions. (B) Inter-Disciplinary Branches of Linguistics The following are the inter-disciplinary branches of linguistics i. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of how language is used in society; addressing such questions as what makes some dialects more “prestigious” than others, where slang comes from and why it arises, or what happens when two languages come together in “bilingual” communities. ii. Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of how language is processed in the mind. It answers such questions as how we can hear a string of language noises and make sense of them, how children can learn to speak and understand the language of their environment as quickly and effortlessly as they do how people with pathological language problems differ from people who have “normal” language. iii, Applied Linguistics: Applied Linguistics is concerned with the application of the insights gained from the study of language to practical problems, such as how best to teach languages, what are the issues in language policy formulation, language in communication. Applied Linguistics is a collective term for various applications of linguistics & phonetics. It has a wide range of activities such as the teaching of foreign language, the teaching of mother language, translation from one language to other, compiling of dictionaries, planning of national language, syllabus designing, testing & evaluation and writing of textbooks SCOPE OF LINGUISTICS Linguistics is scientific study of language, which is an arbitrary system of vocal signals-by means of which people interact with one another. Interaction consists of expression as well as understanding. The basic function of language isNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 24 Introduction to Linguistics communication. Different individuals living in a society are largely dependent upon each other. There are certain difficulties, which come across while learning a foreign language. Linguistics helps us to remove these diffjculties by pointing out the particular fields of them. It helps us to use language in the best possible way without making any error. y Linguistics today is a subject of study, independent of other disciplines. Before the twentieth century, the study of language was not regarded as a separate area of study in its own right. It was considered a part of studying the history of language or the philosophy of language, and this was known not as linguistics but as philosophy. So ‘Linguistics’ is a modern name which defines a specific discipline, in which we study language not in relation to some other area such as history or philosophy, but language as itself, as a self-enclosed and autonomous system, worthy of study in its own right. It was necessary at the beginning of the growth of modern linguistics to define this autonomy of the subject; otherwise, it would not have been possible to study the language system with the depth and exhaustiveness, which it requires. However, now we acknowledge that while linguistics is a distinct area of study. it is also linked to other disciplines and there are overlapping areas of concern. The main concern of modern linguistics is to describe language, to stfidy its nature and to establish a theory of language. That is, it aims at studying the components of the language system and to ultimately arrive at an explanatory statement on how the system works. In modern linguistics, the activity of describing the language system is the most important and so modern linguistics is generally known as descriptive. But linguistics has other concerns as well, which fall within its scope and these include historical and comparative study of language. These differ from the descriptive approzch in their emphasis: otherwise, these approaches also involve description of language. Linguistics becomes more important for Pakistan because the national language of Pakistan (Urdu) is not native language in any of the four provinces. Urdu is not an international language. So it becomes necessary to learn English to express our ideas, feelings, thoughts and needs. Therefore, it is common practice to give importance to English, With English language, English literature should also be given unportance in Pakistani universities because, in order to study literature cf any language, the knowledge of its language is uust. Linguistics will certainly help the students in improving their English-knowledge so that they may study English literature in the best possible way.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 25 Introduction to Linguistics LEVELS OF LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS In studying language, whi the subject matter of linguistics, we sub: divide the area in order to study it in an analytical and systematic way. We can analyze each level independently and represent these levels in the following manner. ~__ Level of language | Level of Analysis The sound of spoken language, phonology; | The way words are pronounced. phonetics | The patterns of written language, - The shape of language on the page. graphology The way words are constructed, Words and ; morphology their constituent structures. _| The way words combine with other syntax Words to form phrases and sentences. grammar | The words we use; the vocabulary of a lexicology language. | The meaning of words and sentences. ‘Semantics BASIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN LINGUISTICS LINGUISTIC CONCEPTS i. Language & A Language: ‘Language’ is our faculty of specch; while ‘a language’ is a particular code, which we operate through the possession of faculty of speech. ‘Language’ is common to all human-beings, whereas ‘a language’ is not held in common by all human beings. ‘Language’ is the ability to acquire and use complex system of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, whereas ‘a language’ is any specific example. ii, Synchrony & Diachrony: The concepts synchrony and Diachrony were theorized by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand. de Saussure. These concepts first appeared in his book Course in General Linguistics published in 1916, Synchrony is the study ofa language in a given time. The word is built on the Ancient Greek words “syn” which means "with" and “chronus” which means “time”. A synchronic approach considers & language without considering. its history, Synchronic linguisties aims ot de language rules at a specific point of time though they may have at an earlier stage of the language. Diachrony is the change in the meaning of words over time, The word is built on the Ancient Greek word “dia” which means "through" and “chronus” which means "time". It is thus the study of language in terms of h visibly changes in usage. A diachronic approach considers the developmentNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 26 Morphology evolution of a language through history. Diachronic linguistics studies the development of languages through time. iii. Langue & Parole: De Saussure wrote a book "General Course in Linguistics". In this book, he differentiated language into two parts: Langue and Parole. Parole is the individual approach to the knowledge. Langue is a collective pattem, which exists as ‘a sum of impressions deposited in the brain of each individual. iv. Competence & Performance: Noam Chomsky gave the concepts of competence and performance. According to him, Competence is the native speaker's knowledge of his language, the system of rules he has mastered, his ability to produce and understand a vast number of new sentences. Performance is the study of the actual sentences themselves, of the actual use of the language in real life situation. v. Form and Substance: Sounds, produced by the human speech organs can be said to comprise the substance (phonic substance) or content. Its shaping into different functional configurations can be called forms or expressions. Thus, the same substance is realized in different forms. Drink (content) is used as both noun and verb. Form can be analyzed without taking into account the meaning. However, semantics, a branch of linguistics, deals only with the content or the substance. Form can be studied from different angles: phonological, morphological, grammatical, syntactical, etc, LINGUISTIC TERMS * Accent: Accent is an aspect of pronunciation that identifies where a: speaker is from. * Acquisition: Acquisition is the gradual development of ability in a first or second language by using it naturally in communicative situations ¢ Acronym: A new word formed from the initial letters of other words is called Acronym. e.g. WAPDA, WHO * Affixation: Affixation means to form a word by adding a prefix or a suffix to a base. A simple word like Laziness for example, is formed by adding the suffix - ness to the base word Lazy. While, the word “undone” is formed by adding ‘un’ with the base word ‘done’. This method of word formation is known as affixation. * Affricate: A consonant produced by stopping then releasing the airflow through a narrow opening is known as Afiricate. e.g. the first and last sounds in church. * Agent: The semantic role of the noun phrase identifying the one who performs the action of the verb in an event. In t the sentence “The boy kicked the ball”. ‘Boy’ is an agentNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 27 Morphology Allomorph: It frequently happens that a particular morpheme is not represented everywhere by the same morph, but by different morphs in different environments. The alternative phonological representation of such a morpheme is called allomorphs. The final sounds of “Bets” and “Beds” and “Horses” and “Oxen” are allomorphs of the English plural morpheme. Allophone: An allophone is a speech sound that is one of a number of variants of a phoneme. Such a variant can, either in complementary variation or in tree variation. For example, ‘P"’ as in “Pin” and *p’ as in “Spin” are allophones for the phoneme ‘P’ because they cannot distinguish words: rather they oc complementary distribution. Alveolar Ridge: The rough bony ridge immediately behind the upper front teeth is called Alveolar Ridge Alveolar Sound: A consonant produced with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge (e.g. the first and last sounds in dot) is called Alveolar Sound. Antonymy: The lexical relation in which words have opposite meanings is called antonymy. “Shallow” is an antonym of “deep”. Aphasia. An impairment of language function due to localized brain damage that leads to difficulty in understanding and/or producing language is called Aphasia. Assimilation: When two sound segments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken by the other, the process is known as ‘assimilation’. For example, in rapid speech, “handbag” is pronounced as /heambeg/ Babbling: Babbling is the use of syllable sequences (ba-ba) and combinations (ma-ga) by young children in their first year. Back-Channel: Back-Channel is the use of words (yeah) and sounds (hmm) by listeners while someone else is speaking Backformation: Backformation is the process of reducing a word Sach to a shorter version and using it as a new word such us a verb (e.g. bubysit tos babysitter) Behaviourism: Behariourism is a theory of language learning based on Operant Conditioning. It was presented by B. F Skinner. According to this theory, language learning is another name of habit Formation. Bilabial: Bilabial is a consonant produced by using both lips (e.g. the first and last sounds in pub) Bilingual: Bilingual is a person who can speak two or more languages with equal or less equal proficiency. A society is called bilingual or multilingual if the people there speak more than one language.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 28 Introduction to Linguistics Blending: Blending is the process of combining the beginning of one word and the end of another word to form a new word (e.g. brunch from breakfast and lunch) Borrowing: Blending is the process of combining the beginning of one word and the end of another word to form a new word. e.g. Brunch from breakfast and lunch Bound Morpheme: A morpheme such as un- or -ed that cannot stand alone and must be attached to another form (e.g. undressed) is called Bound Morpheme. Broadening: Broadening is a semantic change in which a word is used with a more general meaning (e.g. foda (animal fodder) — food (any kind)) Caregiver Speech: A speech addressed to young children by the adult(s) or older children who are looking after them is called Caregiver Speech Clipping: Clipping is a process of reducing a word of more than one syllable to a shorter form. e.g. ad from advertisement. Closed Syllable: A syllable that ends with a consonant or coda is called Closed Syllable. Coda: The part of a syllable after the vowel is called Coda. In the syllable ‘Pot’, coda is‘. Cognates: Cognates are the words in different languages that have a similar form and meaning e.g. English fricad and German Freund. Co-Hyponyms: Co-Hyponyms are words in hyponymy that share the same super ordinate (“Daffodil” and “rose” are co-hyponyms of “flower”) Coinage: the invention of new words is called coinage Collocation: Collocation means a relationship between words that frequently occur together (e.g. salt and pepper) Compounding: Compounding means the process of combining two (or more) words to form a new word (e.g. waterbed) Consonant Sounds: The sound that comes out of our mouth with some kind of obstruction is called consonant sound, Corpus Linguistics: Corpus Linguistics is the study of language in use by analyzing the occurrence and frequency of forms in a large collection of tex!3 typically stored in a computer le: Creole is a variety of a language that developed from a pidgin and is used as a first language by a population of native speakers Dialect: Dialect is a form of speech peculiar to a particular region. It is a sub- ordinate variety of a language with non-standard vocabulary. pronunciation, orNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 29 - Introduction to Linguistics grammar. Here usually grammar of a language is same but difference occurs in vocabulary. e.g. (i) shall bring curtains for my house (England). (ii) T shall bring drapes for my house (American). Dialectology: the study of dialects is called Dialectology Diglossia: Diglossia is a ‘linguistic situation’ introduced by Charles Ferguson, He used this term to refer to those societies where two very different varieties of the same language were being used. In Ferguson's theory that society is “diglossic’ where two ‘divergent’ varieties of the same language are used, out of which one is ‘highly codified’. Elision: Elision is the process of leaving out a sound segment in the pronunciation of a word. Eponym: Eponym is a word derived from the name of a person or place (c.g. sandwich) Error & Mistake: Error occurs when there is lack of knowledge about the target language. Mistake occurs due to lack of concentration, forgetfulness or carelessness. Free Morpheme: A morpheme that can stand by itself as a single word is called free morpheme. Fricative: Fricative is a consonant sound produced by almost blocking the airflow (c.g. the first and last sounds in five) Grammar. Grammar is Science of language, which tells us about the rules of language. Grammar is the analysis of the structure of phrases and sentences Homonyms: Two words with the same form that are unrelated in meaning (c.g. mole (on skin) ~ mole (small animal)) are called Homonyms. Homophones. Two or more words: with different forms and the same pronunciation (e.g. to~ too-two) are called homophones. Hypocorism: Hypocorism is a word-formation process in which a longer word is reduced to a shorter form with -y or -ie at the end (e.g. telly, movie) Hyponymy: The lexical relation in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another is called Hyponymy e.g. “Daffodil” is a hyponym of “flower” Idiolect: Idiolect means the personal dialect of an individual speaker. Intonation. Intonation is the tune, the melody and the music of speech. When a person speaks, he does not say every word on the same note. There are changes of pitch; there is rise and fall of voice. The study of these changes of pitch is called’ intonation.NIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 30 Introduction to Linguistics Isogloss: Isogloss is a line on a map separating two areas in which a particular linguistic feature is significantly different, used in the study of dialect Jargon. special technical vocabulary associated with a specific activity or topic as part of a register is called Jargon Langue. Langue is the actual language spoken. For example, English, French, German, ete. are used as langue. Langue is both a social product and a collection of necessary conventions. Therefore, langue is a mutual social phenomenon. It is the combination of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation system of a community Lingua Franca: The language, which becomes source of communication in various regions, is called Lingua Franca. . Mentalism: Mentalism is a theory of language learning presented by Noam Chomsky. According to this theory, language learning is not habit formation but a cognitive activity. Metonymy: Metonymy is a word used in place of another with which it is closely connected in everyday experience (e.g. He drank the whole bottle (= the liquid)) Morph: Morph is an actual form used as part of a word, representing one version of a morpheme Morpheme: Minimal units of grammatical structure is called morpheme, The word “Faithful” has two morphemes-“faith”’ and “ful”, Morphology: Morphology is the scientific study and analysis of the structure, form and classes of words. It is the grammar of words Narrowing: Narrowing is a semantic change in which a word is used with a less general meaning (e.g. mete (any type of food) > meat (only animal flesh)). in contrast to broadening Nucleus: The vowel in a syllable is called nucleus. Open Syllable: A syllable that ends with a vowel (or nucleus) and has no coda is called Open Syllable. Orthography: Orthography means the spelling system of a language Output: Output is the language produced by an acquirer/ learner, in contrast to input Parole is the individual approach to the knowledge. Parole is the individual speech act. Thus, one’s parole may be influenced by romantic and humanistic readings. Parole refers to the actual speech of individuals. Pharynx: Pharynx is the area inside the throat above the larynx Philology: Philology is the study of language history and changeNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 31 Morphology Phone: Phone is a physically produced speech sound, representing one version of a phoneme. Phonemes: Minimal unit of a speech sound is called phoneme. In simple words, a phoneme is a distinct speech sound. There are two types of phonemes in English. (i) Vowel Phoneme. (ii) Consonant Phoneme Phonetic Alphabet: A set of symbols, each one representing a distinct sound segment is called phonetic symbol. Phonetics: Phonetics is the scientific study of human speech sounds and the characteristics of these speech sounds. It deals with the production, transmission and reception of speech. It studies the medium of spoken language Phonology: Phonology is the study of vocal sounds and sound changes, phonemes and their variants in a particular language Pidgin: Pidgin is a variety of a language that developed for a practical purpose such as trade, but which has no native speakers, in contrast to a Creole Pitch: Pitch is the effect of vibration in the vocal folds, making voices sound lower. higher. rising or falling 7 Polysemy: Polysemy is a word having two or more related meanings (c.g. foot, of person, of bed, of mountain) Prefix: Prefix is a bound morpheme added to the beginning of a word (c.g. unhappy) Register: Register is a conventional way of using language that is appropriate in a specific situation, occupation or topic, characterized by the use of special jargon Semantics deals with relations between names and things. It is the “Seman scientific study of the meaning and its manifestation in language. Slang: Slangs are words or phrases used instead of more conventional forms by those who are typically outside established higher status groups (e.g. bucks for dollars) Sociolect: Social dialect, a variety of a language that is strongly associated with one social group (e.g. working-class speech) is called sociolect. Spoonerism: Spoonerism means a slip of the tongue in which two parts of words or two words are switched, as in a dog of bag food (for “a bag of dog food”) Stress: Stress is the degree of force with which a syllable or a word is uttered. Suffix: Suffix is a bound morpheme added to the end of a word (e.g. fainted, illness) Syllable: Syllable is a unit of pronunciation uttered without interruptien, forming the whole or a part of a word and usually having one vowel sound often with aNIMBUS: The Study of Linguistics 32 Morphology consonant or consonants before or after. The word “WATER” has two syllables and the word “INFERNO” has three syllables. * Synonymy: Synonymy means the lexical relation in which two or more words have very closely related meanings (e.g. “Conceal” is a synonym of “hide”) * Syntax: Syntax is the scientific study of the arrangement of words into sentences. It is the grammar of sentence : * ‘Vocal Folds (or Cords). Thin strips of muscle in the larynx which can be open, in voiceless sounds, or close together, creating vibration in voiced sounds are called Vocal Folds * Vowel: The sound, which comes out of our mouth without any kind of obstruction, is called vowel sounds. Vowel is a sound produced through the vocal folds without constriction of the airflow in the mouth. SCHOOLS OF LINGUISTICS Linguistics, simply, is the study of languages, but in a scientific way. Since it is the scientific study of languages, there are, of course, numerous schools of thought related to it. The following are the most well-known linguistic schools of thought: 1. HISTORICISM Historical linguistics is the branch of linguistics concerned with the study of phonological, grammatical, and semantic changes, the reconstruction of earlier stages of languages, and the discovery and application of the methods by which genetic relationships among languages can be demonstrated. It is also called Diachronic Linguistics. ‘ . Historical linguistics had its roots in the etymological speculations of classical and medieval times, in the comparative study of Greek and Latin developed during the Renaissance and in the speculations of scholars as to the language from which the other languages of the world were descended. It was only in the 19th century, however, that more scientific methods of language comparison and sufficient data on the early Indo-European languages combined to establish the principles now used by historical linguists. In the 20th century, historical linguists have successfully extended the application of the theories and methods of the 19th century to the classification and historical study of non-Indo-European languages. 2, FUNCTIONALISM This first school of thought focuses on how language is actually used in everyday life. The followers of functionalism look at language as just another tool for humans to use, and thus focus on the function language and its different parts in life. The theories of functionalism focus on phonological, semantic, syntactic, as well as the pragmatic functions of language. Functionalism emphasizes the importance of