Biology - Year 10 - Track 3

Energy & Respiration

and Gaseous Exchange
Respiration Basics 5

Uses of Energy in the Body 5

The Chemical Process of Respiration 6

Aerobic Respiration 6

Anaerobic Respiration 7
Anaerobic Respiration in Animals 7
Lactic Acid and the Oxygen Debt 7
Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast or Plants 8
Importance of Anaerobic Respiration 8
Alcoholic Fermentation Process 8
Yoghurt & Butter 9
Baking 9
Biogas (methane gas) 9

Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration 10

Investigating Respiration 11
To test for the production of carbon dioxide by a human being or animals 11
To test for the production of carbon dioxide by small organisms or plants 11
Investigating the uptake of oxygen by respiring organisms 12
To test for the production of heat as a result of respiration 13
Investigating anaerobic respiration by yeast cells 14
The effect of temperature on the rate of carbon dioxide bubbles by yeast 15

Gaseous Exchange in Protists 16

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Gaseous Exchange in Insects 16

The process of gaseous exchange in insects 17
Adaptations of gaseous exchange surfaces of insects 17

Gaseous Exchange in Fish 17

Ventilation mechanism in Fish 19
Adaptations of gaseous exchange surfaces of fish 19

Gaseous Exchange in Plants 20

Adaptations of gaseous exchange surfaces of leaves 20

Gaseous Exchange in Humans 21

The Respiratory System 21
The Respiratory Filtering System: The Function of Cilia & Mucus 23
Ventilation of the Lungs 23

Gaseous Exchange in the Alveoli 25

Adaptations of gaseous exchange surfaces of the alveoli 25

General Characteristics of Respiratory Surfaces 26

Health Hazards linked to Breathing 26

Laryngitis 26
Tracheitis and Bronchitis 27
Pneumonia 27
Tuberculosis 27

Allergic Reactions 27
Hay Fever 27
Asthma 28

Smoking 28
Chemicals found in cigarettes and their effect on the human body 28
Diseases caused by Smoking 28
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Lung Cancer 28
Chronic Bronchitis 28
Emphysema 29

Air Pollution 29
Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Rain 29
Consequences of Acid Rain 29
Carbon Monoxide 29
Consequences of Production of Carbon Monoxide 29

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Respiration Basics
Respiration is the chemical breakdown of food (specifically glucose) to liberate
energy in order to keep the cell alive which is controlled by enzymes.
Respiration can take place aerobically (with oxygen) anaerobically (without
oxygen). Much less energy is released in aerobic respiration compared to
anaerobic respiration.
Respiration occurs in all living cells. Most of the chemical reactions in aerobic
respiration take place in the mitochondria. The enzymes on the highly folded
membrane control this process.

It is important to distinguish between respiration and breathing, as breathing

is the inhaling and exhaling of air into and out of the body.

Uses of Energy in the Body

Most of the body's functions require energy, in fact every vital function needs
energy which is obtained from respiration.

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Humans need energy to carry out the following processes:

● Muscle contractions (movement)

● Synthesis of proteins
● Cell division (to make new cells)
● Growth
● Enable active transport to take place
● Allow nerve impulses to be generated (sensitivity)
● Maintain a constant internal body temperature (temperature
regulation)

The Chemical Process of Respiration

● First Stage:
○ Does not require oxygen
○ Forms and intermediate product
○ Takes place in the cytoplasm
● Second Stage:
○ If oxygen is present:
■ Carbon dioxide and water are produced - occurs in
mitochondria
○ If oxygen is not present:
■ Ethanol (yeast) or lactic acid (animals) are produced -
occurs in cytoplasm)

Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen and is the complete breakdown of glucose
to release a relatively large amount of energy. It produces carbon dioxide and
water as well as releasing useful cellular energy.

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Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen and is the incomplete
breakdown of glucose and releases a relatively small amount of energy. It
produces different breakdown products depending on the type of organism it
is taking place in.

Anaerobic Respiration in Animals

Anaerobic respiration mainly takes place in muscle cells during vigorous
exercise.
This happens when the breathing rate is not fast enough to supply enough
oxygen and the circulatory system is not efficient to get oxygen to the
muscles. In this instance, as much glucose as possible is broken down with
oxygen, and some glucose is broken down without it, producing lactic acid
instead. This is why we feel muscle pain, as lactic acid is slightly toxic.

Lactic Acid and the Oxygen Debt

Lactic acid builds up in muscle cells and lowers the pH of the cells (making
them more acidic). This could denature the enzymes in cells so it needs to be
removed.
It is changed into carbon dioxide and water in the liver which requires oxygen,
so the demand for oxygen persists for some time after the exercise has
stopped. This is known as the oxygen debt.

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Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast or Plants

In plants, this process is called fermentation. Fermentation produces alcohol
and carbon dioxide.

Importance of Anaerobic Respiration

We take advantage of the products of anaerobic respiration in yeast by using it
in various processes, such as bread making (where the carbon dioxide
produced helps dough to rise) and in brewing (where the ethanol produced
makes beer).

Alcoholic Fermentation Process

● Beer and Brewing:
○ Made from grains (eg. wheat) which contain starch.
○ Need to be changed into maltose by allowing the seeds to
germinate (put in water to activate enzymes).
○ Alcoholic fermentation starts when it is at optimum temperature.

● Whisky and other Spirits

○ Process of fermentation is allowed to go on longer.
○ Alcohol is distilled to increase its percentage.

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● Wines
○ Made by extracting juice and allowing yeasts found naturally on
the surface to ferment sugar to alcohol (skin is maintained).

Yoghurt & Butter

● Bacteria is added to pasteurized milk to ferment it.

Baking
● Yeasts are added to dough to make it rise with the carbon dioxide which
is produced during anaerobic respiration.
● Enzymes in flour convert flour-starch to sugar which is then fermented
by the yeast.

Biogas (methane gas)

● Produced by anaerobic digestion of organic material (such as leaves) by
anaerobic bacteria.
● Biogas consists of methane and carbon dioxide and can be burned which
produces water and carbon dioxide and therefore it is a greenhouse gas.

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Differences between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Occurs in most organisms Occurs is certain fungi and bacteria,

higher plants and mammalian
muscle during oxygen shortage

Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

+ Water + Energy (fermentation)
Glucose → Lactic acid (animals

Produces 38ATP Produces 2ATP

Occurs in cytoplasm and Occurs in cytoplasm only

mitochondria

More efficient (more energy) Less efficient (less energy)

Comparison between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

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Investigating Respiration

To test for the production of carbon dioxide by a human being or animals

Method:
● Set up two test tubes half filled with lime water and connect it to the
tubing as shown.
● A person should inhale and exhale from the mouthpiece several times.

Results and Conclusion: The lime water in flask A remains clear which shows
that there is no carbon dioxide in the air we breathe in. The lime water in flask
B turns milky white as there is carbon dioxide in
the air we breathe out.

To test for the production of carbon dioxide by small organisms or plants

Put organisms in a bell jar with tubing. When performing this experiment with
a plant, the pot needs to be sealed in a plastic bag to prevent the release of
carbon dioxide by organisms in the soil, while also covering the jar with black
paper to prevent photosynthesis and the release of oxygen.
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Investigating the uptake of oxygen by respiring organisms

● The apparatus consists of two tubes, one containing the living

organisms and the other with glass beads to act as a control. This
apparatus is called a respirometer.
● Once the apparatus has been set up, the movement of the coloured
liquid towards the insect will give a measure of the volume of oxygen
taken up by the insect for respiration.
● The reduction of volume in the tube increases pressure causing the
coloured liquid to move.
● The distance moved by the liquid in a given time is measured will provide
the volume of oxygen taken in by the insect per minute.

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Results and Conclusion: The coloured liquid moved to the side of the living,
respiring organism. This is due to the reduction of volume in the tube as the
oxygen is taken up for respiration which will increase the pressure causing the
liquid to move. The carbon dioxide produced by respiration was removed by
the sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution to provide a valid experiment.

To test for the production of heat as a result of respiration

Method:
● Place half of the seeds in formalin to kill any
pathogens present on the surface.
● Place the other half in boiling water to
denature and kill.
● Fill flask A with the live seeds.
● Fill flask B with the dead (boiled) seeds, to
prove that the heat released is indeed produced
by the respiring seeds.
● Place a thermometer in each flask and record
the initial temperature.
● Take readings every 24 hours for a week.

Note: The moist cotton wool at the bottom is there to activate the enzymes
needed for the germination of the seeds.

Results and Conclusion: The temperature of flask A (live seeds) increased

while that of flask B did not (dead seeds). The heat produced must have come
from the respiring live seeds as respiration releases some energy in the form
of heat.

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Investigating anaerobic respiration by yeast cells

Method:
● Boil some water to expel dissolved oxygen within it and allow it to cool.
● Use the water to prepare a 5% glucose solution and a 10% suspension of
yeast.
● Place the glucose solution and yeast suspension in a boiling tube
covered with a layer of oil or liquid paraffin. Fit a delivery tube filled
with lime water, which turns cloudy on absorption of carbon dioxide, as
shown in the diagram.
● Close the screw and let the yeast respire.

Note: If the glucose solution is replaced with starch, anaerobic respiration

(which is ensured by the layer of oil to absorb/trap oxygen) will not occur, as it
has to be broken down into glucose first.

Conclusion: Bubbles were observed and the lime water turns milky only in the
apparatus with the live yeast. The lime water turns milky because carbon
dioxide is being released as a result from anaerobic respiration (as no oxygen
is present) performed only by the live yeast.

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The effect of temperature on the rate of carbon dioxide bubbles by yeast

The above experiment can be modified to control the rate of carbon dioxide
bubbles by varying the temperature. The apparatus is set up as shown:

By varying the temperature of the water bath in which the yeast in glucose
solution is placed, the number of carbon dioxide bubbles can increase or
decrease.

By increasing the temperatures (eg. from 15°C to 65°C), the bubbles produced
per minute will rapidly increase as the enzymes present in the yeast which are
performing anaerobic respiration will experience greater kinetic energy and
will have more collisions with the active site. However this trend only
continues until the enzymes become denatured due to the high temperature
and no more bubbles are produced - reaction stops. This can be presented in a
graph as shown.

If the temperature is lowered (eg.

from 15°C to -20°C), the reaction
(bubbles) will start and then stop as
enzymes present deactivate. However
the reaction will continue if it is
warmed.

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Gaseous Exchange
All living organisms need to exchange gasses with their surroundings to
respirate. Gas exchange is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that
takes place between an organism and its surroundings.
Gaseous exchange occurs by simple diffusion from regions of high
concentrations to regions of low concentrations.

Gaseous Exchange in Protists

Small organisms like the amoeba can exchange gasses by simple diffusion.
Their surface area to volume ratio is large enough to handle their needs while
also having a thin, semi-permeable membrane for easy diffusion. Therefore,
gasses only have to travel a short distance so no transport systems are
required.

Gaseous Exchange in Insects

Since insects have a smaller surface area to volume ratio than protists, only a
small part of their body cells make contact with the exterior environment.
They are also very active which requires large amounts of oxygen, they need a
transport system as diffusion is not enough.
Insects have a tracheal system which consists of hundreds of breathing tubes
where gases can pass through. Their blood system is not involved in this.

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The process of gaseous exchange in insects

● Air enters into the body through small air holes (spiracles) in the
exoskeleton along the sides of the body.
● Each spiracle has a valve that can open and close (like sliding doors) in
order not to let pathogens enter and not to lose oxygen.
● Each spiracle leads into the trachea (tube) which is lined with a hard
cuticle that prevents it from collapsing due to the high pressure.
● The tracheae branch into smaller tubes called tracheoles which have
thin walls (not lined with cuticle) for easy diffusion.
● The tracheoles reach all organs and tissues, bringing oxygen to them.

Larger insects use ventilation which is an active process that helps to move air
along the tracheal system. This is achieved by repeated compressions of the
abdomen.
● Compression → air forced out - through back spiracles
● Relaxing → air is sucked in - through front spiracles

Adaptations of gaseous exchange surfaces of insects

● Have a large surface area which is provided by branching tracheoles.
● Thin epithelium of tracheoles allows easy diffusion of oxygen.
● A ventilation system helps air move in and out.

Gaseous Exchange in Fish

Bodies of fish are too large for diffusion to be enough, therefore they have a
transport system (circulatory system) and a ventilation system (pumping
system which forces water through the mouth).

Fish have gills which are specially adapted respiratory surfaces that allow
gaseous exchange between the blood and surrounding water.
There are usually 4 gills on each side of the head and each consist of a gill bar
with many fine gill filaments, which are one cell thick to increase surface area
available for diffusion.
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The gills are covered by the operculum: a bony plate which protects the gills
and acts as a valve during ventilation. These gills are also adapted to take up
oxygen in dissolved water, as they cannot take it up directly from the air,

Each gill bar has major blood vessels running through it that it branches into
smaller vessels. This increases the surface area available for diffusion. The
rich blood supply brings carbon dioxide from tissues and oxygen back.

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Ventilation mechanism in Fish

● Inspiration:
○ Opercular valves shut.
○ Floor of the buccal cavity is lowered.
○ Operculum moves out to increase volume.
○ Water (and dissolved oxygen) is sucked in through the mouth.
● Expiration:
○ Opercular valves open.
○ Floor of the buccal cavity rises.
○ Operculum moves in to decrease volume.
○ Water is pushed out through the opercular valve.

Adaptations of gaseous exchange surfaces of fish

● Have a large surface area which is provided by many gill filaments.
● Walls of gill filaments are 1 cell thick to allow easy diffusion.
● A ventilation system helps water to move in and out over the gills.
● Rich blood supply ensure transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

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Gaseous Exchange in Plants

Gaseous exchange in plants occurs all over the surface. They obtain oxygen
from their surroundings and photosynthesis (waste product).
Cellular respiration and photosynthesis form a cycle, as products of each
process are used as raw materials for the other process.

Respiration in plants occurs at a constant rate, while photosynthesis occurs

during daytime and varies with environmental conditions, especially light.

When the rate of photosynthesis equals the rate of respiration, the plant is
said to have reached the compensation point (points of intersection on a
graph). The amount of glucose used up equals the amount of glucose formed.
At this point, no gases are liberated and no gases are taken up from the
surrounding air.

Adaptations of gaseous exchange surfaces of leaves

● Stomata and air spaces inside the spongy mesophyll layer allow diffusion of
gasses.
● Cell membrane of cells is thin and semi permeable for easy diffusion.
● Layer of moisture inside the spongy mesophyll layer allows gasses to
dissolve.
● Short distance to palisade cells where gases are used.

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Gaseous Exchange in Humans

Humans are large, active and complex organisms. This means that they need a
large supply of oxygen rapidly for respiration. Therefore, they need a
specialized respiratory surfaces as:
● They have a small surface area to volume ratio.
● They are adapted to dry, terrestrial life and therefore have dry skins
that reduce water loss, so it is difficult to absorb gasses through the
skin since it is not moist.

The Respiratory System

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Structure Description

Ribs Bon structures which protect lungs

Intercostal Muscles Muscles between the ribs which

control their movement causing
inhalation and exhalation.
There are two sets as one set pulls
the rib cage up and another set pulls
it down

Diaphragm Sheet of muscles that separates

thorax and abdomen and changes
the volume to allow ventilation

Bronchi Large tubes branching off the

trachea with one bronchus for each
lung to increase surface area

Bronchioles Bronchi split to form smaller tubes

called bronchioles which are
connected to alveoli

Alveoli Tiny air sacs where gas exchange

takes place

Pleural membrane Surround the lungs on both sides

which are separated by a space filled
with Pleural fluid which lubricates
ribs and allows them to move easier.

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The Respiratory Filtering System: The Function of Cilia & Mucus

The nose and mouth do not have any special filtering, so pathogens can enter.
The trachea is a straight tube that leads from the back of the mouth to the
lungs. It is surrounded by rings of cartilage which prevent it from collapsing
and support the airways during breathing.

Its inner lining (epithelium) is covered with small hair-like projections called
cilia and special mucus-producing cells called goblet cells which secrete
mucus which traps particles and pathogens and prevents them getting into the
lungs and damaging the cells there. The cilia then beat upwards and push the
mucus away from the lungs towards the throat.

Ventilation of the Lungs

● Inhaling (inspiration) - the process of taking air into the lungs
○ Diaphragm muscles contract and pull down lungs.
○ Intercostal muscles contract and pull the rib cage upwards and
outwards.
○ Thoracic cavity is expanded (and therefore lungs) so that air is
sucked in as the pressure decreases.

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● Exhaling (expiration) - the process of pushing out air from the lungs
○ The diaphragm muscles relax allowing the diaphragm and the
lungs to move upwards.
○ The intercostal muscles relax and allow the rib cage to move down
under its own weight.
○ Pressure increases, so the air is forced out.

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Gaseous Exchange in the Alveoli

Adaptations of gaseous exchange surfaces of the alveoli

● Large surface area is provided by many alveoli.
● Walls of alveoli are 1 cell thick to allow easy diffusion.
● A ventilation system helps air to move in and out of the alveoli.
● A rich supply of blood to ensure the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
● Layer of moisture on the inside of the alveoli helps gasses to diffuse easier.

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General Characteristics of Respiratory Surfaces

Adaptation Function

Large surface area To ensure maximum diffusion

Thin layer Thin surfaces provide easier

diffusion

Ventilation The continuous movement of air on

the outer side of the respiratory
surface ensures that the
concentration gradients for both
oxygen and carbon dioxide are
maintained.

Rich blood supply Applies to larger organisms only.

Blood contains haemoglobin which is
present in large amounts to ensure
adequate uptake of O2.

Layer of moisture Surface has a thin layer of liquid

(water or mucus) which allows
gasses to dissolve before diffusion
which ensures easier absorption

Health Hazards linked to Breathing

Laryngitis
● Inflammation of the larynx (voice box).
● May cause said person to become hoarse/lose voice.

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Tracheitis and Bronchitis

● Inflammation of the trachea and/or bronchus.
● Reduces surface area for oxygen to enter → less oxygenated blood
circulating → said person may feel fatigued

Pneumonia
● Severe inflammation of the lungs - usually from bacterial infection.
○ Causes pain as when we breathe in lungs expand and with the
inflammation there is a bigger risk of friction between the
membrane and the rib cage.
● Causes fluid to collect in alveoli.
○ Reduces surface area for gaseous exchange as fluid increases
diffusion distance.
○ Less oxygenated blood circulating the body.
○ Results in shortness of breath.
● Cigarette smokers have a much higher chance of developing pneumonia.

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Tuberculosis
● The destruction of lung tissue and bleeding in the lungs - caused by
bacteria.
○ Reduces surface area for gaseous exchange as alveoli becomes
damaged.

Allergic Reactions

Hay Fever
● Usually caused by reaction to pollen or dust.
● Lining of the nasal cavity becomes sensitive and inflamed and produces
large amounts of mucus, resulting in runny nose and sneezing. Eyes
may also become itchy and sore.

Asthma
● Muscles in walls of bronchioles contract and tubes become narrower.
○ Reduced surface area for gaseous exchange.
○ Makes it difficult to breath causing shortness of breath.
● Inhalers contain drugs which make bronchial muscles relax, thus
widening the tubes and allowing the air to pass more easily.

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Smoking
Smoking is very harmful for the human lungs. It’s chemicals damage the thin
alveoli walls which decreases the surface area for gaseous exchange.

Chemicals found in cigarettes and their effect on the human body

● Nicotine affects the brain as it is highly addictive, it also raises blood
pressure and blood fat levels.
● Tar stops cilia from beating which covers the internal walls of the
trachea and alveoli with mucus and reduces surface area for gaseous
exchange.
● Carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream and stops red blood cells from
transporting oxygen.

Diseases caused by Smoking

Lung Cancer
● Growth of tumours in the walls of the bronchial block them, reducing
surface area for oxygen, and breathing becomes difficult.

Chronic Bronchitis
● Caused by small particles of smoke getting trapped in the lining of the
bronchus.
● This leads to extra mucus production, which makes the cilia stop beating
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● Mucus then collects in bronchial tubes.

Emphysema
● Caused by repeated coughing which tears the delicate walls of the
alveoli.
○ Less surface area is available for gaseous exchange.
○ Results in shortness of breath.

Air Pollution

Sulfur Dioxide and Acid Rain

● Combustion of fossil fuels that contain sulfur impurities creates sulfur

dioxide .
● This is released into the atmosphere where it combines with oxygen to
form sulfur trioxide.
● Sulfur trioxide dissolves in water droplets in clouds and forms acid rain.

Consequences of Acid Rain

● Leaches minerals and nutrients out of the soil and causes plants and
trees to die.
● Damages the waxy cuticle of leaves.
● Makes rivers and lakes too acidic, resulting in death of certain aquatic
organisms.

Carbon Monoxide

● Carbon monoxide is produced when fossil fuels burn in limited amounts

of air (incomplete combustion).

Consequences of Production of Carbon Monoxide

● Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly to haemoglobin in red blood cells.

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● This reduces the amount of oxygen able to be carried by the blood.

● Exposure can cause tiredness, prolonged exposure will lead to
unconsciousness and death.
● Exposure when pregnant can cause disruption to the growth and
development of the foetus as less oxygen is available in the blood for
respiration.

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